Chapter 10

Montesquieu(Charles deSecondat),Baron, eminent French writer, b. near Bordeaux, 18 Jan. 1689. His first literary performance was entitledPersian Letters, 1721. In 1728 he was admitted a member of the French Academy, though opposed by Cardinal Fleury on the ground that his writings were dangerous to religion. His chief work is theSpirit of Laws, 1748. This work was one of the first-fruits of the positive spirit in history and jurisprudence. The chapters on Slavery are written in a vein of masterly irony, whichVoltaire pronounced to be worthy of Molière. Died 10 Feb. 1755.Montgomery(Edmund), Dr. philosopher, b. of Scotch parents, Edinburgh 1835. In youth he lived at Frankfort, where he saw Schopenhauer, and afterwards attended atHeidelbergthe lectures of Moleschott and Kuno Fischer. He became a friend of Feuerbach. He wrote in German and published at Munich in ’71,The Kantian Theory of Knowledge refuted from the Empirical Standpoint. In ’67 he published a small book On the Formation of so-called Cells in Animal Bodies.In ’71 he went to Texas and prosecuted his scientific studies on life. He has written in thePopular Science Monthly,The Index, andThe Open CourtandMind. Dr. Montgomery holds not only that there is no evidence of a God, but that there is evidence to the contrary.Montgolfier(Michel Joseph), aeronaut,b. Aug. 1740. He was the first to ascend in an air balloon, 5 June 1783. A friend of Delambre and La Lalande, he was on the testimony of this last an atheist. Died 26 June 1810.Mook(Friedrich) German writer, b. Bergzabern, 29 Sept. 1844, studied philosophy and theology at Tübingen, but gave up the latter to study medicine. He lived as a writer at Heidelberg and became lecturer to a free congregation at Nürenburg, and wrote a popularLife of Jesus, published at Zürich, ’72–3. He travelled abroad and was drowned in the river Jordan, 13 Dec. 1880. His brother Kurt, b. 12 Feb. 1847, is a physician who has published some poems.Moor(Edmund), Major in the East Indian Company, author of theHindu Pantheon, 1810 andOriental Fragments, ’34. Died 1840.Moreau(Hégésippe), French poet, b. Paris 9, April 1810. A radical and freethinker, he fought in the barricades in ’30. Wrote songs and satires of considerable merit, and a prose work entitledTheMistletoeand the Oak. His life, which was a continual struggle with misery, terminated in a hospital, 20 Dec. 1838. His works have been collected, with an introduction by Sainte-Beuve.Moreau(Jacques Joseph), Dr. of Tours, b. Montresor, 1804.He became a distinguished alienist of the materialist school, and wrote on Moral Faculties from a medical point of view, ’36, and many physiological works.Morelly, French socialist of the eighteenth century, b. Vitry-le-Français, author of a work calledCode de la Nature, sometimes attributed to Diderot. It was published in 1755, and urges that man should find circumstances in which depravity is minimised.Morgan(Thomas), Welsh Deist, known by the title of his book asThe Moral Philosopher, 1737. Was a Presbyterian, but was deposed for Arianism about 1723, and practised medicine at Bristol. He edited Radicati’s Dissertation on Death, 1731. HisMoral Philosopherseeks to substitute morality for religion. He calls Moses “a more fabulous romantic writer than Homer or Ovid,” and attacks the evidence of miracles and prophecy. This was supplemented byA Further Vindication of Moral Truth and Reason, 1739, and Superstition and Tyranny Inconsistent with Theocracy, 1740. He replied to his opponents over the signature “Philalethes.” His last work was on Physico-Theology, 1741. Lechler calls Morgan “the modern Marcion.” Died at London, 14 Jan. 1743.Morgan(Sir Thomas Charles), M.D., b. 1783. Educated at Cambridge. In 1811 he was made a baronet, and married Miss Sidney Owensen. A warm friend of civil and religious liberty and a sceptic, he is author ofSketches of the Philosophy of Life, ’18, and thePhilosophy of Morals, ’19. TheExaminersays, “He was never at a loss for a witty or wise passage from Rabelais or Bayle.” Died 28 Aug. 1843.Morin(André Saturnin), French writer, b. Chatres, 28 Nov. 1807. Brought up to the law, and became an advocate. In ’30 he wrote defending the revolution against the restoration. In ’48 he was made sous-prefet of Nogent. During the Empire he combated vigorously for Republicanism and Freethought, writing under the signature “Miron,” in theRationalisteof Geneva, theLibre Penséeof Paris, theLibero-pensieroof Milan, and other papers. He was intimately associated with Ausonio Franchi, Trezza, Stefanoni, and the Italian Freethinkers. His principal work is anExamination of Christianity, in three volumes, ’62. HisJesus Reduced to his True Valuehas gonethrough several editions. HisEssai de Critique Religieuse, ’85, is an able work. M. Morin was one of the founders of theBibliothèque Démocratique, to which he contributed several anti-clerical volumes, the one onConfessionbeing translated into English by Dr. J. R. Beard. In ’76 he was elected on the Municipal Council of Paris, where he brought forward the question of establishing a crematorium. Died at Paris, 5 July, 1888, and was cremated at Milan.Morison(James Augustus Cotter), English Positivist and man of letters, b. London, 1831. Graduated at Lincoln Coll. Oxford, M.A., ’59. In ’63 he published theLife and Times of Saint Bernard. He was one of the founders of theFortnightly Review, in which he wrote, as well as in theAthenæum. He contributed monographs on Gibbon and Macaulay to Morley’s “Men of Letters” Series. In ’86 he published his striking workThe Service of Man, an Essay towards the Religion of the Future, which shows that the benefits of Christianity have been much exaggerated and its evils palpable. All his writings are earnest and thoughtful. He collected books and studied to write a History of France, which would have been a noble contribution to literature; but the possession of a competence seems to have weakened his industry, and he never did justice to his powers. Even theService of Manwas postponed until he was no longer able to complete it as he intended. Morison was a brilliant talker, and the centre of a wide circle of friends. George Meredith dedicated to him a volume of poems. Died at Hampstead, 26 Feb. 1888.Morley(John), English writer and statesman, b. Blackburn, 24 Dec. 1838, educated at Oxford. Among his fellow students was J.C. Morison. He contributed toThe Leaderand theSaturday Review, edited theMorning Star, and theFortnightly Review, ’67–82, in which appeared the germs of most of his works, such asOn Compromise,Voltaire, ’72;Rousseau, ’73;Diderot and the Encyclopædists’78. During his editorship important Freethought papers appeared in that review. From May, ’80 till Aug. ’83 he edited thePall Mall Gazette. Upon the death of Ashton Dilke, M.P., he was elected to Parliament for Newcastle, and in Feb. ’86 was appointed by Mr. Gladstone Chief Secretary for Ireland.Morselli(Enrico Agostino), Italian doctor and scientist, b. Modena, 1852. Has written many anthropological works, notably one onSuicidein the International Scientific Series, and a study on “The Religion of Mazzini.” He edits theRivista di Filosofia Scientifica, and has translated Herbert Spencer on the past and future of religion.Mortillet(Louis Laurent Gabriel de), French scientist, b. Meylan (Isère), 29 Aug. 1821, and was educated by Jesuits. Condemned in ’49 for his political writings he took refuge in Switzerland. He has done much to promote prehistoric studies in France. Has writtenMaterials to serve for the positive and philosophical history of man, ’64.The Sign of the Cross before Christianity, ’66,Contribution to the History of Superstition, andPrehistoric Antiquity of Man, ’82. He contributed to theRevue Indépendante,Pensée Nouvelle, etc. M. de Mortillet is curator of the Museum of St. Germain and was elected Deputy in 1885.Moss(Arthur B.), lecturer and writer, b. 8 May, 1855. Has written numerous pamphlets, a number of which are collected inWaves of Freethought, ’85. Others areNature and the Gods,Man and the Lower Animals,Two Revelations, etc. Mr. Moss has been a contributor to theSecular Chronicle,Secular Review,Freethinker,Truthseeker, and other journals, and has had a written debate on “Was Jesus God or Man.” A School Board officer, he was for a time prohibited from lecturing on Sunday. A collection of hisLectures and Essayshas been published, 1889.Mothe Le Vayer.SeeLa Mothe Le Vayer.Mott(Lucretia), American reformer,neeCoffin, b. Nantucket, 3 Jan. 1793. She was a Quakeress, but on the division of the Society in 1827 went with the party who preferred conscience to revelation. A strong opponent of slavery, she took an active part in the abolitionist movement. She was delegated to the World’s Anti-slavery Convention in London in 1840, but excluded on account of her sex. A friend of Mrs. Rose and Mrs. Stanton. Took an active part in Women’s Rights conventions. Died at Philadelphia, 11 Nov. 1880.Muhammadibn al Hudailal Basri, philosopher of Asia Minor, founder of the Muhammadan Freethinking sect of Mutazilah, b. about 757. Died about 849.Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan(Abu Nasr.) SeeAlpharabius.Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Bajjat.SeeAvempace.Muhammad Jalal ed din.SeeAkbar.Muller(Dr. H. C.) Dutch writer, b. 31 Oct. 1855. Has contributed good articles tode Dageraad(the Daybreak), and is now teacher of modern Greek at the University of Amsterdam.Murger(Henri), French author, b. Paris, 1822, contributed to theRevue des Deux Mondes, tales poems and dramas. In his poemLe Testamentin “Winter Nights” he says in answer to the inquiring priest “Reponds lui que j’ai lu Voltaire.” His most popular work is entitledScenes of Bohemian Life. Died Paris, 28 Jan. 1861.Musset(Louis Charles Alfred de), French poet, b. Paris, 11 Nov. 1810. Before the age of twenty he became one of the leaders of the Romantic school. His prose romance,Confession d’un Enfant du Siècle, ’36, exhibits his intellectual development and pessimistic moods. Among his finest works are four poems entitledNuits. He contributed to theRevue des Deux Mondes, and was admitted into the Academy in ’52. Died at Paris 1 May, 1857.Naber(Samuel Adriaan), learned Dutch writer, b. Gravenhage, 16 July, 1828. Studied at Leyden and became rector of the Haarlem gymnasium, and head teacher at the Amsterdam Athenæum. He has edited a journal of literature, and is joint author with Dr. A. Pierson of Verisimilia (1886), a Latin work showing the fragmentary and disjointed character of the Epistles attributed to Paul.Nachtigal(Gustav.), Dr., German traveller, b. Eichstadt, 23 Feb. 1834. He studied medicine, went to Algiers and Tunis, became private physician to the Bey of Tunis, explored North Africa, and wrote an account thereof,Sahara und Sudan. He became German Consul General at Tunis, and died 20 April, 1885.Naigeon(Jacques André), French atheist, b. Dijon 1728. At first an art student, he became a disciple and imitator of Diderot. He became copyist to and collaborator with Holbach and conveyed his works to Amsterdam to be printed. Hecontributed to the Encyclopédie, notably the articlesAmeandUnitairesand composed theMilitaire Philosophe, or difficulties on religion proposed to Father Malebranche, 1768. This was his first work, the last chapter being written by Holbach. He took some share in several of the works of that writer, notably in theTheologie Portative. He published theRecuéil Philosophique, 2 vols., Londres (Amst.), 1770; edited Holbach’s Essay on Prejudices and hisMorale Universelle. He also edited the works of Diderot, the essays of Montaigne and a translation of Toland’s philosophical letters. His principal work is the Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Philosophy in theEncyclopédie Méthodique(Paris 1791–94.) He addressed the National Assembly on Liberty of Opinion, 1790, and asked them to withhold the name of God and religion from their declaration of the rights of man. Naigeon was of estimable character. Died at Paris, 28 Feb. 1810.Naquet(Joseph Alfred). French materialist, b. Carpentras, 6 Oct. 1834, became M.D. in ’59. In ’67 he received fifteen months imprisonment for belonging to a secret society. He founded, with M. Regnard, theRevue Encyclopédique, which was suppressed at once for containing an attack on theism. In ’69 he issued a work onReligion, Property, and Family, which was seized and the author condemned to four months imprisonment, a fine of five hundred francs, and the perpetual interdict of civil rights. He represented Vaucluse in the National Assembly, where he has voted with the extreme left. He was re-elected in ’81. The new law of divorce in France has been passed chiefly through M. Naquet’s energetic advocacy. In ’83 he was elected to the Senate, and of late has distinguished himself by his advocacy of General Boulanger.Nascimento(Francisco Manuel do).Portuguesepoet, b. Lisbon, 23 Dec, 1734. He entered the Church, but having translated Molière’sTartuffe, was accused of heresy (1778), and had to fly for his life from the Inquisition. He wrote many poems and satires under the name of “Filinto Elysio.” Died 25 Feb. 1819.Navez(Napoleon), Belgian Freethinker, president ofLa Libre Pensée, of Antwerp, and active member of the Council of the International Federation of Freethinkers.Nelson(Gustave), a writer in the New YorkTruthseeker, conjectured to be the author ofBible Myths and their Parallels in other Religions, a large and learned work, showing how much of Christianity has been taken from Paganism.Newcomb(Simon), LL.D., American astronomer, b. Wallace, (Nova Scotia), 12 March, 1835. Went to the United States in ’53, and was appointed computor on theNautical Almanack. In ’77 he became senior professor of mathematics in the U. S. navy. He has been associated with the equipment of the Lick observatory, and has written many works on mathematics and astronomy, as well asPrinciples of Political Economy, 1885.Newman(Francis William) brother of Cardinal Newman, b. London 1805. Educated at Oxford, he was elected to a fellowship at Balliol College ’26, but resigned in ’30, being unable conscientiously to comply with the regulations of the Test Act then in force. He then went to Bagdad with the object of assisting in a Christian mission, but his further studies convinced him he could not conscientiously undertake the work. He returned to England and became classical teacher in Bristol College, and subsequently Latin Professor at London University. InThe Soul: its Sorrows and Aspirations, ’49, he states his Theistic position, and inPhases of Faith, ’50, he explains how he came to give up Christianity. He has also writtenA History of the Hebrew Monarchy, ’47,Theism: Doctrinal and Practical, ’58, and a number of Scott’s tracts on the Defective Morality of the New Testament, the Historical Depravation of Christianity, the Religious Weakness of Protestantism, etc. AlsoReligion not History, ’77;What is Christianity without Christ?’81;Christianity in its Cradle, ’84; andLife after Death, ’86.Neymann(Clara), German American Freethought lecturess, friend and colleague of Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi.Nicholson(William), English writer on chemistry and natural philosophy, b. London 1753. He went to India at an early age, and upon returning settled at London as a Mathematical teacher. He published useful introductions to chemistry and natural philosophy. Conducted the British Encyclopedia, and the Journal of Natural Philosophy. He also wroteThe Doubts of the Infidels, submitted to the Bench ofBishops by a weak Christian, 1781, a work republished by Carlile and also by Watson. He died in poor circumstances 21 May, 1815.Nicolai(Christoph Friedrich), German writer, b. Berlin, 18 March, 1733. A friend of Lessing, and Moses Mendelssohn; he was noted for founding “The Universal German Library.” He wrote anecdotes of Friedrich II., and many other works. Died at Berlin, 8 Jan. 1811.Nietzsche(Friedrich Wilhelm), German writer, b. Lutzen, 15 Oct. 1844, author of sketches of Strauss, Schopenhauer, and Wagner, and ofMorgenröthe, and other philosophical works. Died 1889.Nieuwenhuis(Ferdinand Jakob Domela), Dutch publicist, b. Utrecht, 3 May, 1848. At first a minister of the Lutheran church, on Nov. 25, ’77, he told his congregation that he had ceased to believe in Christianity, and as an honest man resigned. He then contributed toDe Banier(Banner)de Dageraad(Dawn) andde Vragen des Tijds(Questions of the time.) On 1st March, ’79 he started a Socialist paperRecht voor Allen, now an important daily organ of Socialism and Freethought. His principle writings are—With Jesus,For or against Socialism,The Religious Oath Question,The Religion of Reason,The Religion of Humanity. On Jan. 19, ’87, he was sentenced to one years’ solitary confinement for an article he had not written, and was harshly treated till upon pressure of public opinion, he was liberated 30 Aug. 1887. He is now member of the Dutch Parliament.Noeldeke(Theodor), German Orientalist, b. Harburg, 2 March, 1836. Studied at Gottingen, Vienna, Leyden, and Berlin, and has been professor of oriental studies at Gottingen, Kiel, and Strasburg. He has written aHistory of the Koran, ’56; aLife of Mahomet, ’63; and aLiterary History of the Old Testament, which has been translated into French by MM. Derembourg and J. Soury, ’73.Noire(Ludwig), German monist, b. 26 March, 1829. Studied at Geissen, and became a teacher at Mainz. His works show the influence of Spinoza and Schopenhauer. He is the author of Aphorisms on the Monist philosophy, ’77, and a work on the Origin of Speech, ’77. He contends that language originates ininstinctive sounds accompanying will in associative actions. Died 26 March, 1889.Noorthouck(John), author of aHistory of London, 1773, and an Historical and Classical Dictionary, 1776. Has been credited with theLife of the Man After God’s Own Heart. SeeAnnet.Nordau(Max Simon), b. of Jewish parents at Pesth, 29 July, 1849. He became a physician in ’73. He has written several books of travels and made some noise by his trenchant work onConvential Lies of our Civilisation. He has since written onThe Sickness of the Century.Nork(Felix). SeeKorn (Selig).Nott(Josiah Clark), Dr., American ethnologist, b. Columbia, South Carolina, 24 March, 1804. He wroteThe Physical History of the Jewish Race,Types of Mankind, ’54, andIndigenous Races of the Earth, ’55; the last two conjointly with G. R. Gliddon, and with the object of disproving the theory of the unity of the human race. Died at Mobile, 31 March, 1873.Noun(Paul), French author ofThe Scientific Errors of the Bible, 1881.Noyes(Thomas Herbert), author ofHymns of Modern Man, 1870.Nunez(Rafael), President of Columbia, b. Carthagena, 28 Sept. 1825. He has written many poems and political articles, and in philosophy is a follower of Mill and Spencer.Nuytz(Louis André). SeeAndre-Nuytz.Nystrom(Anton Christen), Dr. Swedish Positivist, b. 15 Feb. 1842. Studied at Upsala and became a medical doctor in Lund, ’68. He served as assistant and field doctor in the Dano-Prussian war of ’67, and now practises an alienist in Stockholm, where he has established a Positivist Society and Workmen’s Institute. Has written aHistory of Civilisation.Ocellus Lucanus, early Greek philosopher, who maintained the eternity of the cosmos. An edition of his work was published with a translation by the Marquis d’Argens, and Thomas Taylor published an English version.Ochino(Bernardino Tommasini), Italian reformer, b. Sienna, 1487. A popular preacher, he was chosen general of the Capuchins. Converted to the Reformation by Jean Valdez, hehad to fly to Geneva, 1542. Invited to England by Cranmer, he became prebend of Canterbury and preached in London until the accession of Mary, when he was expelled and went to Zurich. Here he became an Antitrinitarian, and was banished about 1562 forThirty Dialogues, in one of which he shows that neither in the Bible nor the Fathers is there any express prohibition of polygamy. He went to Poland and joined the Socinians, was banished thence also, and died Slaukau, Moravia, in 1564. Beza ascribes the misfortunes of Ochinus, and particularly the accidental death of his wife, to the special interposition of God on account of his erroneous opinions.O’Connor(Arthur, afterwards Condorcet), General, b. Mitchells, near Bandon (Cork), 4 July, 1768. Joined the United Irishmen and went to France to negotiate for military aid. In May 1798 he was tried for treason and acquitted. He entered the French service and rose to distinction. In 1807 he married Elisa, the only daughter of Condorcet, whose name he took, and whose works he edited. He also edited theJournal of Religious Freedom. Died at Bignon, 25 April, 1852.O’Donoghue(Alfred H.) Irish American counsellor at law, b. about 1840. Educated for the Episcopal ministry at Trinity College, Dublin, but became a sceptic and publishedTheology and Mythology, an inquiry into the claims of Biblical inspiration and the supernatural element in religion, at New York, 1880.Oest(Johann Heinrich) German poet, b. Cassel 1727. Wrote poems published at Hamburg, 1751, and was accused of materialism.Offen(Benjamin), American Freethinker, b. in England, 1772. He emigrated to New York, where he became lecturer to the Society of Moral Philantropists at Tammany Hall. He wroteBiblical CriticismandA Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, and supported theCorrespondent,Free Inquirer, andBoston Investigator. Died New York, 12 May, 1848.Offray de la Mettrie(Julian). SeeLamettrie.O’Keefe(J. A.), M.D. Educated in Germany; author of an essayOn the Progress of the Human Understanding, 1795, in which he speaks disparagingly of Christianity. He was afollower of Kant, and was classed withLiving Authors of Great Britainin 1816.O’Kelly(Edmund de Pentheny), a descendant of the O’Kelly’s; author ofConsciousness, or the Age of Reason, 1853;Theological Papers, published by Holyoake; andTheology for the People, ’55, a series of short papers suggestive of religious Theism.Oken(Lorenz), German morphologist and philosopher, b. Offenburg, 2 Aug. 1779. He studied at Göttingen and became aprivat-docentin that university. In a remarkableSketch of Natural Philosophy, 1802, he advanced a scheme of evolution. He developed his system in a work onGeneration, 1805, and aManual of Natural Philosophy, 1809. He was professor at Jena, but dismissed for his liberal views. From ’17 till ’48 he edited the scientific journalIsis. In ’32 he became a professor at Zürich, where he died, 11 Aug. 1851.Oliver(William), M.D., of Bath, who was accused of Atheism. Died 1764.Omar Khayyam.SeeKhayyam.Omboni(Giovanni), Lombard naturalist, b. Abbiategrasso, 29 June, 1829. Is professor of geology at Padua, and author of many scientific works.Onimus(Ernest Nicolas Joseph), Dr., French Positivist, b. near Mulhouse, 6 Dec. 1840. Studied medicine at Strasburg and Paris, and wrote a treatise onThe Dynamical Theory of Heat in Biological Sciences, 1866. In ’73 he was one of the jury of the Vienna Exhibition, and obtained the Cross of the Legion of Honor. Is author of thePsychology in the Plays of Shakespere, ’78, and has written in theRevue Positiveand other periodicals.Oort(Henricus), Dutch rationalist, b. Eemnes, 27 Dec. 1836. Studied theology at Leyden, and became teacher at Amsterdam. Has written many works, of which we mentionThe Worship of Baalim in Israel, translated by Bp. Colenso, 1865, andThe Bible for Young People, written with Drs. Hooykaas and Kuenen, and translated by P. H. Wickstead, 1873–79.Orelli(Johann Kaspar von), learned Swiss critic, b. Zürich, 13 Feb. 1789. Edited many classics, and wrote a letter infavor of Strauss at the time when there was an outcry at his being appointed Professor at Zürich. Died 6 Jan. 1849.Osborne(Francis), English writer, b. Clucksand, Beds. 1589. Was an adherent of Cromwell in the Civil War. HisAdvice to a Son, 1656, was popular though much censured by the Puritans who drew up a complaint against his works and proposed to have them burnt, and an order was passed 27 July, 1658, forbidding them to be sold. Died 1659.Oscar(L.), Swiss writer, author ofReligion Traced Back to its Source, Basel, 1874. He considers religion “a belief in conflict with experience and resting on exaggerated fancies” of animism and mythology. One of his chapters is entitled “The Crucifixion of the Son of God as Christian mythology.”Ossoli(Countess d’). SeeFuller (Margaret).Oswald(Eugen), German teacher in England. Author of many popular school books, and a Study of Positivism in England, 1884.Oswald(Felix Leopold), American writer, b. Belgium, 1845. Educated as a physician, he has devoted his attention to natural history, and in pursuit of his studies has travelled extensively. He has contributed to thePopular Science Monthly,The Truthseekerand other journals, and has publishedSummerland Sketches, or Rambles in the Backwoods of Mexico and Central America, ’81; Physical Education, ’82;The Secrets of the East, ’83, which argues that Christianity is derived from Buddhism, andThe Bible of Natureor the Principles of Secularism, ’88. Dr. Oswald is now employed as Curator of Natural History in Brazil.O’Toole(Adam Duff), Irish Freethought martyr, burnt to death at Hogging (now College) Green, Dublin, in 1327. Holinshed says he “denied obstinatelie the incarnation of our savior, the trinitie of persons in the vnitie of the Godhead and the resurrection of the flesh; as for the Holie Scripture, he said it was but a fable; the Virgin Marie he affirmed to be a woman of dissolute life, and theApostolicsee erronious.”“Ouida,” See Ramée (Louise de la).Ouvry(Henry Aimé), Col., translator of Feuchterslebens,Dietetics of the Souland Rau’sUnsectarian Catechism, and author of several works on the land question.Overton(Richard), English Republican, who wrote a satire on relics, 1642, and a treatise onMan’s Mortality(London, 1643, Amsterdam, 1644) a work designed to show man is naturally mortal.Owen(Robert), social reformer, b. Newton, Montgomeryshire, Wales, 14 March, 1771. At 18 he was so distinguished by his business talents that he became partner in a cotton mill. In 1797 he married the daughter of David Dale, and soon afterwards became partner and sole manager at New Lanark Mills, where he built the first infant schools and improved the dwellings of the workmen. From 1810–15 he publishedNew Views on Society, or, Essays on the Formation of Character. In ’17 he caused much excitement by proclaiming that the religions of the world were all false, and that man was the creature of circumstances. In ’24 he went to America and purchased New Harmony, Indiana, from the Rappists to found a new community, but the experiment was a failure, as were also others at Orbiston, Laner, and Queenswood, Hants. In ’28 he debated at Cincinatti with Alex. Campbell on the Evidences of Christianity. He published a numerous series of tracts,Robert Owen’s Journal, andThe New Moral World, ’35. He debated on his Social System with the Rev. J. H. Roebuck, R. Brindley, etc. As his mind began to fail he accepted the teachings of Spiritism. Died Newton, 17 Nov. 1858. Owen profoundly influenced the thought of his time in the direction of social amelioration, and he is justly respected for his energy, integrity and disinterested philanthropy.Owen(Robert Dale), son of the above, b. Glasgow 9 Nov. 1800. Was educated by his father till 1820, when he was sent to Fellenberg’s school, near Berne, Switzerland. In ’25 he went to America to aid in the efforts to found a colony at New Harmony, Indiana. On the failure of that experiment he began with Frances Wright, in Nov. ’28, the publication of theFree Inquirer, which was continued till ’32. In that year he had a written discussion with O. Bachelor on the existence of God, and the authenticity of the Bible, in which he ably championed the Freethought cause. He wrote a number of tracts of which we mentionSituations, 1839;Address on Free Inquiry, 1840;Prossimo’s Experience,Consistency,Galileo and the Inquisition.He was elected to Congress in ’43. After fifteen years of labor he secured the women of Indiana independent rights of property. He became charge d’affaires at Naples in ’53. During the civil war he strongly advocated slave emancipation. Like his father he became a Spiritualist. Died at Lake George, 17 June, 1877.Paalzow(Christian Ludwig), German jurist, b. Osterburg (Altmark), 26 Nov. 1753, translated Voltaire’s commentaries onThe Spirit of the Lawsand Burigny’sExamination of the Apologists of Christianity(Leipzic, 1793), and wrote aHistory of Religious Cruelty(Mainz, 1800). Died 20 May, 1824.Paepe(Cesar de). SeeDe Paepe.Pagano(Francisco Mario Saverio Antonio Carlo Pasquale). Italian jurist, philosopher and patriot, b. Brienza, 1748. He studied at Naples, and became the friend of Filangieri. Was made professor of criminal law in 1787. For hisPolitical Essaysin three volumes (1783–92) he was accused of Atheism and impiety. He wrote onCriminal Processand a work onGod and Nature. Taking part in the Provisional Government of the Neapolitan Republic in 1791, he was taken prisoner by the royalists and executed 6 Oct. 1800.Page(David). Scotch geologist, b. 29 Aug. 1814. Author of introductory and advanced text-books of geology, which went through many editions. He gave advanced lectures in Edinburgh, and editedLife Lights of Song, ’64. HisMan Where, Whence, and Whither?, ’67, advocating Darwinian views, made some stir in Scotland. He became professor of geology at Durham University. A friend of Robert Chambers, he was for some time credited with that writer’sVestiges of Creation, in the scientific details of which he assisted. Died at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 9 March, 1879.Paget(Violet). English authoress, who, under the pen-name of “Vernon Lee,” has writtenStudies of the Eighteenth Century in ItalyandBaldwin, dialogues on views and aspirations 1886. Since ’71 she has lived chiefly in Florence, and contributes to the principal reviews, an article in theContemporary(May ’83) on “Responsibilities of Unbelief” being particularly noticeable. Miss Paget’s writings show a cultivated mind and true literary instinct.Pageze(L.) French Socialist; has written on the Concordat and the Budget des Cultes, ’86, Separation of Church and State, ’87, etc.Paine(Thomas), Deist, b. Thetford, Norfolk, 29 Jan., 1737. His father was a Quaker and staymaker, and Paine was brought up to the trade. He left home while still young, went to London and Sandwich, where he married the daughter ofanexciseman, and entered the excise. He was selected by his official associates to embody their wants in a paper, and on this work he displayed such talent that Franklin, then in London, suggested America as a good field for his abilities. Paine went in 1774, and soon found work for his pen. He became editor of thePennsylvanian Magazineand contributed to the Pennsylvanian journal a strong anti-slavery essay.Common Sense, published early in 1776, advocating absolute independence for America, did more than anything else to precipitate the great events of that year. Each number of theCrisis, which appeared during the war, was read by Washington’s order to each regiment in the service. Paine subscribed largely to the army, and served for a short time himself. After peace was declared, congress voted him three thousand dollars, and the state of New York gave him a large farm. Paine turned his attention to mechanics, and invented the tubular iron bridge, which he endeavored to introduce in Europe. Reaching France during the Revolution, he published a pamphlet advocating the abolition of royalty. In 1791 he published hisRights of Man, in reply to Burke. For this he was outlawed. Escaping from England, he went to France, where he was elected to the Convention. He stoutly opposed the execution of the king, and was thrown by Robespierre into the Luxembourg prison, where for nearly a year he awaited the guillotine. During this time he wrote the first part of theAge of Reason, which he completed on his release. This famous book, though vulnerable in some minor points of criticism, throws a flood of light on Christian dogmas, and has had a more extended sale than any other Freethought work. As a natural consequence, Paine has been an object of incessant slander by the clergy. Paine died at New York 8 June, 1809, and, by his own direction was buried on his farm at NewRochelle. Cobbett is said to have disinterred him and brought his bones to England.Pajot(François). SeeLiniere.Paleario(Aonio),i.e., Antonio, della Paglia, Italian humanist and martyr, b. about 1500 at Véroli in the Roman Campagna. In 1520 he went to Rome and took place among the brilliant men of letters of court of Leo X. After the taking of Rome by Charles V. he retired to Sienna. In 1536 he published at Lyons an elegant Latin poem on the Mortality of the Soul—modeled on Lucretius. He was Professor of Eloquence at Milan for ten years, but was accused of heresy. He had called the Inquisition a poignard directed against all men of letters. On 3 July, 1570, he was hung and his body thrown into the flames. A work on the Benefit of Christ’s Death has been attributed to him on insufficient grounds. It is attributed to Benedetto da Mantova.Pallas(Peter Simon), German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin, 22 Sept. 1741. Educated as a physician at Gottingen and Leyden, he was invited by Catherine II. to become Professor of Natural History at St. Petersburg. He travelled through Siberia and settled in the Crimea. In 1810 he returned to Berlin, where he died 8 Sept. 1811. Lalande spoke highly of him, and Cuvier considered him the founder of modern geology.Pallavicino(Ferrante), Italian poet and wit, b. Piacenza 1616. He became a canon of the Lateran congregation, but for composing some satirical pieces against Pope Urban VIII. had a price set on his head. He fled to Venice, but a false friend betrayed him to the Inquisition, and he was beheaded at Avignon, 5 March, 1644.Palmer(Courtlandt), American reformer, b. New York, 25 March, 1843, graduated at the Columbia law-school in ’69. He was brought up in the Dutch Reformed Church, but became a Freethinker while still young. Mr. Palmer did much to promote Liberal ideas. In ’80 he established and became President of the Nineteenth Century Club, for the utmost liberty of public discussion. He contributed to theFreethinker’s Magazine,Truthseeker, etc. A sister married Prof. Draper with whom he was intimate. Died at New York, 23 July, 1888, and wascremated at Fresh Pond, his friend Col. R. G. Ingersoll delivering an eulogium.Palmer(Elihu), American author, b. Canterbury, Connecticut, 1764. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1787, and studied divinity but became a deist in 1791. In 1793 he became totally blind from an attack of yellow fever. In 1797 he lectured to a Deistical Society in New York. After this he dictated hisPrinciples of Nature, 1802, a powerful anti-Christian work, reprinted by Carlile in ’19. He also wroteProspect or View of the Moral World from the year 1804. Palmer was the head of the Society of Columbian Illuminati founded in New York in 1801. He died in Philadelphia, 7 April, 1806.Panaetius(Παναίτιος), Stoic philosopher, b. Rhodes, a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic, and perhaps of Carneades. About 150B.C.he visited Rome and taught a moderate stoicism, denying the doctrine of the conflagration of the world, and placing physics before dialectics. He wrote a workOn Duties, to which Cicero expresses his indebtedness in hisDe Officiis. Died in Athens 111B.C.Pancoucke(Charles Joseph), eminent French publisher, b. Lille, 26 Nov. 1736. He settled at Paris and became acquainted with d’Alembert, Garat, etc., and was a correspondent of Rousseau, Buffon and Voltaire, whose works he brought out. He translated Lucretius, 1768, brought out theMercure de France, projected in 1781 the importantEncyclopédie Méthodique, of which there are 166 vols., and founded theMoniteur, 1789. Died at Paris, 19 Dec. 1798.Pantano(Eduardo), Italian author of a little book on the Sicilian Vespers and the Commune, Catania, 1882.Papillon(J. Henri Fernand), French philosophic writer, b. Belfort, 5 June, 1847. He wrote anIntroduction to Chemical Philosophy, ’65; contributed to theRevue de Philosophie Positiveand theRevue des Deux Mondes. Hisprincipalwork is entitledNature and Life, ’73. Died at Paris 31 Dec. 1873.Paquet(Henri Remi René), French writer, b. Charleville, 29 Sep. 1845. After studying under the Jesuits he went to Paris, where he became an advocate, but devoted his mainattention to literature. Under the anagram of “Nérée Quépat” he has publishedLa Lorgnette Philosophique, ’72,a dictionary of the great and little philosophers of our time, a study of La Mettrie entitledMaterialist Philosophy in the Eighteenth Centuryand other works.Pare(William), Owenite Social reformer, b. Birmingham,11 Aug.1805. Wrote an abridgment of Thompson’sDistribution of Wealth, also works onCapital and Labor’54,Co-operative Agriculture, at Rahaline, ’70, etc. He compiled vol. 1 of theBiography of Robert Owen. Died at Croydon, 18 June,1873.Parfait(Noel), French writer and politician, b. Chartres, 30 Nov. 1814. Took part in the revolution of ’30, and wrote many radical brochures. After the coup d’état he took refuge in Belgium. In ’71 was elected deputy and sat on the extreme left.Parfait(Paul), son of theforegoing, b. Paris, 1841. Author ofL’Arsenal de la Dévotion, ’76, Notes to serve for a history of superstition, and a supplementLe Dossier des Pélerinages, ’77, and other pieces. Died 1881.Parisot(Jean Patrocle), a Frenchman who wroteLa Foydevoiléepar la raison, 1681 [Faith Unveiled by Reason], a work whose title seems to have occasioned its suppression.Parker(Theodore), American rationalist, b. Lexington, Mass., 24 Aug. 1810. From his father—a Unitarian—he inherited independence of mind, courage, and love of speculation. Brought up in poverty he studied hard, and acquired a University education while laboring on the farm. In March, ’31, he became an assistant teacher at Boston. In June, ’37, he was ordained Unitarian minister. Parker gradually became known as an iconoclast, and study of the German critics made him a complete rationalist, so that even the Unitarian body rejected him. A society was established to give him a hearing in Boston, and soon his fame was established. HisDiscourse on Matters Pertaining to Religion, ’47, exhibited his fundamental views. He translated and enlarged De Wette’s Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. A fearless opponent of the Fugitive Slave Law, he sheltered slaves in his own house. Early in ’59 failing health compelled him to relinquish hisduties. Died at Florence, 10 May, 1860. He bequeathed his library of 13,000 volumes to the Boston Public Library.Parmenides, a Greek philosopher, b. Elea, Italy, 518B.C.Is said to have been a disciple of Xenophanes. He developed his philosophy about 470B.C.in a didactic poemOn Nature, fragments of which are preserved by Sextus Empiricus. He held to Reason as our guide, and considered nature eternal.Parny(ÉvaristeDésiréde Forgesde),Viscount. French poet, b. St. Paul, Isle of Bourbon, 6 Feb. 1753. Educated in France, he chose the military profession. A disappointed passion for a creole inspired his “Amatory Poems,” and he afterwards wrote the audaciousWar of the Gods,Paradise Lost, andThe Gallantries of the Bible. His poems, though erotic, are full of elegant charm, and he has been named the French Tibullus. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1803. Died at Paris, 5 Dec. 1814.Parton(James), author, b. Canterbury, England, 9 Feb. 1822. Was taken to the United States when a child and educated at New York. He married Miss Willis, “Fannie Fern,” and has written many biographies, including Lives of Thomas Jefferson, ’74, and of Voltaire, ’81. He has also written onTopics of the Time, ’71, andChurch Taxation. He resided in New York till ’75 when he removed to Newburyport, Massachusetts.Parvish(Samuel), Deistic author ofAn Inquiry into the Jewish and Christian Revelation(London, 1739), of which a second edition was issued in 1746.Pasquier(Étienne). French journalist, b. 7 April, 1529, at Paris.Brought up to the bar he became a successful pleader. He defended the Universities against the Jesuits, whom he also attacked in a bitter satire,Catéchisme desJésuites. Died Paris, 30 Aug. 1615.Passerano(AlbertoRadicatidi)count. Italian philosopher of last century, attached to the court of Victor Amedée II. For some pamphlets written against the Papal power he was pursued by the Inquisition and his goods seized. He lived in England and made the acquaintance of Collins, also in France and Holland, where he died about 1736, leaving his goods to the poor. In that year he published at RotterdamRecueil de Piècescurieuses sur les matieres les plus íntéressantes, etc., which contains aParallel between Mahomet and Sosem(anagram of Moses),an abridged history of the Sacerdotal Profession, and aFaithful and comic recital of the religion of modern cannibals, by Zelin Moslem; also aDissertation upon Death, which was published separately in 1733. TheRecueilwas republished at London in 1749. He also wrote a pretended translation from an Arabic work on Mohammedanism, satirising the Bible, and a pretended sermon by Elwall the Quaker.Pasteur(Louis). French scientist b. Dôle, 27 Dec 1822, became doctor in ’47 and professor of physic at Strassburg in ’48. He received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in ’56 for his discoveries in polarisation and molecular chemistry. Decorated with the Legion of honor in ’53, he was made commander ’68 and grand officer ’78. His researches into innoculation have been much contested, but his admirers have raised a large institute for the prosecution of his treatment. He was elected to the Academy as successor of Littré. He gave his name as Vice-President of the British Secular Union.Pastoret(Claude Emmanuel Joseph Pierre de),Marquis, French statesman and writer, b. of noble family at Marseilles, 25 Oct. 1756. Educated by the Oratorians at Lyons, in 1779 he published anElege de Voltaire. By his works onZoroaster, Confucius and Mahomet(1787) and onMoses Considered as Legislator and Moralist(1788) he did something for the infant science of comparative religion. His principal work is a learnedHistory of Legislation, in 11 vols. (1817–37), in which he passes in review all the ancient codes. He embraced the Revolution, and became President of the Legislative Assembly (3 Oct. 1791). He proposed the erection of the Column of July on the Place of the Bastille, and the conversion of the church of Ste Geneviève into the Pantheon. On the 19th June, 1792, he presented a motion for the complete separation of the state from religion. He fled during the Terror, but returned as deputy in 1795. In 1820 he succeeded his friend Volney as member of the French Academy, in ’23 received the cross of the Legion of Honor, and in ’29 became Chancellor of France. Died at Paris, 28 Sept. 1840.Pater(Walter Horatio), English writer, b. London, 4 Aug.1839. B.A. at Oxford in ’62, M.A. in ’65. Has written charming essays in theWestminster Review,Macmillan, and theFortnightly Review. In ’73 he publishedThe Renaissance, and in ’85Marius the Epicurean, His Sensations and Ideas.Paterson(Thomas), b. near Lanark early in this century. After the imprisonment of Southwell and Holyoake he edited theOracle of Reason. For exhibiting profane placards he was arrested and sentenced 27 Jan. 1843 to three months’ imprisonment. His trial was reported under the titleGodv.Paterson(’43.) He insisted on considering God as the plaintiff and in quoting from “the Jew book” to show the plaintiff’s bad character. When released he went to Scotland to uphold the right of free publication, and was sentenced 8 Nov. ’43 to fifteen months’ imprisonment for selling “blasphemous” publications at Edinburgh. On his release he was presented with a testimonial 6 April, 1845, H. Hetherington presiding. Paterson went to America.Patin(Gui), French physician, writer, and wit, b. near Beauvais 31 Aug. 1602. He became professor at the college of France. His reputation is chiefly founded on hisLetters, in which he attacked superstition. Larousse says “C’étaitun libre penseur de la famille de Rabelais.” Died at Paris 30 Aug. 1672.Patot. SeeTyssot de Patot (S.)Pauw(Cornelius), learned Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, 1739. He wrote philosophical researches on the Americans, and also on the Egyptians, Chinese, and Greeks. Was esteemed by Frederick the Great for his ingenuity and penetration. Died at Xanten, 7 July, 1799. He was the uncle of Anacharsis Clootz.Peacock(John Macleay), Scotch poet, b. 21 March, 1817. He wrote many poems in theNational Reformer, and in ’67 publishedHours of Reverie. Died 4 May, 1877.PeacockorPecock(Reginald), the father of English rationalism, b. about 1390, and educated at Oriel College Oxford, of which he was chosen fellow in 1417. Was successively Bishop of St Asaph, 1444, and Chichester, 1450, by the favor of Humphrey, the good Duke of Gloster. He declared that Scripture must in all cases be accommodated to “thedoom of reason.” He questioned the genuineness of the Apostles’ Creed. In 1457 he was accused of heresy, recanted from fear of martyrdom, was deprived of his bishopric, and imprisoned in a monastery at Canterbury, where he used to repeat to those who visited him,

Montesquieu(Charles deSecondat),Baron, eminent French writer, b. near Bordeaux, 18 Jan. 1689. His first literary performance was entitledPersian Letters, 1721. In 1728 he was admitted a member of the French Academy, though opposed by Cardinal Fleury on the ground that his writings were dangerous to religion. His chief work is theSpirit of Laws, 1748. This work was one of the first-fruits of the positive spirit in history and jurisprudence. The chapters on Slavery are written in a vein of masterly irony, whichVoltaire pronounced to be worthy of Molière. Died 10 Feb. 1755.Montgomery(Edmund), Dr. philosopher, b. of Scotch parents, Edinburgh 1835. In youth he lived at Frankfort, where he saw Schopenhauer, and afterwards attended atHeidelbergthe lectures of Moleschott and Kuno Fischer. He became a friend of Feuerbach. He wrote in German and published at Munich in ’71,The Kantian Theory of Knowledge refuted from the Empirical Standpoint. In ’67 he published a small book On the Formation of so-called Cells in Animal Bodies.In ’71 he went to Texas and prosecuted his scientific studies on life. He has written in thePopular Science Monthly,The Index, andThe Open CourtandMind. Dr. Montgomery holds not only that there is no evidence of a God, but that there is evidence to the contrary.Montgolfier(Michel Joseph), aeronaut,b. Aug. 1740. He was the first to ascend in an air balloon, 5 June 1783. A friend of Delambre and La Lalande, he was on the testimony of this last an atheist. Died 26 June 1810.Mook(Friedrich) German writer, b. Bergzabern, 29 Sept. 1844, studied philosophy and theology at Tübingen, but gave up the latter to study medicine. He lived as a writer at Heidelberg and became lecturer to a free congregation at Nürenburg, and wrote a popularLife of Jesus, published at Zürich, ’72–3. He travelled abroad and was drowned in the river Jordan, 13 Dec. 1880. His brother Kurt, b. 12 Feb. 1847, is a physician who has published some poems.Moor(Edmund), Major in the East Indian Company, author of theHindu Pantheon, 1810 andOriental Fragments, ’34. Died 1840.Moreau(Hégésippe), French poet, b. Paris 9, April 1810. A radical and freethinker, he fought in the barricades in ’30. Wrote songs and satires of considerable merit, and a prose work entitledTheMistletoeand the Oak. His life, which was a continual struggle with misery, terminated in a hospital, 20 Dec. 1838. His works have been collected, with an introduction by Sainte-Beuve.Moreau(Jacques Joseph), Dr. of Tours, b. Montresor, 1804.He became a distinguished alienist of the materialist school, and wrote on Moral Faculties from a medical point of view, ’36, and many physiological works.Morelly, French socialist of the eighteenth century, b. Vitry-le-Français, author of a work calledCode de la Nature, sometimes attributed to Diderot. It was published in 1755, and urges that man should find circumstances in which depravity is minimised.Morgan(Thomas), Welsh Deist, known by the title of his book asThe Moral Philosopher, 1737. Was a Presbyterian, but was deposed for Arianism about 1723, and practised medicine at Bristol. He edited Radicati’s Dissertation on Death, 1731. HisMoral Philosopherseeks to substitute morality for religion. He calls Moses “a more fabulous romantic writer than Homer or Ovid,” and attacks the evidence of miracles and prophecy. This was supplemented byA Further Vindication of Moral Truth and Reason, 1739, and Superstition and Tyranny Inconsistent with Theocracy, 1740. He replied to his opponents over the signature “Philalethes.” His last work was on Physico-Theology, 1741. Lechler calls Morgan “the modern Marcion.” Died at London, 14 Jan. 1743.Morgan(Sir Thomas Charles), M.D., b. 1783. Educated at Cambridge. In 1811 he was made a baronet, and married Miss Sidney Owensen. A warm friend of civil and religious liberty and a sceptic, he is author ofSketches of the Philosophy of Life, ’18, and thePhilosophy of Morals, ’19. TheExaminersays, “He was never at a loss for a witty or wise passage from Rabelais or Bayle.” Died 28 Aug. 1843.Morin(André Saturnin), French writer, b. Chatres, 28 Nov. 1807. Brought up to the law, and became an advocate. In ’30 he wrote defending the revolution against the restoration. In ’48 he was made sous-prefet of Nogent. During the Empire he combated vigorously for Republicanism and Freethought, writing under the signature “Miron,” in theRationalisteof Geneva, theLibre Penséeof Paris, theLibero-pensieroof Milan, and other papers. He was intimately associated with Ausonio Franchi, Trezza, Stefanoni, and the Italian Freethinkers. His principal work is anExamination of Christianity, in three volumes, ’62. HisJesus Reduced to his True Valuehas gonethrough several editions. HisEssai de Critique Religieuse, ’85, is an able work. M. Morin was one of the founders of theBibliothèque Démocratique, to which he contributed several anti-clerical volumes, the one onConfessionbeing translated into English by Dr. J. R. Beard. In ’76 he was elected on the Municipal Council of Paris, where he brought forward the question of establishing a crematorium. Died at Paris, 5 July, 1888, and was cremated at Milan.Morison(James Augustus Cotter), English Positivist and man of letters, b. London, 1831. Graduated at Lincoln Coll. Oxford, M.A., ’59. In ’63 he published theLife and Times of Saint Bernard. He was one of the founders of theFortnightly Review, in which he wrote, as well as in theAthenæum. He contributed monographs on Gibbon and Macaulay to Morley’s “Men of Letters” Series. In ’86 he published his striking workThe Service of Man, an Essay towards the Religion of the Future, which shows that the benefits of Christianity have been much exaggerated and its evils palpable. All his writings are earnest and thoughtful. He collected books and studied to write a History of France, which would have been a noble contribution to literature; but the possession of a competence seems to have weakened his industry, and he never did justice to his powers. Even theService of Manwas postponed until he was no longer able to complete it as he intended. Morison was a brilliant talker, and the centre of a wide circle of friends. George Meredith dedicated to him a volume of poems. Died at Hampstead, 26 Feb. 1888.Morley(John), English writer and statesman, b. Blackburn, 24 Dec. 1838, educated at Oxford. Among his fellow students was J.C. Morison. He contributed toThe Leaderand theSaturday Review, edited theMorning Star, and theFortnightly Review, ’67–82, in which appeared the germs of most of his works, such asOn Compromise,Voltaire, ’72;Rousseau, ’73;Diderot and the Encyclopædists’78. During his editorship important Freethought papers appeared in that review. From May, ’80 till Aug. ’83 he edited thePall Mall Gazette. Upon the death of Ashton Dilke, M.P., he was elected to Parliament for Newcastle, and in Feb. ’86 was appointed by Mr. Gladstone Chief Secretary for Ireland.Morselli(Enrico Agostino), Italian doctor and scientist, b. Modena, 1852. Has written many anthropological works, notably one onSuicidein the International Scientific Series, and a study on “The Religion of Mazzini.” He edits theRivista di Filosofia Scientifica, and has translated Herbert Spencer on the past and future of religion.Mortillet(Louis Laurent Gabriel de), French scientist, b. Meylan (Isère), 29 Aug. 1821, and was educated by Jesuits. Condemned in ’49 for his political writings he took refuge in Switzerland. He has done much to promote prehistoric studies in France. Has writtenMaterials to serve for the positive and philosophical history of man, ’64.The Sign of the Cross before Christianity, ’66,Contribution to the History of Superstition, andPrehistoric Antiquity of Man, ’82. He contributed to theRevue Indépendante,Pensée Nouvelle, etc. M. de Mortillet is curator of the Museum of St. Germain and was elected Deputy in 1885.Moss(Arthur B.), lecturer and writer, b. 8 May, 1855. Has written numerous pamphlets, a number of which are collected inWaves of Freethought, ’85. Others areNature and the Gods,Man and the Lower Animals,Two Revelations, etc. Mr. Moss has been a contributor to theSecular Chronicle,Secular Review,Freethinker,Truthseeker, and other journals, and has had a written debate on “Was Jesus God or Man.” A School Board officer, he was for a time prohibited from lecturing on Sunday. A collection of hisLectures and Essayshas been published, 1889.Mothe Le Vayer.SeeLa Mothe Le Vayer.Mott(Lucretia), American reformer,neeCoffin, b. Nantucket, 3 Jan. 1793. She was a Quakeress, but on the division of the Society in 1827 went with the party who preferred conscience to revelation. A strong opponent of slavery, she took an active part in the abolitionist movement. She was delegated to the World’s Anti-slavery Convention in London in 1840, but excluded on account of her sex. A friend of Mrs. Rose and Mrs. Stanton. Took an active part in Women’s Rights conventions. Died at Philadelphia, 11 Nov. 1880.Muhammadibn al Hudailal Basri, philosopher of Asia Minor, founder of the Muhammadan Freethinking sect of Mutazilah, b. about 757. Died about 849.Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan(Abu Nasr.) SeeAlpharabius.Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Bajjat.SeeAvempace.Muhammad Jalal ed din.SeeAkbar.Muller(Dr. H. C.) Dutch writer, b. 31 Oct. 1855. Has contributed good articles tode Dageraad(the Daybreak), and is now teacher of modern Greek at the University of Amsterdam.Murger(Henri), French author, b. Paris, 1822, contributed to theRevue des Deux Mondes, tales poems and dramas. In his poemLe Testamentin “Winter Nights” he says in answer to the inquiring priest “Reponds lui que j’ai lu Voltaire.” His most popular work is entitledScenes of Bohemian Life. Died Paris, 28 Jan. 1861.Musset(Louis Charles Alfred de), French poet, b. Paris, 11 Nov. 1810. Before the age of twenty he became one of the leaders of the Romantic school. His prose romance,Confession d’un Enfant du Siècle, ’36, exhibits his intellectual development and pessimistic moods. Among his finest works are four poems entitledNuits. He contributed to theRevue des Deux Mondes, and was admitted into the Academy in ’52. Died at Paris 1 May, 1857.Naber(Samuel Adriaan), learned Dutch writer, b. Gravenhage, 16 July, 1828. Studied at Leyden and became rector of the Haarlem gymnasium, and head teacher at the Amsterdam Athenæum. He has edited a journal of literature, and is joint author with Dr. A. Pierson of Verisimilia (1886), a Latin work showing the fragmentary and disjointed character of the Epistles attributed to Paul.Nachtigal(Gustav.), Dr., German traveller, b. Eichstadt, 23 Feb. 1834. He studied medicine, went to Algiers and Tunis, became private physician to the Bey of Tunis, explored North Africa, and wrote an account thereof,Sahara und Sudan. He became German Consul General at Tunis, and died 20 April, 1885.Naigeon(Jacques André), French atheist, b. Dijon 1728. At first an art student, he became a disciple and imitator of Diderot. He became copyist to and collaborator with Holbach and conveyed his works to Amsterdam to be printed. Hecontributed to the Encyclopédie, notably the articlesAmeandUnitairesand composed theMilitaire Philosophe, or difficulties on religion proposed to Father Malebranche, 1768. This was his first work, the last chapter being written by Holbach. He took some share in several of the works of that writer, notably in theTheologie Portative. He published theRecuéil Philosophique, 2 vols., Londres (Amst.), 1770; edited Holbach’s Essay on Prejudices and hisMorale Universelle. He also edited the works of Diderot, the essays of Montaigne and a translation of Toland’s philosophical letters. His principal work is the Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Philosophy in theEncyclopédie Méthodique(Paris 1791–94.) He addressed the National Assembly on Liberty of Opinion, 1790, and asked them to withhold the name of God and religion from their declaration of the rights of man. Naigeon was of estimable character. Died at Paris, 28 Feb. 1810.Naquet(Joseph Alfred). French materialist, b. Carpentras, 6 Oct. 1834, became M.D. in ’59. In ’67 he received fifteen months imprisonment for belonging to a secret society. He founded, with M. Regnard, theRevue Encyclopédique, which was suppressed at once for containing an attack on theism. In ’69 he issued a work onReligion, Property, and Family, which was seized and the author condemned to four months imprisonment, a fine of five hundred francs, and the perpetual interdict of civil rights. He represented Vaucluse in the National Assembly, where he has voted with the extreme left. He was re-elected in ’81. The new law of divorce in France has been passed chiefly through M. Naquet’s energetic advocacy. In ’83 he was elected to the Senate, and of late has distinguished himself by his advocacy of General Boulanger.Nascimento(Francisco Manuel do).Portuguesepoet, b. Lisbon, 23 Dec, 1734. He entered the Church, but having translated Molière’sTartuffe, was accused of heresy (1778), and had to fly for his life from the Inquisition. He wrote many poems and satires under the name of “Filinto Elysio.” Died 25 Feb. 1819.Navez(Napoleon), Belgian Freethinker, president ofLa Libre Pensée, of Antwerp, and active member of the Council of the International Federation of Freethinkers.Nelson(Gustave), a writer in the New YorkTruthseeker, conjectured to be the author ofBible Myths and their Parallels in other Religions, a large and learned work, showing how much of Christianity has been taken from Paganism.Newcomb(Simon), LL.D., American astronomer, b. Wallace, (Nova Scotia), 12 March, 1835. Went to the United States in ’53, and was appointed computor on theNautical Almanack. In ’77 he became senior professor of mathematics in the U. S. navy. He has been associated with the equipment of the Lick observatory, and has written many works on mathematics and astronomy, as well asPrinciples of Political Economy, 1885.Newman(Francis William) brother of Cardinal Newman, b. London 1805. Educated at Oxford, he was elected to a fellowship at Balliol College ’26, but resigned in ’30, being unable conscientiously to comply with the regulations of the Test Act then in force. He then went to Bagdad with the object of assisting in a Christian mission, but his further studies convinced him he could not conscientiously undertake the work. He returned to England and became classical teacher in Bristol College, and subsequently Latin Professor at London University. InThe Soul: its Sorrows and Aspirations, ’49, he states his Theistic position, and inPhases of Faith, ’50, he explains how he came to give up Christianity. He has also writtenA History of the Hebrew Monarchy, ’47,Theism: Doctrinal and Practical, ’58, and a number of Scott’s tracts on the Defective Morality of the New Testament, the Historical Depravation of Christianity, the Religious Weakness of Protestantism, etc. AlsoReligion not History, ’77;What is Christianity without Christ?’81;Christianity in its Cradle, ’84; andLife after Death, ’86.Neymann(Clara), German American Freethought lecturess, friend and colleague of Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi.Nicholson(William), English writer on chemistry and natural philosophy, b. London 1753. He went to India at an early age, and upon returning settled at London as a Mathematical teacher. He published useful introductions to chemistry and natural philosophy. Conducted the British Encyclopedia, and the Journal of Natural Philosophy. He also wroteThe Doubts of the Infidels, submitted to the Bench ofBishops by a weak Christian, 1781, a work republished by Carlile and also by Watson. He died in poor circumstances 21 May, 1815.Nicolai(Christoph Friedrich), German writer, b. Berlin, 18 March, 1733. A friend of Lessing, and Moses Mendelssohn; he was noted for founding “The Universal German Library.” He wrote anecdotes of Friedrich II., and many other works. Died at Berlin, 8 Jan. 1811.Nietzsche(Friedrich Wilhelm), German writer, b. Lutzen, 15 Oct. 1844, author of sketches of Strauss, Schopenhauer, and Wagner, and ofMorgenröthe, and other philosophical works. Died 1889.Nieuwenhuis(Ferdinand Jakob Domela), Dutch publicist, b. Utrecht, 3 May, 1848. At first a minister of the Lutheran church, on Nov. 25, ’77, he told his congregation that he had ceased to believe in Christianity, and as an honest man resigned. He then contributed toDe Banier(Banner)de Dageraad(Dawn) andde Vragen des Tijds(Questions of the time.) On 1st March, ’79 he started a Socialist paperRecht voor Allen, now an important daily organ of Socialism and Freethought. His principle writings are—With Jesus,For or against Socialism,The Religious Oath Question,The Religion of Reason,The Religion of Humanity. On Jan. 19, ’87, he was sentenced to one years’ solitary confinement for an article he had not written, and was harshly treated till upon pressure of public opinion, he was liberated 30 Aug. 1887. He is now member of the Dutch Parliament.Noeldeke(Theodor), German Orientalist, b. Harburg, 2 March, 1836. Studied at Gottingen, Vienna, Leyden, and Berlin, and has been professor of oriental studies at Gottingen, Kiel, and Strasburg. He has written aHistory of the Koran, ’56; aLife of Mahomet, ’63; and aLiterary History of the Old Testament, which has been translated into French by MM. Derembourg and J. Soury, ’73.Noire(Ludwig), German monist, b. 26 March, 1829. Studied at Geissen, and became a teacher at Mainz. His works show the influence of Spinoza and Schopenhauer. He is the author of Aphorisms on the Monist philosophy, ’77, and a work on the Origin of Speech, ’77. He contends that language originates ininstinctive sounds accompanying will in associative actions. Died 26 March, 1889.Noorthouck(John), author of aHistory of London, 1773, and an Historical and Classical Dictionary, 1776. Has been credited with theLife of the Man After God’s Own Heart. SeeAnnet.Nordau(Max Simon), b. of Jewish parents at Pesth, 29 July, 1849. He became a physician in ’73. He has written several books of travels and made some noise by his trenchant work onConvential Lies of our Civilisation. He has since written onThe Sickness of the Century.Nork(Felix). SeeKorn (Selig).Nott(Josiah Clark), Dr., American ethnologist, b. Columbia, South Carolina, 24 March, 1804. He wroteThe Physical History of the Jewish Race,Types of Mankind, ’54, andIndigenous Races of the Earth, ’55; the last two conjointly with G. R. Gliddon, and with the object of disproving the theory of the unity of the human race. Died at Mobile, 31 March, 1873.Noun(Paul), French author ofThe Scientific Errors of the Bible, 1881.Noyes(Thomas Herbert), author ofHymns of Modern Man, 1870.Nunez(Rafael), President of Columbia, b. Carthagena, 28 Sept. 1825. He has written many poems and political articles, and in philosophy is a follower of Mill and Spencer.Nuytz(Louis André). SeeAndre-Nuytz.Nystrom(Anton Christen), Dr. Swedish Positivist, b. 15 Feb. 1842. Studied at Upsala and became a medical doctor in Lund, ’68. He served as assistant and field doctor in the Dano-Prussian war of ’67, and now practises an alienist in Stockholm, where he has established a Positivist Society and Workmen’s Institute. Has written aHistory of Civilisation.Ocellus Lucanus, early Greek philosopher, who maintained the eternity of the cosmos. An edition of his work was published with a translation by the Marquis d’Argens, and Thomas Taylor published an English version.Ochino(Bernardino Tommasini), Italian reformer, b. Sienna, 1487. A popular preacher, he was chosen general of the Capuchins. Converted to the Reformation by Jean Valdez, hehad to fly to Geneva, 1542. Invited to England by Cranmer, he became prebend of Canterbury and preached in London until the accession of Mary, when he was expelled and went to Zurich. Here he became an Antitrinitarian, and was banished about 1562 forThirty Dialogues, in one of which he shows that neither in the Bible nor the Fathers is there any express prohibition of polygamy. He went to Poland and joined the Socinians, was banished thence also, and died Slaukau, Moravia, in 1564. Beza ascribes the misfortunes of Ochinus, and particularly the accidental death of his wife, to the special interposition of God on account of his erroneous opinions.O’Connor(Arthur, afterwards Condorcet), General, b. Mitchells, near Bandon (Cork), 4 July, 1768. Joined the United Irishmen and went to France to negotiate for military aid. In May 1798 he was tried for treason and acquitted. He entered the French service and rose to distinction. In 1807 he married Elisa, the only daughter of Condorcet, whose name he took, and whose works he edited. He also edited theJournal of Religious Freedom. Died at Bignon, 25 April, 1852.O’Donoghue(Alfred H.) Irish American counsellor at law, b. about 1840. Educated for the Episcopal ministry at Trinity College, Dublin, but became a sceptic and publishedTheology and Mythology, an inquiry into the claims of Biblical inspiration and the supernatural element in religion, at New York, 1880.Oest(Johann Heinrich) German poet, b. Cassel 1727. Wrote poems published at Hamburg, 1751, and was accused of materialism.Offen(Benjamin), American Freethinker, b. in England, 1772. He emigrated to New York, where he became lecturer to the Society of Moral Philantropists at Tammany Hall. He wroteBiblical CriticismandA Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, and supported theCorrespondent,Free Inquirer, andBoston Investigator. Died New York, 12 May, 1848.Offray de la Mettrie(Julian). SeeLamettrie.O’Keefe(J. A.), M.D. Educated in Germany; author of an essayOn the Progress of the Human Understanding, 1795, in which he speaks disparagingly of Christianity. He was afollower of Kant, and was classed withLiving Authors of Great Britainin 1816.O’Kelly(Edmund de Pentheny), a descendant of the O’Kelly’s; author ofConsciousness, or the Age of Reason, 1853;Theological Papers, published by Holyoake; andTheology for the People, ’55, a series of short papers suggestive of religious Theism.Oken(Lorenz), German morphologist and philosopher, b. Offenburg, 2 Aug. 1779. He studied at Göttingen and became aprivat-docentin that university. In a remarkableSketch of Natural Philosophy, 1802, he advanced a scheme of evolution. He developed his system in a work onGeneration, 1805, and aManual of Natural Philosophy, 1809. He was professor at Jena, but dismissed for his liberal views. From ’17 till ’48 he edited the scientific journalIsis. In ’32 he became a professor at Zürich, where he died, 11 Aug. 1851.Oliver(William), M.D., of Bath, who was accused of Atheism. Died 1764.Omar Khayyam.SeeKhayyam.Omboni(Giovanni), Lombard naturalist, b. Abbiategrasso, 29 June, 1829. Is professor of geology at Padua, and author of many scientific works.Onimus(Ernest Nicolas Joseph), Dr., French Positivist, b. near Mulhouse, 6 Dec. 1840. Studied medicine at Strasburg and Paris, and wrote a treatise onThe Dynamical Theory of Heat in Biological Sciences, 1866. In ’73 he was one of the jury of the Vienna Exhibition, and obtained the Cross of the Legion of Honor. Is author of thePsychology in the Plays of Shakespere, ’78, and has written in theRevue Positiveand other periodicals.Oort(Henricus), Dutch rationalist, b. Eemnes, 27 Dec. 1836. Studied theology at Leyden, and became teacher at Amsterdam. Has written many works, of which we mentionThe Worship of Baalim in Israel, translated by Bp. Colenso, 1865, andThe Bible for Young People, written with Drs. Hooykaas and Kuenen, and translated by P. H. Wickstead, 1873–79.Orelli(Johann Kaspar von), learned Swiss critic, b. Zürich, 13 Feb. 1789. Edited many classics, and wrote a letter infavor of Strauss at the time when there was an outcry at his being appointed Professor at Zürich. Died 6 Jan. 1849.Osborne(Francis), English writer, b. Clucksand, Beds. 1589. Was an adherent of Cromwell in the Civil War. HisAdvice to a Son, 1656, was popular though much censured by the Puritans who drew up a complaint against his works and proposed to have them burnt, and an order was passed 27 July, 1658, forbidding them to be sold. Died 1659.Oscar(L.), Swiss writer, author ofReligion Traced Back to its Source, Basel, 1874. He considers religion “a belief in conflict with experience and resting on exaggerated fancies” of animism and mythology. One of his chapters is entitled “The Crucifixion of the Son of God as Christian mythology.”Ossoli(Countess d’). SeeFuller (Margaret).Oswald(Eugen), German teacher in England. Author of many popular school books, and a Study of Positivism in England, 1884.Oswald(Felix Leopold), American writer, b. Belgium, 1845. Educated as a physician, he has devoted his attention to natural history, and in pursuit of his studies has travelled extensively. He has contributed to thePopular Science Monthly,The Truthseekerand other journals, and has publishedSummerland Sketches, or Rambles in the Backwoods of Mexico and Central America, ’81; Physical Education, ’82;The Secrets of the East, ’83, which argues that Christianity is derived from Buddhism, andThe Bible of Natureor the Principles of Secularism, ’88. Dr. Oswald is now employed as Curator of Natural History in Brazil.O’Toole(Adam Duff), Irish Freethought martyr, burnt to death at Hogging (now College) Green, Dublin, in 1327. Holinshed says he “denied obstinatelie the incarnation of our savior, the trinitie of persons in the vnitie of the Godhead and the resurrection of the flesh; as for the Holie Scripture, he said it was but a fable; the Virgin Marie he affirmed to be a woman of dissolute life, and theApostolicsee erronious.”“Ouida,” See Ramée (Louise de la).Ouvry(Henry Aimé), Col., translator of Feuchterslebens,Dietetics of the Souland Rau’sUnsectarian Catechism, and author of several works on the land question.Overton(Richard), English Republican, who wrote a satire on relics, 1642, and a treatise onMan’s Mortality(London, 1643, Amsterdam, 1644) a work designed to show man is naturally mortal.Owen(Robert), social reformer, b. Newton, Montgomeryshire, Wales, 14 March, 1771. At 18 he was so distinguished by his business talents that he became partner in a cotton mill. In 1797 he married the daughter of David Dale, and soon afterwards became partner and sole manager at New Lanark Mills, where he built the first infant schools and improved the dwellings of the workmen. From 1810–15 he publishedNew Views on Society, or, Essays on the Formation of Character. In ’17 he caused much excitement by proclaiming that the religions of the world were all false, and that man was the creature of circumstances. In ’24 he went to America and purchased New Harmony, Indiana, from the Rappists to found a new community, but the experiment was a failure, as were also others at Orbiston, Laner, and Queenswood, Hants. In ’28 he debated at Cincinatti with Alex. Campbell on the Evidences of Christianity. He published a numerous series of tracts,Robert Owen’s Journal, andThe New Moral World, ’35. He debated on his Social System with the Rev. J. H. Roebuck, R. Brindley, etc. As his mind began to fail he accepted the teachings of Spiritism. Died Newton, 17 Nov. 1858. Owen profoundly influenced the thought of his time in the direction of social amelioration, and he is justly respected for his energy, integrity and disinterested philanthropy.Owen(Robert Dale), son of the above, b. Glasgow 9 Nov. 1800. Was educated by his father till 1820, when he was sent to Fellenberg’s school, near Berne, Switzerland. In ’25 he went to America to aid in the efforts to found a colony at New Harmony, Indiana. On the failure of that experiment he began with Frances Wright, in Nov. ’28, the publication of theFree Inquirer, which was continued till ’32. In that year he had a written discussion with O. Bachelor on the existence of God, and the authenticity of the Bible, in which he ably championed the Freethought cause. He wrote a number of tracts of which we mentionSituations, 1839;Address on Free Inquiry, 1840;Prossimo’s Experience,Consistency,Galileo and the Inquisition.He was elected to Congress in ’43. After fifteen years of labor he secured the women of Indiana independent rights of property. He became charge d’affaires at Naples in ’53. During the civil war he strongly advocated slave emancipation. Like his father he became a Spiritualist. Died at Lake George, 17 June, 1877.Paalzow(Christian Ludwig), German jurist, b. Osterburg (Altmark), 26 Nov. 1753, translated Voltaire’s commentaries onThe Spirit of the Lawsand Burigny’sExamination of the Apologists of Christianity(Leipzic, 1793), and wrote aHistory of Religious Cruelty(Mainz, 1800). Died 20 May, 1824.Paepe(Cesar de). SeeDe Paepe.Pagano(Francisco Mario Saverio Antonio Carlo Pasquale). Italian jurist, philosopher and patriot, b. Brienza, 1748. He studied at Naples, and became the friend of Filangieri. Was made professor of criminal law in 1787. For hisPolitical Essaysin three volumes (1783–92) he was accused of Atheism and impiety. He wrote onCriminal Processand a work onGod and Nature. Taking part in the Provisional Government of the Neapolitan Republic in 1791, he was taken prisoner by the royalists and executed 6 Oct. 1800.Page(David). Scotch geologist, b. 29 Aug. 1814. Author of introductory and advanced text-books of geology, which went through many editions. He gave advanced lectures in Edinburgh, and editedLife Lights of Song, ’64. HisMan Where, Whence, and Whither?, ’67, advocating Darwinian views, made some stir in Scotland. He became professor of geology at Durham University. A friend of Robert Chambers, he was for some time credited with that writer’sVestiges of Creation, in the scientific details of which he assisted. Died at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 9 March, 1879.Paget(Violet). English authoress, who, under the pen-name of “Vernon Lee,” has writtenStudies of the Eighteenth Century in ItalyandBaldwin, dialogues on views and aspirations 1886. Since ’71 she has lived chiefly in Florence, and contributes to the principal reviews, an article in theContemporary(May ’83) on “Responsibilities of Unbelief” being particularly noticeable. Miss Paget’s writings show a cultivated mind and true literary instinct.Pageze(L.) French Socialist; has written on the Concordat and the Budget des Cultes, ’86, Separation of Church and State, ’87, etc.Paine(Thomas), Deist, b. Thetford, Norfolk, 29 Jan., 1737. His father was a Quaker and staymaker, and Paine was brought up to the trade. He left home while still young, went to London and Sandwich, where he married the daughter ofanexciseman, and entered the excise. He was selected by his official associates to embody their wants in a paper, and on this work he displayed such talent that Franklin, then in London, suggested America as a good field for his abilities. Paine went in 1774, and soon found work for his pen. He became editor of thePennsylvanian Magazineand contributed to the Pennsylvanian journal a strong anti-slavery essay.Common Sense, published early in 1776, advocating absolute independence for America, did more than anything else to precipitate the great events of that year. Each number of theCrisis, which appeared during the war, was read by Washington’s order to each regiment in the service. Paine subscribed largely to the army, and served for a short time himself. After peace was declared, congress voted him three thousand dollars, and the state of New York gave him a large farm. Paine turned his attention to mechanics, and invented the tubular iron bridge, which he endeavored to introduce in Europe. Reaching France during the Revolution, he published a pamphlet advocating the abolition of royalty. In 1791 he published hisRights of Man, in reply to Burke. For this he was outlawed. Escaping from England, he went to France, where he was elected to the Convention. He stoutly opposed the execution of the king, and was thrown by Robespierre into the Luxembourg prison, where for nearly a year he awaited the guillotine. During this time he wrote the first part of theAge of Reason, which he completed on his release. This famous book, though vulnerable in some minor points of criticism, throws a flood of light on Christian dogmas, and has had a more extended sale than any other Freethought work. As a natural consequence, Paine has been an object of incessant slander by the clergy. Paine died at New York 8 June, 1809, and, by his own direction was buried on his farm at NewRochelle. Cobbett is said to have disinterred him and brought his bones to England.Pajot(François). SeeLiniere.Paleario(Aonio),i.e., Antonio, della Paglia, Italian humanist and martyr, b. about 1500 at Véroli in the Roman Campagna. In 1520 he went to Rome and took place among the brilliant men of letters of court of Leo X. After the taking of Rome by Charles V. he retired to Sienna. In 1536 he published at Lyons an elegant Latin poem on the Mortality of the Soul—modeled on Lucretius. He was Professor of Eloquence at Milan for ten years, but was accused of heresy. He had called the Inquisition a poignard directed against all men of letters. On 3 July, 1570, he was hung and his body thrown into the flames. A work on the Benefit of Christ’s Death has been attributed to him on insufficient grounds. It is attributed to Benedetto da Mantova.Pallas(Peter Simon), German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin, 22 Sept. 1741. Educated as a physician at Gottingen and Leyden, he was invited by Catherine II. to become Professor of Natural History at St. Petersburg. He travelled through Siberia and settled in the Crimea. In 1810 he returned to Berlin, where he died 8 Sept. 1811. Lalande spoke highly of him, and Cuvier considered him the founder of modern geology.Pallavicino(Ferrante), Italian poet and wit, b. Piacenza 1616. He became a canon of the Lateran congregation, but for composing some satirical pieces against Pope Urban VIII. had a price set on his head. He fled to Venice, but a false friend betrayed him to the Inquisition, and he was beheaded at Avignon, 5 March, 1644.Palmer(Courtlandt), American reformer, b. New York, 25 March, 1843, graduated at the Columbia law-school in ’69. He was brought up in the Dutch Reformed Church, but became a Freethinker while still young. Mr. Palmer did much to promote Liberal ideas. In ’80 he established and became President of the Nineteenth Century Club, for the utmost liberty of public discussion. He contributed to theFreethinker’s Magazine,Truthseeker, etc. A sister married Prof. Draper with whom he was intimate. Died at New York, 23 July, 1888, and wascremated at Fresh Pond, his friend Col. R. G. Ingersoll delivering an eulogium.Palmer(Elihu), American author, b. Canterbury, Connecticut, 1764. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1787, and studied divinity but became a deist in 1791. In 1793 he became totally blind from an attack of yellow fever. In 1797 he lectured to a Deistical Society in New York. After this he dictated hisPrinciples of Nature, 1802, a powerful anti-Christian work, reprinted by Carlile in ’19. He also wroteProspect or View of the Moral World from the year 1804. Palmer was the head of the Society of Columbian Illuminati founded in New York in 1801. He died in Philadelphia, 7 April, 1806.Panaetius(Παναίτιος), Stoic philosopher, b. Rhodes, a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic, and perhaps of Carneades. About 150B.C.he visited Rome and taught a moderate stoicism, denying the doctrine of the conflagration of the world, and placing physics before dialectics. He wrote a workOn Duties, to which Cicero expresses his indebtedness in hisDe Officiis. Died in Athens 111B.C.Pancoucke(Charles Joseph), eminent French publisher, b. Lille, 26 Nov. 1736. He settled at Paris and became acquainted with d’Alembert, Garat, etc., and was a correspondent of Rousseau, Buffon and Voltaire, whose works he brought out. He translated Lucretius, 1768, brought out theMercure de France, projected in 1781 the importantEncyclopédie Méthodique, of which there are 166 vols., and founded theMoniteur, 1789. Died at Paris, 19 Dec. 1798.Pantano(Eduardo), Italian author of a little book on the Sicilian Vespers and the Commune, Catania, 1882.Papillon(J. Henri Fernand), French philosophic writer, b. Belfort, 5 June, 1847. He wrote anIntroduction to Chemical Philosophy, ’65; contributed to theRevue de Philosophie Positiveand theRevue des Deux Mondes. Hisprincipalwork is entitledNature and Life, ’73. Died at Paris 31 Dec. 1873.Paquet(Henri Remi René), French writer, b. Charleville, 29 Sep. 1845. After studying under the Jesuits he went to Paris, where he became an advocate, but devoted his mainattention to literature. Under the anagram of “Nérée Quépat” he has publishedLa Lorgnette Philosophique, ’72,a dictionary of the great and little philosophers of our time, a study of La Mettrie entitledMaterialist Philosophy in the Eighteenth Centuryand other works.Pare(William), Owenite Social reformer, b. Birmingham,11 Aug.1805. Wrote an abridgment of Thompson’sDistribution of Wealth, also works onCapital and Labor’54,Co-operative Agriculture, at Rahaline, ’70, etc. He compiled vol. 1 of theBiography of Robert Owen. Died at Croydon, 18 June,1873.Parfait(Noel), French writer and politician, b. Chartres, 30 Nov. 1814. Took part in the revolution of ’30, and wrote many radical brochures. After the coup d’état he took refuge in Belgium. In ’71 was elected deputy and sat on the extreme left.Parfait(Paul), son of theforegoing, b. Paris, 1841. Author ofL’Arsenal de la Dévotion, ’76, Notes to serve for a history of superstition, and a supplementLe Dossier des Pélerinages, ’77, and other pieces. Died 1881.Parisot(Jean Patrocle), a Frenchman who wroteLa Foydevoiléepar la raison, 1681 [Faith Unveiled by Reason], a work whose title seems to have occasioned its suppression.Parker(Theodore), American rationalist, b. Lexington, Mass., 24 Aug. 1810. From his father—a Unitarian—he inherited independence of mind, courage, and love of speculation. Brought up in poverty he studied hard, and acquired a University education while laboring on the farm. In March, ’31, he became an assistant teacher at Boston. In June, ’37, he was ordained Unitarian minister. Parker gradually became known as an iconoclast, and study of the German critics made him a complete rationalist, so that even the Unitarian body rejected him. A society was established to give him a hearing in Boston, and soon his fame was established. HisDiscourse on Matters Pertaining to Religion, ’47, exhibited his fundamental views. He translated and enlarged De Wette’s Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. A fearless opponent of the Fugitive Slave Law, he sheltered slaves in his own house. Early in ’59 failing health compelled him to relinquish hisduties. Died at Florence, 10 May, 1860. He bequeathed his library of 13,000 volumes to the Boston Public Library.Parmenides, a Greek philosopher, b. Elea, Italy, 518B.C.Is said to have been a disciple of Xenophanes. He developed his philosophy about 470B.C.in a didactic poemOn Nature, fragments of which are preserved by Sextus Empiricus. He held to Reason as our guide, and considered nature eternal.Parny(ÉvaristeDésiréde Forgesde),Viscount. French poet, b. St. Paul, Isle of Bourbon, 6 Feb. 1753. Educated in France, he chose the military profession. A disappointed passion for a creole inspired his “Amatory Poems,” and he afterwards wrote the audaciousWar of the Gods,Paradise Lost, andThe Gallantries of the Bible. His poems, though erotic, are full of elegant charm, and he has been named the French Tibullus. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1803. Died at Paris, 5 Dec. 1814.Parton(James), author, b. Canterbury, England, 9 Feb. 1822. Was taken to the United States when a child and educated at New York. He married Miss Willis, “Fannie Fern,” and has written many biographies, including Lives of Thomas Jefferson, ’74, and of Voltaire, ’81. He has also written onTopics of the Time, ’71, andChurch Taxation. He resided in New York till ’75 when he removed to Newburyport, Massachusetts.Parvish(Samuel), Deistic author ofAn Inquiry into the Jewish and Christian Revelation(London, 1739), of which a second edition was issued in 1746.Pasquier(Étienne). French journalist, b. 7 April, 1529, at Paris.Brought up to the bar he became a successful pleader. He defended the Universities against the Jesuits, whom he also attacked in a bitter satire,Catéchisme desJésuites. Died Paris, 30 Aug. 1615.Passerano(AlbertoRadicatidi)count. Italian philosopher of last century, attached to the court of Victor Amedée II. For some pamphlets written against the Papal power he was pursued by the Inquisition and his goods seized. He lived in England and made the acquaintance of Collins, also in France and Holland, where he died about 1736, leaving his goods to the poor. In that year he published at RotterdamRecueil de Piècescurieuses sur les matieres les plus íntéressantes, etc., which contains aParallel between Mahomet and Sosem(anagram of Moses),an abridged history of the Sacerdotal Profession, and aFaithful and comic recital of the religion of modern cannibals, by Zelin Moslem; also aDissertation upon Death, which was published separately in 1733. TheRecueilwas republished at London in 1749. He also wrote a pretended translation from an Arabic work on Mohammedanism, satirising the Bible, and a pretended sermon by Elwall the Quaker.Pasteur(Louis). French scientist b. Dôle, 27 Dec 1822, became doctor in ’47 and professor of physic at Strassburg in ’48. He received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in ’56 for his discoveries in polarisation and molecular chemistry. Decorated with the Legion of honor in ’53, he was made commander ’68 and grand officer ’78. His researches into innoculation have been much contested, but his admirers have raised a large institute for the prosecution of his treatment. He was elected to the Academy as successor of Littré. He gave his name as Vice-President of the British Secular Union.Pastoret(Claude Emmanuel Joseph Pierre de),Marquis, French statesman and writer, b. of noble family at Marseilles, 25 Oct. 1756. Educated by the Oratorians at Lyons, in 1779 he published anElege de Voltaire. By his works onZoroaster, Confucius and Mahomet(1787) and onMoses Considered as Legislator and Moralist(1788) he did something for the infant science of comparative religion. His principal work is a learnedHistory of Legislation, in 11 vols. (1817–37), in which he passes in review all the ancient codes. He embraced the Revolution, and became President of the Legislative Assembly (3 Oct. 1791). He proposed the erection of the Column of July on the Place of the Bastille, and the conversion of the church of Ste Geneviève into the Pantheon. On the 19th June, 1792, he presented a motion for the complete separation of the state from religion. He fled during the Terror, but returned as deputy in 1795. In 1820 he succeeded his friend Volney as member of the French Academy, in ’23 received the cross of the Legion of Honor, and in ’29 became Chancellor of France. Died at Paris, 28 Sept. 1840.Pater(Walter Horatio), English writer, b. London, 4 Aug.1839. B.A. at Oxford in ’62, M.A. in ’65. Has written charming essays in theWestminster Review,Macmillan, and theFortnightly Review. In ’73 he publishedThe Renaissance, and in ’85Marius the Epicurean, His Sensations and Ideas.Paterson(Thomas), b. near Lanark early in this century. After the imprisonment of Southwell and Holyoake he edited theOracle of Reason. For exhibiting profane placards he was arrested and sentenced 27 Jan. 1843 to three months’ imprisonment. His trial was reported under the titleGodv.Paterson(’43.) He insisted on considering God as the plaintiff and in quoting from “the Jew book” to show the plaintiff’s bad character. When released he went to Scotland to uphold the right of free publication, and was sentenced 8 Nov. ’43 to fifteen months’ imprisonment for selling “blasphemous” publications at Edinburgh. On his release he was presented with a testimonial 6 April, 1845, H. Hetherington presiding. Paterson went to America.Patin(Gui), French physician, writer, and wit, b. near Beauvais 31 Aug. 1602. He became professor at the college of France. His reputation is chiefly founded on hisLetters, in which he attacked superstition. Larousse says “C’étaitun libre penseur de la famille de Rabelais.” Died at Paris 30 Aug. 1672.Patot. SeeTyssot de Patot (S.)Pauw(Cornelius), learned Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, 1739. He wrote philosophical researches on the Americans, and also on the Egyptians, Chinese, and Greeks. Was esteemed by Frederick the Great for his ingenuity and penetration. Died at Xanten, 7 July, 1799. He was the uncle of Anacharsis Clootz.Peacock(John Macleay), Scotch poet, b. 21 March, 1817. He wrote many poems in theNational Reformer, and in ’67 publishedHours of Reverie. Died 4 May, 1877.PeacockorPecock(Reginald), the father of English rationalism, b. about 1390, and educated at Oriel College Oxford, of which he was chosen fellow in 1417. Was successively Bishop of St Asaph, 1444, and Chichester, 1450, by the favor of Humphrey, the good Duke of Gloster. He declared that Scripture must in all cases be accommodated to “thedoom of reason.” He questioned the genuineness of the Apostles’ Creed. In 1457 he was accused of heresy, recanted from fear of martyrdom, was deprived of his bishopric, and imprisoned in a monastery at Canterbury, where he used to repeat to those who visited him,

Montesquieu(Charles deSecondat),Baron, eminent French writer, b. near Bordeaux, 18 Jan. 1689. His first literary performance was entitledPersian Letters, 1721. In 1728 he was admitted a member of the French Academy, though opposed by Cardinal Fleury on the ground that his writings were dangerous to religion. His chief work is theSpirit of Laws, 1748. This work was one of the first-fruits of the positive spirit in history and jurisprudence. The chapters on Slavery are written in a vein of masterly irony, whichVoltaire pronounced to be worthy of Molière. Died 10 Feb. 1755.

Montgomery(Edmund), Dr. philosopher, b. of Scotch parents, Edinburgh 1835. In youth he lived at Frankfort, where he saw Schopenhauer, and afterwards attended atHeidelbergthe lectures of Moleschott and Kuno Fischer. He became a friend of Feuerbach. He wrote in German and published at Munich in ’71,The Kantian Theory of Knowledge refuted from the Empirical Standpoint. In ’67 he published a small book On the Formation of so-called Cells in Animal Bodies.In ’71 he went to Texas and prosecuted his scientific studies on life. He has written in thePopular Science Monthly,The Index, andThe Open CourtandMind. Dr. Montgomery holds not only that there is no evidence of a God, but that there is evidence to the contrary.

Montgolfier(Michel Joseph), aeronaut,b. Aug. 1740. He was the first to ascend in an air balloon, 5 June 1783. A friend of Delambre and La Lalande, he was on the testimony of this last an atheist. Died 26 June 1810.

Mook(Friedrich) German writer, b. Bergzabern, 29 Sept. 1844, studied philosophy and theology at Tübingen, but gave up the latter to study medicine. He lived as a writer at Heidelberg and became lecturer to a free congregation at Nürenburg, and wrote a popularLife of Jesus, published at Zürich, ’72–3. He travelled abroad and was drowned in the river Jordan, 13 Dec. 1880. His brother Kurt, b. 12 Feb. 1847, is a physician who has published some poems.

Moor(Edmund), Major in the East Indian Company, author of theHindu Pantheon, 1810 andOriental Fragments, ’34. Died 1840.

Moreau(Hégésippe), French poet, b. Paris 9, April 1810. A radical and freethinker, he fought in the barricades in ’30. Wrote songs and satires of considerable merit, and a prose work entitledTheMistletoeand the Oak. His life, which was a continual struggle with misery, terminated in a hospital, 20 Dec. 1838. His works have been collected, with an introduction by Sainte-Beuve.

Moreau(Jacques Joseph), Dr. of Tours, b. Montresor, 1804.He became a distinguished alienist of the materialist school, and wrote on Moral Faculties from a medical point of view, ’36, and many physiological works.

Morelly, French socialist of the eighteenth century, b. Vitry-le-Français, author of a work calledCode de la Nature, sometimes attributed to Diderot. It was published in 1755, and urges that man should find circumstances in which depravity is minimised.

Morgan(Thomas), Welsh Deist, known by the title of his book asThe Moral Philosopher, 1737. Was a Presbyterian, but was deposed for Arianism about 1723, and practised medicine at Bristol. He edited Radicati’s Dissertation on Death, 1731. HisMoral Philosopherseeks to substitute morality for religion. He calls Moses “a more fabulous romantic writer than Homer or Ovid,” and attacks the evidence of miracles and prophecy. This was supplemented byA Further Vindication of Moral Truth and Reason, 1739, and Superstition and Tyranny Inconsistent with Theocracy, 1740. He replied to his opponents over the signature “Philalethes.” His last work was on Physico-Theology, 1741. Lechler calls Morgan “the modern Marcion.” Died at London, 14 Jan. 1743.

Morgan(Sir Thomas Charles), M.D., b. 1783. Educated at Cambridge. In 1811 he was made a baronet, and married Miss Sidney Owensen. A warm friend of civil and religious liberty and a sceptic, he is author ofSketches of the Philosophy of Life, ’18, and thePhilosophy of Morals, ’19. TheExaminersays, “He was never at a loss for a witty or wise passage from Rabelais or Bayle.” Died 28 Aug. 1843.

Morin(André Saturnin), French writer, b. Chatres, 28 Nov. 1807. Brought up to the law, and became an advocate. In ’30 he wrote defending the revolution against the restoration. In ’48 he was made sous-prefet of Nogent. During the Empire he combated vigorously for Republicanism and Freethought, writing under the signature “Miron,” in theRationalisteof Geneva, theLibre Penséeof Paris, theLibero-pensieroof Milan, and other papers. He was intimately associated with Ausonio Franchi, Trezza, Stefanoni, and the Italian Freethinkers. His principal work is anExamination of Christianity, in three volumes, ’62. HisJesus Reduced to his True Valuehas gonethrough several editions. HisEssai de Critique Religieuse, ’85, is an able work. M. Morin was one of the founders of theBibliothèque Démocratique, to which he contributed several anti-clerical volumes, the one onConfessionbeing translated into English by Dr. J. R. Beard. In ’76 he was elected on the Municipal Council of Paris, where he brought forward the question of establishing a crematorium. Died at Paris, 5 July, 1888, and was cremated at Milan.

Morison(James Augustus Cotter), English Positivist and man of letters, b. London, 1831. Graduated at Lincoln Coll. Oxford, M.A., ’59. In ’63 he published theLife and Times of Saint Bernard. He was one of the founders of theFortnightly Review, in which he wrote, as well as in theAthenæum. He contributed monographs on Gibbon and Macaulay to Morley’s “Men of Letters” Series. In ’86 he published his striking workThe Service of Man, an Essay towards the Religion of the Future, which shows that the benefits of Christianity have been much exaggerated and its evils palpable. All his writings are earnest and thoughtful. He collected books and studied to write a History of France, which would have been a noble contribution to literature; but the possession of a competence seems to have weakened his industry, and he never did justice to his powers. Even theService of Manwas postponed until he was no longer able to complete it as he intended. Morison was a brilliant talker, and the centre of a wide circle of friends. George Meredith dedicated to him a volume of poems. Died at Hampstead, 26 Feb. 1888.

Morley(John), English writer and statesman, b. Blackburn, 24 Dec. 1838, educated at Oxford. Among his fellow students was J.C. Morison. He contributed toThe Leaderand theSaturday Review, edited theMorning Star, and theFortnightly Review, ’67–82, in which appeared the germs of most of his works, such asOn Compromise,Voltaire, ’72;Rousseau, ’73;Diderot and the Encyclopædists’78. During his editorship important Freethought papers appeared in that review. From May, ’80 till Aug. ’83 he edited thePall Mall Gazette. Upon the death of Ashton Dilke, M.P., he was elected to Parliament for Newcastle, and in Feb. ’86 was appointed by Mr. Gladstone Chief Secretary for Ireland.

Morselli(Enrico Agostino), Italian doctor and scientist, b. Modena, 1852. Has written many anthropological works, notably one onSuicidein the International Scientific Series, and a study on “The Religion of Mazzini.” He edits theRivista di Filosofia Scientifica, and has translated Herbert Spencer on the past and future of religion.

Mortillet(Louis Laurent Gabriel de), French scientist, b. Meylan (Isère), 29 Aug. 1821, and was educated by Jesuits. Condemned in ’49 for his political writings he took refuge in Switzerland. He has done much to promote prehistoric studies in France. Has writtenMaterials to serve for the positive and philosophical history of man, ’64.The Sign of the Cross before Christianity, ’66,Contribution to the History of Superstition, andPrehistoric Antiquity of Man, ’82. He contributed to theRevue Indépendante,Pensée Nouvelle, etc. M. de Mortillet is curator of the Museum of St. Germain and was elected Deputy in 1885.

Moss(Arthur B.), lecturer and writer, b. 8 May, 1855. Has written numerous pamphlets, a number of which are collected inWaves of Freethought, ’85. Others areNature and the Gods,Man and the Lower Animals,Two Revelations, etc. Mr. Moss has been a contributor to theSecular Chronicle,Secular Review,Freethinker,Truthseeker, and other journals, and has had a written debate on “Was Jesus God or Man.” A School Board officer, he was for a time prohibited from lecturing on Sunday. A collection of hisLectures and Essayshas been published, 1889.

Mothe Le Vayer.SeeLa Mothe Le Vayer.

Mott(Lucretia), American reformer,neeCoffin, b. Nantucket, 3 Jan. 1793. She was a Quakeress, but on the division of the Society in 1827 went with the party who preferred conscience to revelation. A strong opponent of slavery, she took an active part in the abolitionist movement. She was delegated to the World’s Anti-slavery Convention in London in 1840, but excluded on account of her sex. A friend of Mrs. Rose and Mrs. Stanton. Took an active part in Women’s Rights conventions. Died at Philadelphia, 11 Nov. 1880.

Muhammadibn al Hudailal Basri, philosopher of Asia Minor, founder of the Muhammadan Freethinking sect of Mutazilah, b. about 757. Died about 849.

Muhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan(Abu Nasr.) SeeAlpharabius.

Muhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Bajjat.SeeAvempace.

Muhammad Jalal ed din.SeeAkbar.

Muller(Dr. H. C.) Dutch writer, b. 31 Oct. 1855. Has contributed good articles tode Dageraad(the Daybreak), and is now teacher of modern Greek at the University of Amsterdam.

Murger(Henri), French author, b. Paris, 1822, contributed to theRevue des Deux Mondes, tales poems and dramas. In his poemLe Testamentin “Winter Nights” he says in answer to the inquiring priest “Reponds lui que j’ai lu Voltaire.” His most popular work is entitledScenes of Bohemian Life. Died Paris, 28 Jan. 1861.

Musset(Louis Charles Alfred de), French poet, b. Paris, 11 Nov. 1810. Before the age of twenty he became one of the leaders of the Romantic school. His prose romance,Confession d’un Enfant du Siècle, ’36, exhibits his intellectual development and pessimistic moods. Among his finest works are four poems entitledNuits. He contributed to theRevue des Deux Mondes, and was admitted into the Academy in ’52. Died at Paris 1 May, 1857.

Naber(Samuel Adriaan), learned Dutch writer, b. Gravenhage, 16 July, 1828. Studied at Leyden and became rector of the Haarlem gymnasium, and head teacher at the Amsterdam Athenæum. He has edited a journal of literature, and is joint author with Dr. A. Pierson of Verisimilia (1886), a Latin work showing the fragmentary and disjointed character of the Epistles attributed to Paul.

Nachtigal(Gustav.), Dr., German traveller, b. Eichstadt, 23 Feb. 1834. He studied medicine, went to Algiers and Tunis, became private physician to the Bey of Tunis, explored North Africa, and wrote an account thereof,Sahara und Sudan. He became German Consul General at Tunis, and died 20 April, 1885.

Naigeon(Jacques André), French atheist, b. Dijon 1728. At first an art student, he became a disciple and imitator of Diderot. He became copyist to and collaborator with Holbach and conveyed his works to Amsterdam to be printed. Hecontributed to the Encyclopédie, notably the articlesAmeandUnitairesand composed theMilitaire Philosophe, or difficulties on religion proposed to Father Malebranche, 1768. This was his first work, the last chapter being written by Holbach. He took some share in several of the works of that writer, notably in theTheologie Portative. He published theRecuéil Philosophique, 2 vols., Londres (Amst.), 1770; edited Holbach’s Essay on Prejudices and hisMorale Universelle. He also edited the works of Diderot, the essays of Montaigne and a translation of Toland’s philosophical letters. His principal work is the Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Philosophy in theEncyclopédie Méthodique(Paris 1791–94.) He addressed the National Assembly on Liberty of Opinion, 1790, and asked them to withhold the name of God and religion from their declaration of the rights of man. Naigeon was of estimable character. Died at Paris, 28 Feb. 1810.

Naquet(Joseph Alfred). French materialist, b. Carpentras, 6 Oct. 1834, became M.D. in ’59. In ’67 he received fifteen months imprisonment for belonging to a secret society. He founded, with M. Regnard, theRevue Encyclopédique, which was suppressed at once for containing an attack on theism. In ’69 he issued a work onReligion, Property, and Family, which was seized and the author condemned to four months imprisonment, a fine of five hundred francs, and the perpetual interdict of civil rights. He represented Vaucluse in the National Assembly, where he has voted with the extreme left. He was re-elected in ’81. The new law of divorce in France has been passed chiefly through M. Naquet’s energetic advocacy. In ’83 he was elected to the Senate, and of late has distinguished himself by his advocacy of General Boulanger.

Nascimento(Francisco Manuel do).Portuguesepoet, b. Lisbon, 23 Dec, 1734. He entered the Church, but having translated Molière’sTartuffe, was accused of heresy (1778), and had to fly for his life from the Inquisition. He wrote many poems and satires under the name of “Filinto Elysio.” Died 25 Feb. 1819.

Navez(Napoleon), Belgian Freethinker, president ofLa Libre Pensée, of Antwerp, and active member of the Council of the International Federation of Freethinkers.

Nelson(Gustave), a writer in the New YorkTruthseeker, conjectured to be the author ofBible Myths and their Parallels in other Religions, a large and learned work, showing how much of Christianity has been taken from Paganism.

Newcomb(Simon), LL.D., American astronomer, b. Wallace, (Nova Scotia), 12 March, 1835. Went to the United States in ’53, and was appointed computor on theNautical Almanack. In ’77 he became senior professor of mathematics in the U. S. navy. He has been associated with the equipment of the Lick observatory, and has written many works on mathematics and astronomy, as well asPrinciples of Political Economy, 1885.

Newman(Francis William) brother of Cardinal Newman, b. London 1805. Educated at Oxford, he was elected to a fellowship at Balliol College ’26, but resigned in ’30, being unable conscientiously to comply with the regulations of the Test Act then in force. He then went to Bagdad with the object of assisting in a Christian mission, but his further studies convinced him he could not conscientiously undertake the work. He returned to England and became classical teacher in Bristol College, and subsequently Latin Professor at London University. InThe Soul: its Sorrows and Aspirations, ’49, he states his Theistic position, and inPhases of Faith, ’50, he explains how he came to give up Christianity. He has also writtenA History of the Hebrew Monarchy, ’47,Theism: Doctrinal and Practical, ’58, and a number of Scott’s tracts on the Defective Morality of the New Testament, the Historical Depravation of Christianity, the Religious Weakness of Protestantism, etc. AlsoReligion not History, ’77;What is Christianity without Christ?’81;Christianity in its Cradle, ’84; andLife after Death, ’86.

Neymann(Clara), German American Freethought lecturess, friend and colleague of Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi.

Nicholson(William), English writer on chemistry and natural philosophy, b. London 1753. He went to India at an early age, and upon returning settled at London as a Mathematical teacher. He published useful introductions to chemistry and natural philosophy. Conducted the British Encyclopedia, and the Journal of Natural Philosophy. He also wroteThe Doubts of the Infidels, submitted to the Bench ofBishops by a weak Christian, 1781, a work republished by Carlile and also by Watson. He died in poor circumstances 21 May, 1815.

Nicolai(Christoph Friedrich), German writer, b. Berlin, 18 March, 1733. A friend of Lessing, and Moses Mendelssohn; he was noted for founding “The Universal German Library.” He wrote anecdotes of Friedrich II., and many other works. Died at Berlin, 8 Jan. 1811.

Nietzsche(Friedrich Wilhelm), German writer, b. Lutzen, 15 Oct. 1844, author of sketches of Strauss, Schopenhauer, and Wagner, and ofMorgenröthe, and other philosophical works. Died 1889.

Nieuwenhuis(Ferdinand Jakob Domela), Dutch publicist, b. Utrecht, 3 May, 1848. At first a minister of the Lutheran church, on Nov. 25, ’77, he told his congregation that he had ceased to believe in Christianity, and as an honest man resigned. He then contributed toDe Banier(Banner)de Dageraad(Dawn) andde Vragen des Tijds(Questions of the time.) On 1st March, ’79 he started a Socialist paperRecht voor Allen, now an important daily organ of Socialism and Freethought. His principle writings are—With Jesus,For or against Socialism,The Religious Oath Question,The Religion of Reason,The Religion of Humanity. On Jan. 19, ’87, he was sentenced to one years’ solitary confinement for an article he had not written, and was harshly treated till upon pressure of public opinion, he was liberated 30 Aug. 1887. He is now member of the Dutch Parliament.

Noeldeke(Theodor), German Orientalist, b. Harburg, 2 March, 1836. Studied at Gottingen, Vienna, Leyden, and Berlin, and has been professor of oriental studies at Gottingen, Kiel, and Strasburg. He has written aHistory of the Koran, ’56; aLife of Mahomet, ’63; and aLiterary History of the Old Testament, which has been translated into French by MM. Derembourg and J. Soury, ’73.

Noire(Ludwig), German monist, b. 26 March, 1829. Studied at Geissen, and became a teacher at Mainz. His works show the influence of Spinoza and Schopenhauer. He is the author of Aphorisms on the Monist philosophy, ’77, and a work on the Origin of Speech, ’77. He contends that language originates ininstinctive sounds accompanying will in associative actions. Died 26 March, 1889.

Noorthouck(John), author of aHistory of London, 1773, and an Historical and Classical Dictionary, 1776. Has been credited with theLife of the Man After God’s Own Heart. SeeAnnet.

Nordau(Max Simon), b. of Jewish parents at Pesth, 29 July, 1849. He became a physician in ’73. He has written several books of travels and made some noise by his trenchant work onConvential Lies of our Civilisation. He has since written onThe Sickness of the Century.

Nork(Felix). SeeKorn (Selig).

Nott(Josiah Clark), Dr., American ethnologist, b. Columbia, South Carolina, 24 March, 1804. He wroteThe Physical History of the Jewish Race,Types of Mankind, ’54, andIndigenous Races of the Earth, ’55; the last two conjointly with G. R. Gliddon, and with the object of disproving the theory of the unity of the human race. Died at Mobile, 31 March, 1873.

Noun(Paul), French author ofThe Scientific Errors of the Bible, 1881.

Noyes(Thomas Herbert), author ofHymns of Modern Man, 1870.

Nunez(Rafael), President of Columbia, b. Carthagena, 28 Sept. 1825. He has written many poems and political articles, and in philosophy is a follower of Mill and Spencer.

Nuytz(Louis André). SeeAndre-Nuytz.

Nystrom(Anton Christen), Dr. Swedish Positivist, b. 15 Feb. 1842. Studied at Upsala and became a medical doctor in Lund, ’68. He served as assistant and field doctor in the Dano-Prussian war of ’67, and now practises an alienist in Stockholm, where he has established a Positivist Society and Workmen’s Institute. Has written aHistory of Civilisation.

Ocellus Lucanus, early Greek philosopher, who maintained the eternity of the cosmos. An edition of his work was published with a translation by the Marquis d’Argens, and Thomas Taylor published an English version.

Ochino(Bernardino Tommasini), Italian reformer, b. Sienna, 1487. A popular preacher, he was chosen general of the Capuchins. Converted to the Reformation by Jean Valdez, hehad to fly to Geneva, 1542. Invited to England by Cranmer, he became prebend of Canterbury and preached in London until the accession of Mary, when he was expelled and went to Zurich. Here he became an Antitrinitarian, and was banished about 1562 forThirty Dialogues, in one of which he shows that neither in the Bible nor the Fathers is there any express prohibition of polygamy. He went to Poland and joined the Socinians, was banished thence also, and died Slaukau, Moravia, in 1564. Beza ascribes the misfortunes of Ochinus, and particularly the accidental death of his wife, to the special interposition of God on account of his erroneous opinions.

O’Connor(Arthur, afterwards Condorcet), General, b. Mitchells, near Bandon (Cork), 4 July, 1768. Joined the United Irishmen and went to France to negotiate for military aid. In May 1798 he was tried for treason and acquitted. He entered the French service and rose to distinction. In 1807 he married Elisa, the only daughter of Condorcet, whose name he took, and whose works he edited. He also edited theJournal of Religious Freedom. Died at Bignon, 25 April, 1852.

O’Donoghue(Alfred H.) Irish American counsellor at law, b. about 1840. Educated for the Episcopal ministry at Trinity College, Dublin, but became a sceptic and publishedTheology and Mythology, an inquiry into the claims of Biblical inspiration and the supernatural element in religion, at New York, 1880.

Oest(Johann Heinrich) German poet, b. Cassel 1727. Wrote poems published at Hamburg, 1751, and was accused of materialism.

Offen(Benjamin), American Freethinker, b. in England, 1772. He emigrated to New York, where he became lecturer to the Society of Moral Philantropists at Tammany Hall. He wroteBiblical CriticismandA Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, and supported theCorrespondent,Free Inquirer, andBoston Investigator. Died New York, 12 May, 1848.

Offray de la Mettrie(Julian). SeeLamettrie.

O’Keefe(J. A.), M.D. Educated in Germany; author of an essayOn the Progress of the Human Understanding, 1795, in which he speaks disparagingly of Christianity. He was afollower of Kant, and was classed withLiving Authors of Great Britainin 1816.

O’Kelly(Edmund de Pentheny), a descendant of the O’Kelly’s; author ofConsciousness, or the Age of Reason, 1853;Theological Papers, published by Holyoake; andTheology for the People, ’55, a series of short papers suggestive of religious Theism.

Oken(Lorenz), German morphologist and philosopher, b. Offenburg, 2 Aug. 1779. He studied at Göttingen and became aprivat-docentin that university. In a remarkableSketch of Natural Philosophy, 1802, he advanced a scheme of evolution. He developed his system in a work onGeneration, 1805, and aManual of Natural Philosophy, 1809. He was professor at Jena, but dismissed for his liberal views. From ’17 till ’48 he edited the scientific journalIsis. In ’32 he became a professor at Zürich, where he died, 11 Aug. 1851.

Oliver(William), M.D., of Bath, who was accused of Atheism. Died 1764.

Omar Khayyam.SeeKhayyam.

Omboni(Giovanni), Lombard naturalist, b. Abbiategrasso, 29 June, 1829. Is professor of geology at Padua, and author of many scientific works.

Onimus(Ernest Nicolas Joseph), Dr., French Positivist, b. near Mulhouse, 6 Dec. 1840. Studied medicine at Strasburg and Paris, and wrote a treatise onThe Dynamical Theory of Heat in Biological Sciences, 1866. In ’73 he was one of the jury of the Vienna Exhibition, and obtained the Cross of the Legion of Honor. Is author of thePsychology in the Plays of Shakespere, ’78, and has written in theRevue Positiveand other periodicals.

Oort(Henricus), Dutch rationalist, b. Eemnes, 27 Dec. 1836. Studied theology at Leyden, and became teacher at Amsterdam. Has written many works, of which we mentionThe Worship of Baalim in Israel, translated by Bp. Colenso, 1865, andThe Bible for Young People, written with Drs. Hooykaas and Kuenen, and translated by P. H. Wickstead, 1873–79.

Orelli(Johann Kaspar von), learned Swiss critic, b. Zürich, 13 Feb. 1789. Edited many classics, and wrote a letter infavor of Strauss at the time when there was an outcry at his being appointed Professor at Zürich. Died 6 Jan. 1849.

Osborne(Francis), English writer, b. Clucksand, Beds. 1589. Was an adherent of Cromwell in the Civil War. HisAdvice to a Son, 1656, was popular though much censured by the Puritans who drew up a complaint against his works and proposed to have them burnt, and an order was passed 27 July, 1658, forbidding them to be sold. Died 1659.

Oscar(L.), Swiss writer, author ofReligion Traced Back to its Source, Basel, 1874. He considers religion “a belief in conflict with experience and resting on exaggerated fancies” of animism and mythology. One of his chapters is entitled “The Crucifixion of the Son of God as Christian mythology.”

Ossoli(Countess d’). SeeFuller (Margaret).

Oswald(Eugen), German teacher in England. Author of many popular school books, and a Study of Positivism in England, 1884.

Oswald(Felix Leopold), American writer, b. Belgium, 1845. Educated as a physician, he has devoted his attention to natural history, and in pursuit of his studies has travelled extensively. He has contributed to thePopular Science Monthly,The Truthseekerand other journals, and has publishedSummerland Sketches, or Rambles in the Backwoods of Mexico and Central America, ’81; Physical Education, ’82;The Secrets of the East, ’83, which argues that Christianity is derived from Buddhism, andThe Bible of Natureor the Principles of Secularism, ’88. Dr. Oswald is now employed as Curator of Natural History in Brazil.

O’Toole(Adam Duff), Irish Freethought martyr, burnt to death at Hogging (now College) Green, Dublin, in 1327. Holinshed says he “denied obstinatelie the incarnation of our savior, the trinitie of persons in the vnitie of the Godhead and the resurrection of the flesh; as for the Holie Scripture, he said it was but a fable; the Virgin Marie he affirmed to be a woman of dissolute life, and theApostolicsee erronious.”

“Ouida,” See Ramée (Louise de la).

Ouvry(Henry Aimé), Col., translator of Feuchterslebens,Dietetics of the Souland Rau’sUnsectarian Catechism, and author of several works on the land question.

Overton(Richard), English Republican, who wrote a satire on relics, 1642, and a treatise onMan’s Mortality(London, 1643, Amsterdam, 1644) a work designed to show man is naturally mortal.

Owen(Robert), social reformer, b. Newton, Montgomeryshire, Wales, 14 March, 1771. At 18 he was so distinguished by his business talents that he became partner in a cotton mill. In 1797 he married the daughter of David Dale, and soon afterwards became partner and sole manager at New Lanark Mills, where he built the first infant schools and improved the dwellings of the workmen. From 1810–15 he publishedNew Views on Society, or, Essays on the Formation of Character. In ’17 he caused much excitement by proclaiming that the religions of the world were all false, and that man was the creature of circumstances. In ’24 he went to America and purchased New Harmony, Indiana, from the Rappists to found a new community, but the experiment was a failure, as were also others at Orbiston, Laner, and Queenswood, Hants. In ’28 he debated at Cincinatti with Alex. Campbell on the Evidences of Christianity. He published a numerous series of tracts,Robert Owen’s Journal, andThe New Moral World, ’35. He debated on his Social System with the Rev. J. H. Roebuck, R. Brindley, etc. As his mind began to fail he accepted the teachings of Spiritism. Died Newton, 17 Nov. 1858. Owen profoundly influenced the thought of his time in the direction of social amelioration, and he is justly respected for his energy, integrity and disinterested philanthropy.

Owen(Robert Dale), son of the above, b. Glasgow 9 Nov. 1800. Was educated by his father till 1820, when he was sent to Fellenberg’s school, near Berne, Switzerland. In ’25 he went to America to aid in the efforts to found a colony at New Harmony, Indiana. On the failure of that experiment he began with Frances Wright, in Nov. ’28, the publication of theFree Inquirer, which was continued till ’32. In that year he had a written discussion with O. Bachelor on the existence of God, and the authenticity of the Bible, in which he ably championed the Freethought cause. He wrote a number of tracts of which we mentionSituations, 1839;Address on Free Inquiry, 1840;Prossimo’s Experience,Consistency,Galileo and the Inquisition.He was elected to Congress in ’43. After fifteen years of labor he secured the women of Indiana independent rights of property. He became charge d’affaires at Naples in ’53. During the civil war he strongly advocated slave emancipation. Like his father he became a Spiritualist. Died at Lake George, 17 June, 1877.

Paalzow(Christian Ludwig), German jurist, b. Osterburg (Altmark), 26 Nov. 1753, translated Voltaire’s commentaries onThe Spirit of the Lawsand Burigny’sExamination of the Apologists of Christianity(Leipzic, 1793), and wrote aHistory of Religious Cruelty(Mainz, 1800). Died 20 May, 1824.

Paepe(Cesar de). SeeDe Paepe.

Pagano(Francisco Mario Saverio Antonio Carlo Pasquale). Italian jurist, philosopher and patriot, b. Brienza, 1748. He studied at Naples, and became the friend of Filangieri. Was made professor of criminal law in 1787. For hisPolitical Essaysin three volumes (1783–92) he was accused of Atheism and impiety. He wrote onCriminal Processand a work onGod and Nature. Taking part in the Provisional Government of the Neapolitan Republic in 1791, he was taken prisoner by the royalists and executed 6 Oct. 1800.

Page(David). Scotch geologist, b. 29 Aug. 1814. Author of introductory and advanced text-books of geology, which went through many editions. He gave advanced lectures in Edinburgh, and editedLife Lights of Song, ’64. HisMan Where, Whence, and Whither?, ’67, advocating Darwinian views, made some stir in Scotland. He became professor of geology at Durham University. A friend of Robert Chambers, he was for some time credited with that writer’sVestiges of Creation, in the scientific details of which he assisted. Died at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 9 March, 1879.

Paget(Violet). English authoress, who, under the pen-name of “Vernon Lee,” has writtenStudies of the Eighteenth Century in ItalyandBaldwin, dialogues on views and aspirations 1886. Since ’71 she has lived chiefly in Florence, and contributes to the principal reviews, an article in theContemporary(May ’83) on “Responsibilities of Unbelief” being particularly noticeable. Miss Paget’s writings show a cultivated mind and true literary instinct.

Pageze(L.) French Socialist; has written on the Concordat and the Budget des Cultes, ’86, Separation of Church and State, ’87, etc.

Paine(Thomas), Deist, b. Thetford, Norfolk, 29 Jan., 1737. His father was a Quaker and staymaker, and Paine was brought up to the trade. He left home while still young, went to London and Sandwich, where he married the daughter ofanexciseman, and entered the excise. He was selected by his official associates to embody their wants in a paper, and on this work he displayed such talent that Franklin, then in London, suggested America as a good field for his abilities. Paine went in 1774, and soon found work for his pen. He became editor of thePennsylvanian Magazineand contributed to the Pennsylvanian journal a strong anti-slavery essay.Common Sense, published early in 1776, advocating absolute independence for America, did more than anything else to precipitate the great events of that year. Each number of theCrisis, which appeared during the war, was read by Washington’s order to each regiment in the service. Paine subscribed largely to the army, and served for a short time himself. After peace was declared, congress voted him three thousand dollars, and the state of New York gave him a large farm. Paine turned his attention to mechanics, and invented the tubular iron bridge, which he endeavored to introduce in Europe. Reaching France during the Revolution, he published a pamphlet advocating the abolition of royalty. In 1791 he published hisRights of Man, in reply to Burke. For this he was outlawed. Escaping from England, he went to France, where he was elected to the Convention. He stoutly opposed the execution of the king, and was thrown by Robespierre into the Luxembourg prison, where for nearly a year he awaited the guillotine. During this time he wrote the first part of theAge of Reason, which he completed on his release. This famous book, though vulnerable in some minor points of criticism, throws a flood of light on Christian dogmas, and has had a more extended sale than any other Freethought work. As a natural consequence, Paine has been an object of incessant slander by the clergy. Paine died at New York 8 June, 1809, and, by his own direction was buried on his farm at NewRochelle. Cobbett is said to have disinterred him and brought his bones to England.

Pajot(François). SeeLiniere.

Paleario(Aonio),i.e., Antonio, della Paglia, Italian humanist and martyr, b. about 1500 at Véroli in the Roman Campagna. In 1520 he went to Rome and took place among the brilliant men of letters of court of Leo X. After the taking of Rome by Charles V. he retired to Sienna. In 1536 he published at Lyons an elegant Latin poem on the Mortality of the Soul—modeled on Lucretius. He was Professor of Eloquence at Milan for ten years, but was accused of heresy. He had called the Inquisition a poignard directed against all men of letters. On 3 July, 1570, he was hung and his body thrown into the flames. A work on the Benefit of Christ’s Death has been attributed to him on insufficient grounds. It is attributed to Benedetto da Mantova.

Pallas(Peter Simon), German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin, 22 Sept. 1741. Educated as a physician at Gottingen and Leyden, he was invited by Catherine II. to become Professor of Natural History at St. Petersburg. He travelled through Siberia and settled in the Crimea. In 1810 he returned to Berlin, where he died 8 Sept. 1811. Lalande spoke highly of him, and Cuvier considered him the founder of modern geology.

Pallavicino(Ferrante), Italian poet and wit, b. Piacenza 1616. He became a canon of the Lateran congregation, but for composing some satirical pieces against Pope Urban VIII. had a price set on his head. He fled to Venice, but a false friend betrayed him to the Inquisition, and he was beheaded at Avignon, 5 March, 1644.

Palmer(Courtlandt), American reformer, b. New York, 25 March, 1843, graduated at the Columbia law-school in ’69. He was brought up in the Dutch Reformed Church, but became a Freethinker while still young. Mr. Palmer did much to promote Liberal ideas. In ’80 he established and became President of the Nineteenth Century Club, for the utmost liberty of public discussion. He contributed to theFreethinker’s Magazine,Truthseeker, etc. A sister married Prof. Draper with whom he was intimate. Died at New York, 23 July, 1888, and wascremated at Fresh Pond, his friend Col. R. G. Ingersoll delivering an eulogium.

Palmer(Elihu), American author, b. Canterbury, Connecticut, 1764. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1787, and studied divinity but became a deist in 1791. In 1793 he became totally blind from an attack of yellow fever. In 1797 he lectured to a Deistical Society in New York. After this he dictated hisPrinciples of Nature, 1802, a powerful anti-Christian work, reprinted by Carlile in ’19. He also wroteProspect or View of the Moral World from the year 1804. Palmer was the head of the Society of Columbian Illuminati founded in New York in 1801. He died in Philadelphia, 7 April, 1806.

Panaetius(Παναίτιος), Stoic philosopher, b. Rhodes, a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic, and perhaps of Carneades. About 150B.C.he visited Rome and taught a moderate stoicism, denying the doctrine of the conflagration of the world, and placing physics before dialectics. He wrote a workOn Duties, to which Cicero expresses his indebtedness in hisDe Officiis. Died in Athens 111B.C.

Pancoucke(Charles Joseph), eminent French publisher, b. Lille, 26 Nov. 1736. He settled at Paris and became acquainted with d’Alembert, Garat, etc., and was a correspondent of Rousseau, Buffon and Voltaire, whose works he brought out. He translated Lucretius, 1768, brought out theMercure de France, projected in 1781 the importantEncyclopédie Méthodique, of which there are 166 vols., and founded theMoniteur, 1789. Died at Paris, 19 Dec. 1798.

Pantano(Eduardo), Italian author of a little book on the Sicilian Vespers and the Commune, Catania, 1882.

Papillon(J. Henri Fernand), French philosophic writer, b. Belfort, 5 June, 1847. He wrote anIntroduction to Chemical Philosophy, ’65; contributed to theRevue de Philosophie Positiveand theRevue des Deux Mondes. Hisprincipalwork is entitledNature and Life, ’73. Died at Paris 31 Dec. 1873.

Paquet(Henri Remi René), French writer, b. Charleville, 29 Sep. 1845. After studying under the Jesuits he went to Paris, where he became an advocate, but devoted his mainattention to literature. Under the anagram of “Nérée Quépat” he has publishedLa Lorgnette Philosophique, ’72,a dictionary of the great and little philosophers of our time, a study of La Mettrie entitledMaterialist Philosophy in the Eighteenth Centuryand other works.

Pare(William), Owenite Social reformer, b. Birmingham,11 Aug.1805. Wrote an abridgment of Thompson’sDistribution of Wealth, also works onCapital and Labor’54,Co-operative Agriculture, at Rahaline, ’70, etc. He compiled vol. 1 of theBiography of Robert Owen. Died at Croydon, 18 June,1873.

Parfait(Noel), French writer and politician, b. Chartres, 30 Nov. 1814. Took part in the revolution of ’30, and wrote many radical brochures. After the coup d’état he took refuge in Belgium. In ’71 was elected deputy and sat on the extreme left.

Parfait(Paul), son of theforegoing, b. Paris, 1841. Author ofL’Arsenal de la Dévotion, ’76, Notes to serve for a history of superstition, and a supplementLe Dossier des Pélerinages, ’77, and other pieces. Died 1881.

Parisot(Jean Patrocle), a Frenchman who wroteLa Foydevoiléepar la raison, 1681 [Faith Unveiled by Reason], a work whose title seems to have occasioned its suppression.

Parker(Theodore), American rationalist, b. Lexington, Mass., 24 Aug. 1810. From his father—a Unitarian—he inherited independence of mind, courage, and love of speculation. Brought up in poverty he studied hard, and acquired a University education while laboring on the farm. In March, ’31, he became an assistant teacher at Boston. In June, ’37, he was ordained Unitarian minister. Parker gradually became known as an iconoclast, and study of the German critics made him a complete rationalist, so that even the Unitarian body rejected him. A society was established to give him a hearing in Boston, and soon his fame was established. HisDiscourse on Matters Pertaining to Religion, ’47, exhibited his fundamental views. He translated and enlarged De Wette’s Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. A fearless opponent of the Fugitive Slave Law, he sheltered slaves in his own house. Early in ’59 failing health compelled him to relinquish hisduties. Died at Florence, 10 May, 1860. He bequeathed his library of 13,000 volumes to the Boston Public Library.

Parmenides, a Greek philosopher, b. Elea, Italy, 518B.C.Is said to have been a disciple of Xenophanes. He developed his philosophy about 470B.C.in a didactic poemOn Nature, fragments of which are preserved by Sextus Empiricus. He held to Reason as our guide, and considered nature eternal.

Parny(ÉvaristeDésiréde Forgesde),Viscount. French poet, b. St. Paul, Isle of Bourbon, 6 Feb. 1753. Educated in France, he chose the military profession. A disappointed passion for a creole inspired his “Amatory Poems,” and he afterwards wrote the audaciousWar of the Gods,Paradise Lost, andThe Gallantries of the Bible. His poems, though erotic, are full of elegant charm, and he has been named the French Tibullus. He was admitted into the French Academy in 1803. Died at Paris, 5 Dec. 1814.

Parton(James), author, b. Canterbury, England, 9 Feb. 1822. Was taken to the United States when a child and educated at New York. He married Miss Willis, “Fannie Fern,” and has written many biographies, including Lives of Thomas Jefferson, ’74, and of Voltaire, ’81. He has also written onTopics of the Time, ’71, andChurch Taxation. He resided in New York till ’75 when he removed to Newburyport, Massachusetts.

Parvish(Samuel), Deistic author ofAn Inquiry into the Jewish and Christian Revelation(London, 1739), of which a second edition was issued in 1746.

Pasquier(Étienne). French journalist, b. 7 April, 1529, at Paris.Brought up to the bar he became a successful pleader. He defended the Universities against the Jesuits, whom he also attacked in a bitter satire,Catéchisme desJésuites. Died Paris, 30 Aug. 1615.

Passerano(AlbertoRadicatidi)count. Italian philosopher of last century, attached to the court of Victor Amedée II. For some pamphlets written against the Papal power he was pursued by the Inquisition and his goods seized. He lived in England and made the acquaintance of Collins, also in France and Holland, where he died about 1736, leaving his goods to the poor. In that year he published at RotterdamRecueil de Piècescurieuses sur les matieres les plus íntéressantes, etc., which contains aParallel between Mahomet and Sosem(anagram of Moses),an abridged history of the Sacerdotal Profession, and aFaithful and comic recital of the religion of modern cannibals, by Zelin Moslem; also aDissertation upon Death, which was published separately in 1733. TheRecueilwas republished at London in 1749. He also wrote a pretended translation from an Arabic work on Mohammedanism, satirising the Bible, and a pretended sermon by Elwall the Quaker.

Pasteur(Louis). French scientist b. Dôle, 27 Dec 1822, became doctor in ’47 and professor of physic at Strassburg in ’48. He received the Rumford medal of the Royal Society in ’56 for his discoveries in polarisation and molecular chemistry. Decorated with the Legion of honor in ’53, he was made commander ’68 and grand officer ’78. His researches into innoculation have been much contested, but his admirers have raised a large institute for the prosecution of his treatment. He was elected to the Academy as successor of Littré. He gave his name as Vice-President of the British Secular Union.

Pastoret(Claude Emmanuel Joseph Pierre de),Marquis, French statesman and writer, b. of noble family at Marseilles, 25 Oct. 1756. Educated by the Oratorians at Lyons, in 1779 he published anElege de Voltaire. By his works onZoroaster, Confucius and Mahomet(1787) and onMoses Considered as Legislator and Moralist(1788) he did something for the infant science of comparative religion. His principal work is a learnedHistory of Legislation, in 11 vols. (1817–37), in which he passes in review all the ancient codes. He embraced the Revolution, and became President of the Legislative Assembly (3 Oct. 1791). He proposed the erection of the Column of July on the Place of the Bastille, and the conversion of the church of Ste Geneviève into the Pantheon. On the 19th June, 1792, he presented a motion for the complete separation of the state from religion. He fled during the Terror, but returned as deputy in 1795. In 1820 he succeeded his friend Volney as member of the French Academy, in ’23 received the cross of the Legion of Honor, and in ’29 became Chancellor of France. Died at Paris, 28 Sept. 1840.

Pater(Walter Horatio), English writer, b. London, 4 Aug.1839. B.A. at Oxford in ’62, M.A. in ’65. Has written charming essays in theWestminster Review,Macmillan, and theFortnightly Review. In ’73 he publishedThe Renaissance, and in ’85Marius the Epicurean, His Sensations and Ideas.

Paterson(Thomas), b. near Lanark early in this century. After the imprisonment of Southwell and Holyoake he edited theOracle of Reason. For exhibiting profane placards he was arrested and sentenced 27 Jan. 1843 to three months’ imprisonment. His trial was reported under the titleGodv.Paterson(’43.) He insisted on considering God as the plaintiff and in quoting from “the Jew book” to show the plaintiff’s bad character. When released he went to Scotland to uphold the right of free publication, and was sentenced 8 Nov. ’43 to fifteen months’ imprisonment for selling “blasphemous” publications at Edinburgh. On his release he was presented with a testimonial 6 April, 1845, H. Hetherington presiding. Paterson went to America.

Patin(Gui), French physician, writer, and wit, b. near Beauvais 31 Aug. 1602. He became professor at the college of France. His reputation is chiefly founded on hisLetters, in which he attacked superstition. Larousse says “C’étaitun libre penseur de la famille de Rabelais.” Died at Paris 30 Aug. 1672.

Patot. SeeTyssot de Patot (S.)

Pauw(Cornelius), learned Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, 1739. He wrote philosophical researches on the Americans, and also on the Egyptians, Chinese, and Greeks. Was esteemed by Frederick the Great for his ingenuity and penetration. Died at Xanten, 7 July, 1799. He was the uncle of Anacharsis Clootz.

Peacock(John Macleay), Scotch poet, b. 21 March, 1817. He wrote many poems in theNational Reformer, and in ’67 publishedHours of Reverie. Died 4 May, 1877.

PeacockorPecock(Reginald), the father of English rationalism, b. about 1390, and educated at Oriel College Oxford, of which he was chosen fellow in 1417. Was successively Bishop of St Asaph, 1444, and Chichester, 1450, by the favor of Humphrey, the good Duke of Gloster. He declared that Scripture must in all cases be accommodated to “thedoom of reason.” He questioned the genuineness of the Apostles’ Creed. In 1457 he was accused of heresy, recanted from fear of martyrdom, was deprived of his bishopric, and imprisoned in a monastery at Canterbury, where he used to repeat to those who visited him,

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