Chapter 13

Sue(Marie Joseph, called Eugène), French novelist, b. Paris, 10 Dec. 1804. He wrote many romances, of whichThe Mysteries of ParisandThe Wandering Jew, ’42–45, were the most popular. In ’50 he was elected deputy and sat at the extreme left, but was exiled by thecoup d’etat. He died as a Freethinker at Annecy (Savoy), 3 July 1857.Sullivan(J.), author ofSearch for Deity, an inquiry as to the origin of the conception of God (London, 1859).Sully Prudhomme(Renè François Armand), French poet, b. Paris, 16 March 1839. He studied law but took to poetry and has published many volumes. In ’78 he was made Chevalier of Honor, and in ’82 member of the Academy. His poems are of pessimistic cast, and full of delicacy of philosophical suggestion.Sunderland(La Roy), American author and orator, b. Exeter (Rhode Island), 18 May, 1803. He became a Methodist preacher and was prominent in the temperance and anti-slavery movements.He came out of the Church as the great bulwark of slavery and opposed Christianity during the forty years preceding his death. He wrote many works against slavery and Pathetism, ’47;Book of Human Nature, ’53, andIdeology, 3 vols., ’86–9. Died in Quincy (Mass.) 15 May, 1885.Suttner(Bertha von),Baroness, Austrian author ofInventory of a Soul, 1886, and of several novels.Sutton(Henry S.), anonymous author ofQuinquenergia; or, Proposals for a New Practical Theology, andLetters from a Father to a Son on Revealed Religion.Swinburne(Algernon Charles), English poet and critic, b. London, 5 April, 1837, educated at Oxford, and went to Florence, where he spent some time with W. S. Landor.Atalanta in Calydon, a splendid reproduction of Greek tragedy, first showed his genius.Poems and Ballads, 1866, evinced his unconventional lyrical passion and power, and provoked some outcry. In hisSongs before Sunrise, 1871, he glorifies Freethought and Republicanism, with unsurpassed wealth of diction and rhythm. Mr. Swinburne has put forward many other volumes of melodious and dramatic poems, and also essays, studies, and prose miscellanies.Symes(Joseph), English lecturer and writer, b. Portland, 29 Jan. 1841, of pious Methodist parents. In ’64 he offered himself as candidate for the ministry, and was sent to the Wesleyan College, Richmond, and in ’67 went on circuit as preacher. Having come to doubt orthodoxy, he resigned in ’72, preached his first open Freethought lecture at Newcastle, 17 Dec. ’76. Had several debates, wrotePhilosophic Atheism,Man’s Place in Nature,Hospitals not of Christian Origin,Christianity a Persecuting Religion,Blows at the Bible, etc. He contributed to theFreethinker, and was ready to conduct it during Mr. Foote’s imprisonment. He went to Melbourne, Dec. ’83, and there established theLiberator, and has writtenLife and Death of My Religion, ’84;Christianity and Slavery,Phallic Worship, etc.Symonds(John Addington), English poet and author, b. Bristol, 5 Oct. 1840, educated at Harrow and Oxford, and was elected in ’62 to a Fellowship at Magdalen College, which he vacated on his marriage. His chief work is on theRenaissance inItaly, 7 vols., completed in ’86. He has also written critical sketches, studies, and poems. Ill health compels his living abroad.Taine(Hippolyte Adolphe), D.C.L., brilliant French man of letters, b. Vouziers, 21 April, 1828. Educated at the College Bourbon (now the Condorcet Lyceum), in ’53 he took the degree of Doctor of Letters. In ’56 appears hisFrench Philosophers of the Nineteenth Century, in which he sharply criticised the spiritualist and religious school. He came to England and studied English Literature; his Hand History of which was sent in for the Academy prize, ’63, but rejected on the motion of Bishop Dupanloup on account of its materialist opinions. Also wrote onEnglish Positivism, a study of J. S. Mill. In ’71 Oxford made him D.C.L., and in Nov. ’78, he was elected to the French Academy; his latest work isThe Origins of Contemporary France.Talandier(Alfred), French publicist, b. Limoges, 7 Sept. 1828. After entering the bar, he became a socialist and took part in the revolution of ’48. Proscribed after 12 Dec. he came to England, started trades unions and co-operation, translated Smiles’s Self-Help, and wrote in theNational Reformer. Returned to Paris in ’70 and became professor at the Lycée Henri IV. In ’74 he was deprived of his chair, but elected on the Municipal council of Paris, and two years later chosen as deputy, and was re-elected in ’81. In ’83 he published aPopular Rabelaisand has written inOur Corneron that great Freethinker.Taubert(A.), the maiden name of Dr. Hartmann’s first wife. She wroteThe Pessimists and their Opponents, 1873.Taule(Ferdinand), M.D., of Strassburg, author ofNotions on the Nature and Properties of Organised Matter. Paris, 1866.Taurellus(Nicolaus), German physician and philosopher, b. Montbéhard, 26 Nov. 1547, studied medicine at Tübingen and Basle. For daring to think for himself, and asking how theAristoteliandoctrine of the eternity of the world could be reconciled with the dogma of creation, he was stigmatised as an atheist. Wrote many works in Latin, the principal of which isPhilosophiæ Triumphans, 1573. He died of the plague 28 Sept. 1606.Taylor(Robert), ex-minister, orator, and critic, b. Edmonton,18 Aug. 1784. In 1805 he walked Guy’s and St. Thomas’s Hospital, and became M.R.C.S., 1807. Persuaded to join the Church, he entered St. John’s, Cambridge, Oct. 1809, in Jan. ’13 graduated B.A., and soon after took holy orders. He was curate at Midhurst till ’18, when he first became sceptical through discussions with a tradesman. He preached a sermon on Jonah which astonished his flock, and resigned. He then went to Dublin and publishedThe Clerical Reviewand started “The Society of Universal Benevolence.” In ’24 he came to London and started “The Christian Evidence Society,” and delivered discourses with discussion; also edited thePhilalethian. In ’27 he was indicted for blasphemy, tried Oct. 24, after an able defence he was found guilty, and on 7 Feb. ’28 sentenced to one year’s imprisonment in Oakham Gaol. Here he wrote hisSyntagmaon the Evidences of Christianity, and his chief work,The Diegesis, being a discovery of the origins, evidences, and early history of Christianity. He also contributed a weekly letter toThe Lion, which R. Carlile started on his behalf. On his liberation they both went on “an infidel mission” about the country, and on May 30 the Rotunda, Blackfriars, was taken, where Taylor attired in canonicals delivered the discourses published inThe Devil’s Pulpit. He was again prosecuted, and on 4 July, ’31, was sentenced to two year’s imprisonment. He was badly treated in gaol, and soon after coming out married a wealthy lady and retired. Died at Jersey, 5 June, 1844.Taylor(Thomas), known as “The Platonist,” b. London, 1758. He devoted his life to the elucidation and propagation of the Platonic philosophy. He translated the works of Plato, Aristotle, Porphyry, five books of Plotinus, six books of Proclus, Gamblichus on the Mysteries, Arguments of Celsus taken from Origen, Arguments of Julian against the Christians, Orations of Julian, etc. He is said to have been so thorough a Pagan that he sacrificed a bull to Zeus. Died in Walworth, 1 Nov. 1835.Taylor(William), of Norwich, b. 7 Nov. 1765. He formed an acquaintance with Southey, with whom he corresponded. His translations from the German, notably Lessing’sNathanthe Wise, brought him some repute. He also wrote aSurvey of German PoetryandEnglish Synonyms, 1830. He edited the NorwichIris, 1802, which he made the organ of his political and religions views. In ’10 he published anonymouslyA Letter Concerning the Two First Chapters of Luke, also entitledWho was the Father of Jesus Christ? 1810, in which he argues that Zacharias was the father of Jesus Christ. Also wrote largely in theMonthly Review, replying therein to the Abbé Barruel; and theCritical Reviewwhen edited by Fellowes, in which he gave an account of the rationalism of Paulus. Died at Norwich, 5 March, 1836.Tchernychewsky(N. G.) SeeChernuishevsky.“Tela(Josephus),” the Latinised name of Joseph Webbe who in 1818 edited thePhilosophical Library, containing the Life and Morals of Confucius, Epicurus, Isoscrates, Mahomet, etc., and other pieces. Webbe is also thought to have been concerned in the production ofEcce Homo, ’13. Cushing, in hisInitials and Pseudonyms, refers Tela to “Joseph Webb,” 1735–87; an American writer; Grand Master of Freemasons in America; died in Boston.” I am not satisfied that this is the same person.Telesio(Bernardino), Italian philosopher, b. of noble family at Cosenza, 1509. He studied at Padua, and became famous for his learning, optical discoveries, and new opinions in philosophy. He wrote in LatinOn the Nature of Things according to Proper Principles, 1565. He opposed theAristoteliandoctrine in physics, and employed mathematical principles in explaining nature, for which he was prosecuted by the clergy. He died Oct. 1588. His works were placed in theIndex, but this did not prevent their publication at Venice, 1590.Telle(Reinier), or Regnerus Vitellius, Dutch Humanist, b. Zierikzee, 1578. He translated ServetusOn the Errors of the Trinity, published 1620. Died at Amsterdam, 1618.Testa(Giacinto), of Messina, Italian author of a curiousStoria di Gesù di Nazareth, 1870, in which he maintains that Jesus was the son ofGiuseppePandera, a Calabrian of Brindisi.Thaer(Albrecht Daniel). German agriculturist, b. Celle, 14 May, 1752. Studied at Gottingen, and is said to haveinspired Lessing’s work onThe Education of the Human Race. Died 28 Oct. 1828.Theodorusof Cyrene, a Greek philosopher, whose opinions resembled those of Epicurus. He was banished for Atheism from his native city. He resided at Athens about 312B.C.When threatened with crucifixion, he said it mattered little whether he rotted in the ground or in the air.Theophile de Viau, French satiric poet, b. Clerac, 1590. For the alleged publication ofLe Parnasse Satyriques, he was accused of Atheism, condemned to death, and burnt in effigy. He fled, and was received by the Duc de Montmorency at Chantilly, where he died, 25 Sept. 1626.Thompson(Daniel Greenleaf), American author of works onThe Problem of Evil, ’87;The Religious Sentiments, etc. He is President of the Nineteenth Century Club.Thomson(Charles Otto), Captain, b. Stockholm, 3 Jan. 1833. Went to sea in ’49 and became a merchant captain in ’57, and was subsequently manager of the Eskilstuna gas works. At Eskilstuna he started a Utilitarian Society in ’88, of which he is president. He has done much to support Mr. Lennstrand in his Freethought work in Sweden; has translated articles by Ingersoll, Foote and others, and has lectured on behalf of the movement. He shares in the conduct ofFritänkaren.Thomson(James), Pessimistic poet, b. Port Glasgow, 23 Nov. 1834. Educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, he became a schoolmaster in the army, where he met Mr. Bradlaugh, whom he afterwards assisted on theNational Reformer. To this paper he contributed many valuable essays, translations, and poems, including his famous “City of Dreadful Night,” the most powerful pessimistic poem in the English language, (April, ’74, afterwards published with other poems in ’80). “Vane’s Story” with other poems was issued in ’81, and “A Voice from the Nile,” and “Shelley” (privately printed in ’84). Thomson also contributed to theSecularistandLiberal, edited by his friend Foote, who has published many of his articles in a volume entitledSatires and Profanities, which includes “The Story of a Famous Old Jewish Firm,” also published separately. Thomson employed much of his genius in the service of Freethought. Died 3 June, 1882.Thomson(William), of Cork. A disciple of Bentham, and author ofThe Distribution of Wealth, 1824;Appeal for Women, ’25;Labor Reward, ’27, and in theCo-operative Magazine.Thorild(Thomas), orThoren, Swedish writer, b. Bohuslau, 18 April, 1759. In 1775 he studied at Lund, and in 1779 went to Stockholm, and published many poems and miscellaneous pieces in Swedish, Latin, German, and English, in which he wroteCromwell, an epic poem. In 1786 he wroteCommon Sense on Liberty, with a view of extending the liberty of the press. He was a partisan of the French Revolution, and for a political work was imprisoned and exiled. He also wrote aSermon of Sermons, attacking the clergy, and a work maintaining the rights of women. Died at Greifswald; 1 Oct. 1808. He was a man far in advance of his time, and is now becoming appreciated.Thulie(Jean Baptiste Henri), French physician and anthropologist, b. Bordeaux, 1832. In ’56 he founded a journal, “Realism.” In ’66 he published a work onMadness and the Law. He contributed toLa Pensée Nouvelle, defending the views of Büchner. He has written an able study,La Femme, Woman, published in ’85. M. Thulie has been President of the Paris Municipal Council.Tiele(Cornelis Petrus), Dutch scholar, b. Leyden, 16 Dec. 1830. Although brought up in the Church, his works all tell in the service of Freethought, and he has shown his liberality of views in editing the poems of Genestet together with his life, ’68. He has written many articles on comparative religion, and two of his works have been translated into English, viz.,Outlines of the History of Religion, a valuable sketch of the old faiths, fourth ed. ’88; andComparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian Religions, ’82.Tillier(Claude), French writer, b. of poor parents, Clamecy, 11 April, 1801. He served as a conscript, and wrote some telling pamphlets directed against tyranny and superstition, and some novels, of which we noteMy Uncle Benjamin. Died at Nevers, 12 Oct. 1844. His works were edited by F. Pyat.Tindal(Matthew), LL.D., English Deist, b. Beer-ferris, Devon, 1657. Educated at Oxford, and at first a High Churchman, he was induced to turn Romanist in the reign ofJames II., but returned to Protestantism and wroteThe Rights of the Christian Church. This work was much attacked by the clergy, who even indicted the vendors. A defence which he published was ordered to be burnt by the House of Commons. In 1730 he publishedChristianity as Old as the Creation, to which no less than 150 answers were published. He died 16 Aug. 1733, and a second volume, which he left in MS., was destroyed by order of Gibson, Bishop of London.Toland(John), Irish writer, b. Redcastle, near Londonderry, 30 Nov. 1669. Educated as a Catholic, he renounced that faith in early youth, went to Edinburgh University, where he became M.A. in 1690, and proceeded to Leyden, studying under Spanheim, and becoming a sceptic. He also studied at Oxford, reading deeply in the Bodleian Library, and became the correspondent of Le Clerc and Bayle. In 1696 he startled the orthodox with hisChristianity not Mysterious, which was “presented” by the Grand Jury of Middlesex and condemned by the Lower House of Convocation. The work was also burnt at Dublin, Sept. 1697. He wrote aLife of Milton(1698), in which, mentioningEikon Basilike, he referred to the “suppositious pieces under the name of Christ, his apostles and other great persons.” For this he was denounced by Dr. Blackhall before Parliament. He replied withAmytor, in which he gives a catalogue of such pieces. He went abroad and was well received by the Queen of Prussia, to whom he wroteLetters to Serena(1704), which, says Lange, “handles the kernel of the whole question of Materialism.” In 1709 he publishedAdeisidænonandOrigines Judaicæ. In 1718Nazarenus, on Jewish, Gentile and Mahommedan Christianity, in which he gave an account of the Gospel of Barnabus. He also wrote four pieces entitledTetradymusandPantheisticon, which described a society of Pantheists with a liturgy burlesquing that of the Catholics. Toland died with the calmness of a philosopher, at Putney, 11 March, 1722. Lange praises him highly.Tollemache(Hon.Lionel Arthur), b. 1838, son of Baron Tollemache, a friend of C. Austin, of whom he has written. Wrote many articles inFortnightly Review, reprinted (privately) asStones of Stumbling, ’84. Has also writtenSafe Studies, ’84;Recollections of Pallison, ’85; andMr. Romanes’s Catechism, ’87.Tone(Theobald Wolfe), Irish patriot, b. Dublin, 20 June, 1763. Educated at Trinity College in 1784, he obtained a scholarship in 1786, B.A. He founded the Society of United Irishmen, 1791. Kept relations with the French revolutionists, and in 1796 induced the French Directory to send an expedition against England. He was taken prisoner and committed suicide in prison, dying 19 Nov. 1798.Topinard(Paul), M.D., French anthropologist, b. Isle-Adam 1830. Editor of theRevue d’Anthropologie, and author of a standard work on that subject published in the Library of Contemporary Science.Toulmin(George Hoggart), M.D., of Wolverhampton. Author ofThe Antiquity and Duration of the World, 1785;The Eternity of the Universe, 1789; the last being republished in 1825.Tournai(Simon de). SeeSimon.Traina(Tommaso), Italian jurist. Author of a work onThe Ethics of Herbert Spencer, Turin, 1881.Travis(Henry), Dr., b. Scarborough, 1807. He interested himself in the socialistic aspect of co-operation, and became a friend and literary executor to Robert Owen. In ’51–53 he editedRobert Owen’s Journal. He also wrote onEffectual Reform,Free Will and Law,Moral Freedom and Causation, andA Manual of Social Science, and contributed to theNational Reformer. Died 4 Feb. 1884.Trelawny(Edward John), b. Cornwall, Nov. 1792. Became intimate in Italy with Shelley, whose body he recovered and cremated in August, 1822. He accompanied Byron on his Greek expedition, and married a daughter of a Greek chief. He wroteAdventures of a Younger Son, ’31; andRecords of Shelley, Byron, and the Author, ’78. He died 13 Aug. 1881, and was cremated at Gotha, his ashes being afterwards placed beside those of Shelley. Trelawny was a vehement Pagan despising the creeds and conventions of society. Swinburne calls him “World-wide liberty’s lifelong lover.”Trenchard(John), English Deist and political writer, b. Somersetshire, 1669. He studied law, but abandoned it, and was appointed Commissioner of Forfeited Estates in Ireland. In conjunction with Gordon he wroteCato’s Letterson civil andreligious liberty, and conductedThe Independent Whig. He sat in the House of Commons as M.P. for Taunton; he also wrote theNatural History of Superstition, 1709; butLa Contagion Sacree, attributed to him, is really by d’Holbach. Died 17 Dec. 1723.Trevelyan(Arthur), of Tyneholm, Tranent, N.B., a writer in theReasonerandNational Reformer. PublishedThe Insanity of Mankind(Edinburgh, 1850), and some tracts. He was a Vice-President of the National Secular Society. Died at Tyneholm, 6 Feb. 1878.Trezza(Gaetano), Italian writer, b. Verona, Dec. 1828. Was brought up and ordained a priest, and was an eloquent preacher. Study led him to resign the clerical profession. He has published Confessions of a Sceptic, ’78; Critical Studies, ’78; New Critical Studies, ’81. He is Professor of Literature at the Institute of High Studies, Florence. To the first number of theRevue Internationale’83, he contributedLes Dieux s’en vont. He also wrote Religion and Religions, ’84; and aworkon St. Paul. A study on Lucretius has reached its third edition, ’87.Tridon(Edme Marie, Gustave), French publicist, b. Chatillon sur Seine, Burgundy, 5 June, 1841. Educated by his parents who were rich, he became a doctor of law but never practised. In ’64 he published inLe Journal des Ecoles, his remarkable study of revolutionary historyLes Hébertistes. In May, ’65 he founded with Blanqui, etc.,Le Candide, the precursor ofLa Libre Pensée, ’66, in both of which the doctrines of materialism were expounded. Delegated in ’65 to the International Students Congress at Liége his speech was furiously denounced by Bishop Dupanloup; he got more than two years’ imprisonment for articles inLe CandideandLa Libre Pensée, and in Ste Pelagie contracted the malady which killed him. While in prison he wrote the greater part of his workDu Molochisme Juif, critical and philosophical studies of the Jewish religion, only published in ’84. After 4 Sept. ’70, he foundedLa Patrie en Danger. In Feb. ’71 he was elected deputy to the Bordeaux Assembly, but resigned after voting against declaration of peace. He then became a member of the Paris Commune, retiring afterthe collapse to Brussels where he died 29 Aug. 1871. He received the most splendid Freethinker’s funeral witnessed in Belgium.Truebner(Nicolas), publisher, b. Heidelberg, 17 June, 1817. After serving with Longman and Co., he set up in business, and distinguished himself by publishing works on Freethought, religions, philosophy and Oriental literature. Died London, 30 March, 1884.Truelove(Edward), English publisher, b. 29 Oct. 1809. Early in life he embraced the views of Robert Owen, and for nine years was secretary of the John Street Institution. In ’44 and ’45 he threw in his lot with the New Harmony Community, Hampshire. In ’52 he took a shop in the Strand, where he sold advanced literature. He published Voltaire’sPhilosophical DictionaryandRomances, Paine’s complete works, D’Holbach’sSystem of Nature, and Taylor’sSyntagmaandDiegesis. In ’58 he was prosecuted for publishing a pamphlet onTyrannicide, by W. E. Adams, but the prosecution was abandoned. In ’78 he was, after two trials, sentenced to four months’ imprisonment for publishing R. D. Owen’sMoral Physiology. Upon his release he was presented with a testimonial and purse of 200 sovereigns.Trumbull(Matthew M.), American general, a native of London, b. 1826. About the age of twenty he went to America, served in the army in Mexico, and afterwards in the Civil War. General Grant made him Collector of Revenue for Iowa. He held that office eight years, and then visited England. In 1882 he went to Chicago, where he exerted himself on behalf of a fair trial for the Anarchists.Tschirnhausen(Walthier Ehrenfried), GermanCount, b. 1651. He was a friend of Leibniz and Wolff, and in philosophy a follower of Spinoza, though he does not mention him. Died 1708.Tucker(Benjamin R.), American writer, b. Dartmouth, Mass., 17 April, 1854. EditsLiberty, of Boston.Turbiglio(Sebastiano), Italian philosopher, b. Chiusa, 7 July,1842, author of a work onSpinoza and the Transformation of his Thoughts, 1875.Turgenev(Ivan Sergyeevich), Russian novelist, b. Orel, 28 Oct. 1818. In his novels,Fathers and SonsandVirgin Soilhe has depicted characters of the Nihilist movement. Died at Bougival, near Paris, 3 Sept. 1883.Turner(William), a surgeon of Liverpool, who, under the name of William Hammon, published anAnswer to Dr. Priestley’s Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever, 1782, in which he avows himself an Atheist.Tuuk(Titia, Van der), Dutch lady, b. Zandt, 27 Nov. 1854. Was converted to Freethought by reading Dekker, and is now one of the editors ofDe Dageraad.Twesten(Karl), German publicist and writer, b.Kiel, 22 April, 1820. Studied law, ’38–41, in Berlin and Heidelberg, and became magistrate in Berlin and one of the founders of the National Liberal Party. Wrote on the religious, political, and social ideas of Asiatics and Egyptians (2 vols.), ’72. Died Berlin, 14 Oct. 1870.Tylor(Edward Burnet), D.C.L., F.R.S., English anthropologist, b. Camberwell, 2 Oct. 1832. He has devoted himself to the study of the races of mankind, and is the first living authority upon the subject. He has wroteAnahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans, ’61;Researches into the Early History of Mankind, ’65;Primitive Culture; being researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom (2 vols.), ’71. In this splendid work he traces religion to animism, the belief in spirits. He has also written an excellent handbook ofAnthropology, an introduction to the Study of Man and Civilisation, ’81; and contributed to theEncyclopædia Britannica, as well as to periodical literature. He is President of the Anthropological Society.Tyndall(John), LL.D., F.R.S., Irish scientist, b. near Carlow, 1820. In ’47 he became a teacher in Queenswood College (Hants), and afterwards went to Germany to study. In ’56 he went to Switzerland with Professor Huxley, and they wrote a joint work on glaciers. He contributed to theFortnightly Review, notably an article on Miracles and Special Providence, ’66. In ’72 he went on a lecturing tour in the United States, and two years later was president of the British Association. His address at Belfast made a great stir, and has been published. In addition to other scientific works he haspublished popularFragments of Science, which has gone through several editions.Tyrell(Henry). SeeChurch.Tyssot de Patot(Simon), b. of French family in Delft, 1655. He became professor of mathematics at Deventer. Under the pen name of “Jacques Massé” he publishedVoyages and Adventures, Bordeaux, 1710, a work termed atheistic and scandalous by Reimmann. It was translated into English by S. Whatley, 1733, and has been attributed to Bayle.Ueberweg(Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Leichlingen 22 Jan. 1826; studied at Göttingen and Berlin, and became Professor of Philosophy at Königsberg, where he died 9 June, 1871. His chief work is aHistory of Philosophy. Lange cites Czolbe as saying “He was in every way distinctly an Atheist and Materialist.”Uhlich(Johann Jacob Marcus Lebericht), German religious reformer, b. Köthen 27 Feb. 1799. He studied at Halle and became a preacher. For his rationalistic views he was suspended in 1847, and founded the Free Congregation at Magdeburg. He wrote numerous brochures defending his opinions. HisReligion of Common Sensehas been translated and published in America. Died atMagdeburg, 23 March, 1872.Ule(Otto), German scientific writer, b. Lossow 22 Jan. 1820. Studied at Halle and Berlin. In ’52 he started the journalDie Natur, and wrote many works popularising science. Died at Halle 6 Aug. 1876.Underwood(Benjamin F.). American lecturer and writer, b. New York 6 July, 1839. Has been a student and a soldier in the Civil War. He fought at Ball’s Bluff, Virginia, 21 Oct. ’61, was wounded and held prisoner in Richmond for nine months. In ’81 he edited theIndexin conjunction with Mr. Potter, and in ’87 startedThe Open Courtat Chicago. He has had numerous debates; those with the Rev. J. Marples and O. A. Burgess being published. He has also publishedEssays and Lectures,The Religion of Materialism,Influence of Christianity on Civilisation, etc. His sister, Sara A., has writtenHeroines of Freethought, New York, 1876.Vacherot(Etienne), French writer, b. Langres, 29 July, 1809. In ’39 he replaced Victor Cousin in the Chair of Philosophyat the Sorbonne. For his free opinions expressed in hisCritical History of the School of Alexandria, a work in three vols. crowned by the Institute, ’46–51, he was much attacked by the clergy and at the Empire lost his position. He afterwards wroteEssays of Critical Philosophy, ’64, andLa Religion, ’69.Vacquerie(Auguste), French writer, b. Villequier, 1819. A friend of Victor Hugo. He has written many dramas and novels of merit, and was director ofLe Rappel.Vaillant(Edouard Marie), French publicist, b. Vierzon, 26 Jan. 1840. Educated at Paris and Germany. A friend of Tridon he took part in the Commune, and in ’84 was elected Muncipal Councillor of Paris.Vairasse(Denis) d’Alais, French writer of the seventeenth century. He became both soldier and lawyer. Author ofHistoire des Sevarambes, 1677; imaginary travels in which he introduced free opinions and satirised Christianity.Vale(Gilbert) author, b. London, 1788. He was intended for the church, but abandoned the profession and went to New York, where he edited theCitizen of the Worldand theBeacon. He publishedFanaticism; its Source and Influence, N.Y. 1835, and aLife of Paine, ’41. Died Brooklyn, N.Y. 17 Aug. 1866.Valk(T. A. F. van der), Dutch Freethinker, who, after being a Christian missionary in Java, changed his opinions, and wrote inDe Dageraadbetween 1860–70, using the pen name of “Thomas.”Valla(Lorenzo), Italian critic, b. Piacenza, 1415. Having hazarded some free opinions respecting Catholic doctrines, he was condemned to be burnt, but was saved by Alphonsus, King of Naples. Valla was then confined in a monastery, but Pope Nicholas V. called him to Rome and gave him a pension. He died there, 1 Aug. 1457.Vallee(Geoffrey), French martyr, b. Orleans, 1556. He wroteLa Béatitude des Chréstiens ou le Fléo de la Foy, for which he was accused of blasphemy, and hanged on the Place de Gréve, Paris, 9 Feb. 1574.Valliss(Rudolph), German author of works onThe Natural History of Gods(Leip., 1875);The Eternity of the World, ’75;Catechism of Human Duty, ’76, etc.Van Cauberg(Adolphe), Belgian advocate. One of the founders and president of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 1886.Van Effen.SeeEffen.Vanini(Lucilio, afterwardsJulius Cæsar), Italian philosopher and martyr, b. Taurisano (Otranto), 1585. At Rome and Padua he studied Averroism, entered the Carmelite order, and travelled in Switzerland, Germany, Holland and France making himself admired and respected by his rationalistic opinions. He returned to Italy in 1611, but the Inquisition was on his track and he took refuge at Venice. In 1612 he visited England, and in 1614 got lodged in the Tower. When released he went to Paris and published a Pantheistic work in LatinOn the Admirable Secrets of Nature, the Queen and Goddess of Mortals. It was condemned by the Sorbonne and burnt, and he fled to Toulouse in 1617; but there was no repose for Freethought. He was accused of instilling Atheism into his scholars, tried and condemned to have his tongue cut out, his body burned and his ashes scattered to the four winds. This was done 19 Feb. 1619. President Gramond, author ofHistory of France under Louis XIII., writes “I saw him in the tumbril as they led him to execution, mocking the Cordelier who had been sent to exhort him to repentance, and insulting our Savior by these impious words. ‘Hesweated with fear and weakness, and I die undaunted.’”Vapereau(Louis Gustave), French man of letters, b. Orleans 4 April, 1819. In ’41 he became the secretary of Victor Cousin. He collaborated on theDictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiquesand theLiberté de Penser, but is best known by his usefulDictionnaire Universel des Contemporains. In ’70 he was nominated prefect of Cantal, but on account of the violent attacks of the clericals was suspended in ’73 and resumed his literary labors, compiling aUniversal Dictionary of Writers, ’76, andElements of the History of French Literature, 1883–85.Varnhagen von Ense(Earl August Ludwig Philipp), German author, b. Dusseldorf, 21 Feb. 1785. He studied medicine and philosophy, entered the Austrian and Russian armies, and served in the Prussian diplomatic service. He was an intimate friend of Alex. von Humboldt, and shared hisFreethinking opinions. Died in Berlin, 10 Oct. 1858. He vividly depicts the men and events of his time in hisDiary.Vauvenargues(Luc deClapiers), Marquis; French moralist, b. Aix, 6 Aug. 1715. At eighteen he entered the army, and left the service with ruined health in 1743. He published in 1746 anIntroduction to the Knowledge of the Human Mind, followed by Reflections and Maxims, which was deservedly praised by his friend Voltaire. Died at Paris 28 May, 1747. His work, which though but mildly deistic, was rigorously suppressed, and was reprinted about 1770.Velthuysen(Lambert), Dutch physician, b. Utrecht, 1622. He wrote many works on theology and philosophy in Latin. His works,De Officio PastorumandDe Idolatria et Superstitionewere proceeded against in 1668, but he was let off with a fine. Died 1685.Venetianer(Moritz), German Pantheist, author ofDer Allgeist, 1874, and a work onSchopenhauer as a Scholastic.Vereschagin(Vasily), Russian painter, b. Novgorod, 1842. He studied at Paris under Gerome, took part in the Russo-Turkish war, and has travelled widely. The realistic and anti-religious conceptions of hisHoly FamilyandResurrectionwere the cause of their being withdrawn from the Vienna Exhibition in Oct. ’85, by order of the archbishop. In his Autobiographical Sketches, translated into English, ’87, he shows his free opinions.Vergniaud(Pierre Victurnien), French Girondist orator, b. Limoges, 31 May, 1759. He studied law, and became an advocate. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, he also became President of the Convention. At the trial of the King he voted for the appeal to the people, but that being rejected, voted death. With Gensonné and Guadet, he opposed the sanguinary measures of Robespierre, and, being beaten in the struggle, was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. Vergniaud was a brilliant speaker. He said: “Reason thinks, Religion dreams.” He had prepared poison for himself, but as there was not enough for his comrades, he resolved to suffer with them.Verlet(Henri), French founder and editor of a journal,La Libre Pensée, 1871, and author of a pamphlet onAtheism and the Supreme Being.Verliere(Alfred), French author of aGuide du Libre-Penseur(Paris, 1869); collaboratedLa Libre Pensée,Rationaliste, etc. To Bishop Dupanloup’sAthéismeet Peril Socialhe replied withDeisme et Peril Social, for which he was condemned to several months’ imprisonment.Vermersch(Eugène), French journalist, b. Lille about 1840. Took part in the Commune, and has written on many Radical papers.Vernes(Maurice), French critic, b. Mauroy, 1845. Has publishedMelanges de Critique Religieuse, and translated from Kuenen and Tiele.Veron(Eugène), French writer and publicist, b. Paris, 29 May, 1825. He wrote on many journals, foundedLa France Republicaineat Lyons, andl’Artat Paris. Besides historical works he has writtenL’Esthetiquein the “Library of Contemporary Science,” ’78;The Natural History of Religions, 2 vols., in theBibliothèque Materialiste, ’84; andLa Morale, ’84.Viardot(Louis), French writer, b. Dijon, 31 July, 1800. Hecame to Paris and became an advocate, but after a voyage in Spain, left the bar for literature, writing on theGlobe NationalandSiècle. In ’41 he founded theRevue Independantewith “George Sand,” and Pierre Leroux. He made translations from the Russian, and in addition to many works on art he wroteThe Jesuits, ’57;Apology of an Unbeliever, translated into English, ’69, and republished asLibre Examen, ’71. Died 1883.Vico(Giovanni Battista), Italian philosopher, b. Naples 1668. He became Professor of Rhetoric in the University of that city, and published aNew Science of the Common Nature of Nations, 1725, in which he argues that the events of history are determined by immutable laws. It presents many original thoughts. Died Naples, 21 Jan. 1743.Virchow(Rudolf), German anthropologist, b. SchivelbeinPomerania, 13 Oct. 1821. Studied medicine at Berlin and became lecturer, member of the National Assembly of ’48, and Professor of Pathological Anatomy at Berlin. HisCellular Pathology, ’58, established his reputation. He was chosendeputy and rose to the leadership of the Liberal opposition. His scientific views are advanced although he opposed the Haeckel in regard to absolute teaching of evolution.Vischer(Friedrich Theodor), German art critic, b. Ludwigsburg, 30 June, 1807. Was educated for the Church, became a minister, but renounced theology and became professor of[missing text]and isJahrbücher der Gegenwart, ’44, was accused of blasphemy and for his Freethinking opinions he was suspended two years. At the revolution of ’48 he was elected to the National Assembly. In ’55 he became Professor at Zürich. His work onÆsthetic, or the Science of the Beautiful, ’46–54, is considered classic. He has also written,Old and New, ’81, and several anonymous works. Died Gmunden, 14 Sept. 1887.Vitry(Guarin de) French author of aRapid Examination of Christian Dogma, addressed to the Council of 1869.Vloten(Johannes van), Dutch writer, b. Kampen, 18 Jan. 1818; studied theology at Leiden and graduated D.D. in ’43. He has, however, devoted himself to literature, and produced many works, translating plays of Shakespeare, editing Spinoza, and writing his life—translated into English by A. Menzies. He edited alsoDe Levensbode, 1865, etc.Voelkel(Titus), Dr., German lecturer and writer, b. Wirsitz (Prussian Poland) 14 Dec. 1841. Studied (’59–65) theology, natural philosophy, and mathematics, and spent some years in France. He returned ’70, and was for ten years employed as teacher at higher schools. Since ’80 has been “sprecher” of Freethought associations and since ’85 editor of theNeuesFreireligiösesSonntags-Blatt, atMagdeburg. In ’88 he was several times prosecuted for blasphemy and each time acquitted. He represented several German societies at the Paris Congress of Freethinkers, ’89.Voglet(Prosper), Belgian singer, b. Brussels, 1825. He was blinded through his baptism by a Catholic priest, and has in consequence to earn his living as a street singer. His songs, of his own composition, are anti-religious. Many have appeared inLa Tribune du Peuple, which he edited.Vogt(Karl), German scientist, b. Giessen, 5 July, 1817, the son of a distinguished naturalist. He studied medicine andbecame acquainted with Agassiz. In ’48 he was elected deputy to the National Assembly. Deprived of his chair and exiled, he became professor of Natural History at Geneva. His lectures onMan, His Position in Creation and in the History of the Earth, ’63, made a sensation by their endorsement of Darwinism. They were translated into English and published by the Anthropological Society. He has also written aManual of Geology,Physiological Letters,Zoological Letters,Blind Faith and Science, etc., and has contributed to the leading Freethought journals of Germany and Switzerland.Volkmar(Gustav), Swiss critic, b. Hersfeld, 11 Jan. 1809. Studied at Marburg ’29–32; becameprivat docentat Zurich, ’53, and professor ’63. He has written rationalist works on the Gospel of Marcion, ’52; Justin Martyr, ’53; theOrigin of the Gospels, ’66;Jesus and the first Christian Ages, ’82, etc.Volney(Constantin FrançoisChasseboufde), Count, French philosopher, b. Craon (Anjou) 3 Feb. 1757. Having studied at Ancenis and Angers, he went to Paris in 1774. Here he met D’Holbach and others. In 1783 he started for Egypt and Syria, and in 1787 published an account of his travels. Made Director of Commerce in Corsica, he resigned on being elected to the Assembly. Though a wealthy landlord, he wrote and spoke for division of landed property. In 1791 his eloquentRuinsappeared. During the Terror he was imprisoned for ten months. In ’95 he visited America. Returning to France, Napoleon asked him to become colleague in the consulship but Volney declined. He remonstrated with Napoleon when he re-established Christianity by the Concordat, April 1802. Among his other works was aHistory of Samueland theLaw of Nature. Died 25 April, 1820.Voltaire(François Marie.Arouetde), French poet, historian and philosopher, b. Paris 21 Nov. 1694. Educated by the Jesuits, he early distinguished himself by his wit. For a satirical pamphlet on the death of Louis XIV he was sent to the Bastille for a year and was afterwards committed again for a quarrel with the Chevalier de Rohan. On his liberation he came to England at the invitation of Lord Bolingbroke, and became acquainted with the English Freethinkers. HisLettres Philosophiquestranslated as “Letters on the English,” 1732,gave great offence to the clergy and was condemned to be burnt. About 1735 he retired to the estate of the Marquise de Châtelet at Cirey, where he produced many plays. We may mentionMahomet, dedicated to the Pope, who was unable to see that its shafts were aimed at the pretences of the church. In 1750 he accepted the invitation of Frederick II. to reside at his court. But he could not help laughing at the great king’s poetry. The last twenty years of his life was passed at Ferney near the Genevan territory, which through his exertions became a thriving village. He did more than any other man of his century to abolish torture and other relics of barbarism, and to give just notions of history. To the last he continued to wage war against intolerance and superstition. His works comprise over a thousand pieces in seventy volumes. Over fifty works were condemned by the Index, and Voltaire used no less than one hundred and thirty different pen-names. His name has risen above the clouds of detraction made by his clerical enemies. Died 30 May, 1778.Voo(G. W. van der), Dutch writer, b. 6 April, 1806. For more than half a century he was schoolmaster and teacher of the French language at Rotterdam, where he still lives. He contributed many articles toDe Dageraad.Vosmaer(Carel), Dutch writer, b. the Hague 20 March, 1826. Studied law at Leyden. He edited theTydstroom(1858–9) andSpectator(1860–73), and wrote several works on Dutch art and other subjects. Died atMontreux(Switzerland), 12 June, 1888.Voysey(Charles), English Theist, b. London 18 March, 1828. Graduated B.A. at Oxford, ’51, was vicar of Healaugh, Yorkshire, ’64–71, and deprived 11 Feb. ’71 for heresy in sermons published inThe Sling and the Stone. He has since established a Theistic Church in Swallow Street, Piccadilly, and his sermons are regularly published. He has also issuedFragments from Reimarus, ’79, editedThe Langham Magazineand publishedLectures on the Bible and the Theistic Faith, etc.Vulpian(Edme Felix Alfred), French physician, b. 5 Jan. 1826. Wrote several medical works and upon being appointed lecturer at the School of Medicine, ’69, was violently opposedon account of his Atheism. He was afterwards elected to the Academy of Sciences. Died 17 May, 1887.Wagner(Wilhelm Richard), German musical composer and poet, b. Leipsic, 22 May, 1813. From ’42–49 he was conductor of the Royal Opera, Dresden, but his revolutionary sentiments caused his exile to Switzerland, where he produced his “Lohengrin.” In ’64 he was patronised by Ludwig II. of Bavaria, and produced many fine operas, in which he sought that poetry, scenery, and music should aid each other in making opera dramatic. In philosophy he expressed himself a follower of Schopenhauer. Died at Venice, 13 Feb. 1883.Waite(Charles Burlingame), American judge, b. Wayne county, N.Y. 29 Jan. 1824. Educated at Knox College, Illinois, he was admitted to the Bar in ’47. After successful practice in Chicago, he was appointed by President Lincoln Justice of the Supreme Court of Utah. In ’81 he issued hisHistory of the Christian Religion to the yearA.D.200, a rationalistic work, which explodes the evangelical narratives.Wakeman(Thaddeus B.), American lawyer and Positivist, b. 29 Dec. 1834, was one of the editors ofManand a president of the New York Liberal Club. A contributor to theFreethinkers’ Magazine.Walferdin(François-Hippolyte), b. Langres, 8 June, 1795. A friend of Arago he contributed with him to the enlargement of science, and was decorated with the Legion of Honor in 1844. He published a fine edition of the works of Diderot in ’57, and left the bust of that philosopher to the Louvre. Died 25 Jan. 1880.Walker(E.), of Worcester. Owenite author ofIs the Bible True?andWhat is Blasphemy?1843.Walker(Edwin C.), editor ofLuciferandFair Play, Valley Falls, Kansas.Walker(Thomas), orator, b. Preston, Lancashire, 5 Feb. 1858. Went to America and at the age of sixteen took to the platform. In ’77 he went to Australia, and for a while lectured at the Opera, Melbourne. In ’82 he started the Australian Secular Association, of which he was president for two years when he went to Sydney. In ’85 he was convicted for lecturingon Malthusianism, but the conviction was quashed by the Supreme Court. In ’87 he was elected M.P. for Northumberland district. Is President of Australian Freethought Union.Walser(George H.), American reformer, b. Dearborn Co. Indiana, 26 May, 1834. Became a lawyer, and a member of the legislature of his State. He founded the town of Liberal Barton Co. Missouri, to try the experiment of a town without any priest, church, chapel or drinking saloon. Mr. Walser has also sought to establish there a Freethought University.Ward(Lester Frank). American botanist, b. Joliet, Illinois, 18 June, 1841. He served in the National Army during the civil war and was wounded. In ’65 he settled at Washington and became librarian of the U.S. bureau of statistics. He is now curator of botany and fossil plants in the U.S. national museum. Has written many works on paleo-botany, and two volumes of sociological studies entitledDynamic Sociology. He has contributedtothePopular Science Monthly.Ward(Mary A.), translator ofAmiel’s Journal, and authoress of a popular novelRobert Elsmere, 1888.Warren(Josiah). American reformer, b. 26 June, 1798. He took an active part in Robert Owen’s communistic experiment at New Harmony, Indiana, in ’25–6. His own ideas he illustrated by establishing a “time store” at Cincinnati. His views are given in a work entitledTrue Civilisation. Died Boston, Mass. 14 April, 1874.Washburn(L. K.), American lecturer and writer, b. Wareham, Plymouth, Mass., 25 March, 1846. In ’57 he went to Barre. Was sent to a Unitarian school for ministers, and was ordained in Ipswich, Feb. ’70. He read from the pulpit extracts from Parker, Emerson, and others instead of the Bible. He went to Minneapolis, where he organised the first Freethought Society in the State. Heafterwardsresided at Revere, and delivered many Freethought lectures, of which several have been published. He now edits theBoston Investigator.Waters(Nathaniel Ramsey), American author ofRome v. Reason, a memoir of Christian and extra Christian experience.Watson(James), English upholder of a free press, b. Malton (Yorks), 21 Sept. 1799. During the prosecution of Carlile and his shopmen in 1822 he volunteered to come from London toLeeds. In Feb. ’23 he was arrested for selling Palmer’sPrinciples of Nature, tried 23 April, and sentenced to twelve months’ imprisonment, during which he read Gibbon, Hume, and Mosheim. When liberated he became a compositor on theRepublican. In ’31 Julian Hibbert gave him his type and presses, and he issued Volney’sLectures on History. In Feb. ’33 he was sentenced to six months’ imprisonment for sellingThe Poor Man’s Guardian. Hibbert left him £450, which he used in printing d’Holbach’sSystem of Nature, Volney’sRuins, F. Wright’sLectures, R. D. Owen’s pamphlets, Paine’s works, and other volumes. Died at Norwood, 29 Nov. 1874.Watson(Thomas), author ofThe Mystagogue, Leeds, 1847.Watts(Charles), Secularist orator, b. Bristol, 28 Feb. 1835. Converted to Freethought by hearing Charles Southwell, he became a lecturer and assistant editor on theNational Reformer. Mr. Watts has had numerous debates, both in England and America, with Dr. Sexton, Rev. Mr. Harrison, Brewin Grant, and others. He started theSecular Reviewwith G. W. Foote, and afterwardsSecular Thoughtof Toronto. He wrote a portion ofThe Freethinker’s Text Book, and has publishedChristianity: its Origin, Nature and Influence;The Teachings of Secularism compared with Orthodox Christianity, and other brochures.Watts(Charles A.), a son of above, b. 27 May, 1858. ConductsWatts’s Literary Gazetteand edits theAgnostic Annual.Watts(John), brother of Charles, b. Bedminster, Bristol, 2 Oct. 1834. His father was a Wesleyan preacher, and he was converted to Freethought by his brother Charles. He became sub-editor of theReasoner, and afterwards for a time edited theNational Reformer. He editedHalf Hours With Freethinkerswith “Iconoclast,” and published several pamphlets,Logic and Philosophy of Atheism,Origin of Man,Is Man Immortal?The Devil,Who were the Writers of the New Testament, etc. Died 31 Oct. 1866.Watts(of Lewes, Sussex), author of theYahoo, a satire in verse (first published in 1833), alsoThe Great Dragon Cast Out.Webber(Zacharias), Dutch painter, who in the seventeenth century wrote heretical worksOn the Temptation of ChristandThe Seduction of Adam and Eve, etc. He defended Bekker, whom he surpassed in boldness. Under the pen name J. Adolphs hewroteThe True Origin, Continuance and Destruction of Satan. Died in 1679.Weber(Karl Julius), German author, b. Langenburg, 16 April, 1767. Studied law at Erlangen and Göttingen. He lived for a while in Switzerland and studied French philosophy, which suited his satirical turn of mind. He wrote a history ofMonkery, 1818–20;Letters of Germans Travelling in Germany, ’26–28; andDemokritos, or the Posthumous Papers of a Laughing Philosopher, ’32–36. Died Kupferzell, 19 July, 1832.Weitling(Wilhelm), German social democrat, b. Magdeburg, 1808. He was a leader of “Der Bund der Gerechten,” the League of the Just, and published at ZürichThe Gospel of Poor Sinners. He also wroteHumanity, As It Is and As It Should Be. He emigrated to America, where he died 25 Jan. 1871.Wellhausen(Julius), German critic, b. Hameln 17 May, 1844, studied theology at Göttingen, and became professor in Griefswald, Halle, and Marburg. Is renowned for hisHistory of Israelin progress, ’78, etc., and hisProlegomenato the same, and his contributions to theEncyclopædia Britannica.Westbrook(Richard Brodhead), Dr., American author, b. Pike co., Pennsylvania, 8 Feb. 1820. He became a Methodist preacher in ’40, and afterwards joined the Presbyterians, but withdrew about ’60, and has since writtenThe Bible: Whence and What?andMan: Whence and Whither?In ’88 Dr. Westbrook was elected President of the American Secular Union, and has since offered a prize for the best essay on teaching morality apart from religion.Westerman(W. B.) During many years, from 1856–68, an active co-operator onDe Dageraad.Westra(P.), Dutch Freethinker, b. 16 March, 1851. Has for some years been active secretary of the Dutch Freethought society, “De Dageraad.”Wettstein(Otto), German American materialist, b. Barmen, 7 April, 1838. About ’48 his parents emigrated. In ’58 he set up in business as a jeweller at Rochelle. He contributed to theFreethinkers’ Magazine,The Ironclad Age, and other journals, and is treasurer of the National Secular Union.White(Andrew Dickson), American educator, b. Homer, N.Y., 7 Nov. 1832. He studied at Yale, where he graduatedin ’53; travelled in Europe, and in ’57 was elected professor of history and English literature in the University of Michigan. He was elected to the State Senate, and in ’67 became first president of Cornell, a university which he has largely endowed. Among his works we must mentionThe Warfare of Science(N.Y., ’76) andStudies in General History and in the History of Civilisation, ’85.Whitman(Walt), American poet, b. West Hills, Long Island, N.Y., 31 May, 1819. Educated in public schools, he became a printer, and travelled much through the States. In the civil war he served as a volunteer army nurse. His chief work,Leaves of Grass, with its noble preface, appeared in ’55, and was acclaimed by Emerson as “the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet contributed.” It was followed byDrum Taps,November BoughsandSands at Seventy. This “good gray poet” has also written prose essays calledDemocratic VietasandSpecimen Days and Collect.Wicksell(Knut), Swedish author and lecturer, b. Stockholm, 30 Dec. 1851, studied at Upsala, and became licentiate of philosophy in ’85. Has written brochures on Population, Emigration, Prostitution, etc., and anonymously a satirical work on Bible Stories, as by Tante Malin. Represented Sweden at the Paris Conference of ’89.Wieland(Christopher Martin), German poet and novelist, b. near Biberach, 5 Sept. 1733. A voluminous writer, he was called the Voltaire of Germany. Among his works we noticeDialogues of the Gods,Agathon, a novel, andEuthanasia, in which he argues against immortality. He translated Horace, Lucian and Shakespeare. Died Weimer, 20 Jan. 1813. His last words were “To be or not to be.”Wiener(Christian), Dr., German author of a materialistic work on theElements of Natural Laws, 1863.Wiessner(Alexander), German writer, author of an examination of spiritualism (Leipsic, 1875).Wigand(Otto Friedrich), German publisher, b. Göttingen, 10 Aug. 1795. In 1832 he established himself in Leipsic, where he issued the works of Ruge, Bauer, Feuerbach, Scherr, and other Freethinkers. Died 31 Aug. 1870.Wightman(Edward), English anti-Trinitarian martyr of Burton-on-Trent. Was burnt at Lichfield 11 April, 1612, being the last person burnt for heresy in England.Wihl(Ludwig), German poet, b. 24 Oct. 1807. Died Brussels, 16 Jan. 1882.Wilbrandt(Adolf), German author, b. Rosbock, 24 Aug. 1837. Has written on Heinrich von Kleist, Hölderlin, the poet of Pantheism, and published many plays, of which we may mentionGiordano Bruno, 1874, and also some novels.Wilhelmi(Hedwig Henrich), German lecturess and author ofVortrage, published at Milwaukee, 1889. She attended the Paris Congress of ’89.Wilkinson(Christopher), of Bradford, b. 1803. Wrote with Squire Farrah an ableExamination of Dr. Godwin’s Arguments for the Existence of God, published at Bradford, 1853.Williams(David), Welsh deist, b. Cardiganshire, 1738. He became a dissenting minister but after publishing two volumes ofSermons on Religious Hypocrisy, 1774, dissolved the connections. In conjunction with Franklin and others he founded a club and drew up aLiturgy on the Universal Principles of Religion and Morality, which he used at a Deistic chapel opened in Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, 7 April, 1776. He wrote various political and educational works, and established the literary fund in 1789. Died Soho, London, 29 June, 1816.Willis(Robert), physician and writer, b. Edinburgh, 1799. He studied at the University and became M.D. in 1819. He soon after came to London, and in ’23 became M.R.C.S. He became librarian to the College of Surgeons. Besides many medical works he wrote a Life of Spinoza, ’70, andServetus and Calvin, ’77. He also wrote onThe Pentateuch and Book of Joshua in the face of the Science and Moral Senses of our Age, andA Dialogue by Way of Catechism, both published by T. Scott. Died at Barnes, 21 Sept. 1878.Wilson(John), M.A., of Trin. Coll., Dublin, author ofThoughts on Science, Theology and Ethics, 1885.Wirmarsius(Henrik), Dutch author ofDen Ingebeelde Chaos, 1710.Wislicenus(Gustav Adolf), German rationalist, b. Saxony,20 Nov. 1803. He studied theology at Halle, and became a minister, but in consequence of his workLetter or Spirit(1845) was suspended and founded the Free Congregation. For his work onThe Bible in the Light of Modern Culturehe was, in Sept. ’53, sentenced to prison for two years. He went to America, and lectured in Boston and New York. He returned to Europe in ’56, and stayed in Zürich, where he died 14 Oct. 1785. His chief work,The Bible for Thinking Readers, was published at Leipsic in ’63.Wittichius(Jacobus), Dutch Spinozist, b. Aken, 11 Jan. 1671. Wrote on the Nature of God, 1711. Died 18 Oct. 1739.Wixon(Susan H.), American writer and editor of the “Children’s Corner” in theTruthseeker, has for many years been an advocate of Freethought, temperance, and women’s rights. She was a school teacher and member of the Board of Education of the City of Fall River, Mass., where she resides. She contributes to theBoston Investigator.Wollny(Dr. F.), German author ofPrinciples of Psychology(Leipsic, 1887), in the preface to which he professes himself an Atheist.Wollstonecraft(Mary), English authoress, b. Hoxton, 27 April, 1759. She became a governess. In 1796 she settled in London, and began her literary labors withThoughts on the Education of Daughters. She also wrote aVindication of the Rights of Man, in answer to Burke, andVindication of the Rights of Woman. In 1797 she married William Godwin, and died in childbirth.Wooley(Milton), Dr., American author ofScience of the Bible1877;Career of Jesus Christ, ’77; and a pamphlet on the name God. Died Aug. 1885.Woolston(Thomas), Rev. English deist, b. Northampton, 1669. He studied at Cambridge, and became a Fellow at Sydney College and a minister. He published in 1705The Old Apology, which was followed by other works in favor of an allegorical interpretation of Scripture. In 1726 he began hisSix Discourses upon the Miracles, which wereassailedin forcible, homely language. Thirty thousand copies are said to have been sold, and sixty pamphlets were written in opposition. Woolston was tried for blasphemy and sentenced (March, 1729) to oneyear’s imprisonment and a fine of £100. This he could not pay, and died in prison 29 Jan. 1733.Wright(Elizur), American reformer, b. South Canaan, Litchfield Co., Connecticut, 12 Feb. 1804. He graduated at Yale College, ’26. Having warmly embraced the principles of the Abolitionists, he became secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, and edited theAbolitionistandCommonwealth. He was a firm and uncompromising Atheist, and a contributor to theBoston Investigator, theFreethinker’s Magazine, etc. Died at Boston, 21 Dec. ’85. His funeral oration was delivered by Col. Ingersoll.Wright(Frances), afterwardsD’Arusmont, writer and lecturess, b. Dundee, 6 Sept. 1795. At the age of eighteen she wroteA Few Days in Athens, in which she expounds and defends the Epicurean philosophy. She visited the United States, and wroteViews on Society and Manners in America, 1820. She bought 2,000 acres in Tennessee, and peopled it with slave families she purchased and redeemed. She afterwards joined Owen’s experiment; in part edited theNew Harmony Gazette, and afterwards theFree Inquirer. ACourse of Popular Lectureswas published at New York in ’29, in which she boldly gives her views on religion. She also wrote a number of fables and tracts, and assisted in founding theBoston Investigator. Died at Cincinnati, 14 Dec. 1852.Wright(Henry Clarke), American reformer, b. Sharon, Litchfield co. Connecticut, 29 Aug. 1797. A conspicuous anti-slavery orator, he was a friend of Ernestine Rose, Lucretia Mott, etc. He wroteThe Living, Present and the Dead Past. Died Pawtucket, Rhode Island, 16 Aug. 1870.Wright(Susannah), one of Carlile’s shopwomen. Tried 14 Nov. 1822, for selling pamphlets by Carlile. She made a good defence, in the course of which she was continually interrupted.Wundt(Wilhelm Max), German scientist, b. Neckaran (Baden), 16 Aug. 1832. His father was a clergyman. He studied medicine at Tübingen, Heidelberg, and Berlin, and became professor of physiology at Heidelberg in ’64, and has since held chairs at Zurich and Leipsic. His principal worksarePrinciples of Physiological Psychology, ’74;Manual of Human Physiology;Logic, ’83;Essays, ’85;Ethik, ’86.Wuensch(Christian Ernest), German physician, b. Hohenstein, 1744. Was Professor of Mathematics and Physics in Frankfort on the Oder, 1828.Wyrouboff(Gr.), Count; Russian Positivist, who established theRevue de Philosophie Positivewith Littré, and edited it with him from 1867–83.Xenophanes, Greek philosopher, b. Colophon, about 600B.C.He founded the Eleatic school, and wrote a poem on Nature and Eleaticism, in which he ridiculed man making gods in his own image.Ximines(Augustin Louis),Marquis de, French writer, b. Paris, 26 Feb. 1726. Was an intimate friend of Voltaire, and wrote several plays. Died Paris, 31 May, 1817.York(J. L.), American lecturer, b. New York, 1830. He became a blacksmith, then a Methodist minister, then Unitarian, and finally Freethought advocate. He was for some years member of the California Legislature, and has made lecturing tours in Australia and through the States.Yorke(J. F.), author of ableNotes on Evolution and Christianity, London, 1882.Youmans(Edward Livingstone), American scientist, b. Coeymans, N.Y., 3 June, 1821. Though partially blind he was a great student. He became M.D. about 1851, and began to lecture on science, popularly expounding the doctrines of the conservation of energy and evolution. He popularised Herbert Spencer, planned the “International Scientific Series,” and in ’72 established thePopular Science Monthly, in which he wrote largely. Died at New York, 18 Jan. 1887.Zaborowski Moindrin(Sigismond), French scientific writer, b. La Créche, 1851. Has written onThe Antiquity of Man, ’74;Pre-historic Man, ’78;Origin of Languages, ’79;The Great Apes, ’81;Scientific Curiosities, ’83.Zambrini(Francesco), Italian writer, b. Faenza, 25 Jan. 1810. Educated at Ravenna and Bologna. He devoted himself to literature and produced a great number of works. Died 9 July, 1887.

Sue(Marie Joseph, called Eugène), French novelist, b. Paris, 10 Dec. 1804. He wrote many romances, of whichThe Mysteries of ParisandThe Wandering Jew, ’42–45, were the most popular. In ’50 he was elected deputy and sat at the extreme left, but was exiled by thecoup d’etat. He died as a Freethinker at Annecy (Savoy), 3 July 1857.Sullivan(J.), author ofSearch for Deity, an inquiry as to the origin of the conception of God (London, 1859).Sully Prudhomme(Renè François Armand), French poet, b. Paris, 16 March 1839. He studied law but took to poetry and has published many volumes. In ’78 he was made Chevalier of Honor, and in ’82 member of the Academy. His poems are of pessimistic cast, and full of delicacy of philosophical suggestion.Sunderland(La Roy), American author and orator, b. Exeter (Rhode Island), 18 May, 1803. He became a Methodist preacher and was prominent in the temperance and anti-slavery movements.He came out of the Church as the great bulwark of slavery and opposed Christianity during the forty years preceding his death. He wrote many works against slavery and Pathetism, ’47;Book of Human Nature, ’53, andIdeology, 3 vols., ’86–9. Died in Quincy (Mass.) 15 May, 1885.Suttner(Bertha von),Baroness, Austrian author ofInventory of a Soul, 1886, and of several novels.Sutton(Henry S.), anonymous author ofQuinquenergia; or, Proposals for a New Practical Theology, andLetters from a Father to a Son on Revealed Religion.Swinburne(Algernon Charles), English poet and critic, b. London, 5 April, 1837, educated at Oxford, and went to Florence, where he spent some time with W. S. Landor.Atalanta in Calydon, a splendid reproduction of Greek tragedy, first showed his genius.Poems and Ballads, 1866, evinced his unconventional lyrical passion and power, and provoked some outcry. In hisSongs before Sunrise, 1871, he glorifies Freethought and Republicanism, with unsurpassed wealth of diction and rhythm. Mr. Swinburne has put forward many other volumes of melodious and dramatic poems, and also essays, studies, and prose miscellanies.Symes(Joseph), English lecturer and writer, b. Portland, 29 Jan. 1841, of pious Methodist parents. In ’64 he offered himself as candidate for the ministry, and was sent to the Wesleyan College, Richmond, and in ’67 went on circuit as preacher. Having come to doubt orthodoxy, he resigned in ’72, preached his first open Freethought lecture at Newcastle, 17 Dec. ’76. Had several debates, wrotePhilosophic Atheism,Man’s Place in Nature,Hospitals not of Christian Origin,Christianity a Persecuting Religion,Blows at the Bible, etc. He contributed to theFreethinker, and was ready to conduct it during Mr. Foote’s imprisonment. He went to Melbourne, Dec. ’83, and there established theLiberator, and has writtenLife and Death of My Religion, ’84;Christianity and Slavery,Phallic Worship, etc.Symonds(John Addington), English poet and author, b. Bristol, 5 Oct. 1840, educated at Harrow and Oxford, and was elected in ’62 to a Fellowship at Magdalen College, which he vacated on his marriage. His chief work is on theRenaissance inItaly, 7 vols., completed in ’86. He has also written critical sketches, studies, and poems. Ill health compels his living abroad.Taine(Hippolyte Adolphe), D.C.L., brilliant French man of letters, b. Vouziers, 21 April, 1828. Educated at the College Bourbon (now the Condorcet Lyceum), in ’53 he took the degree of Doctor of Letters. In ’56 appears hisFrench Philosophers of the Nineteenth Century, in which he sharply criticised the spiritualist and religious school. He came to England and studied English Literature; his Hand History of which was sent in for the Academy prize, ’63, but rejected on the motion of Bishop Dupanloup on account of its materialist opinions. Also wrote onEnglish Positivism, a study of J. S. Mill. In ’71 Oxford made him D.C.L., and in Nov. ’78, he was elected to the French Academy; his latest work isThe Origins of Contemporary France.Talandier(Alfred), French publicist, b. Limoges, 7 Sept. 1828. After entering the bar, he became a socialist and took part in the revolution of ’48. Proscribed after 12 Dec. he came to England, started trades unions and co-operation, translated Smiles’s Self-Help, and wrote in theNational Reformer. Returned to Paris in ’70 and became professor at the Lycée Henri IV. In ’74 he was deprived of his chair, but elected on the Municipal council of Paris, and two years later chosen as deputy, and was re-elected in ’81. In ’83 he published aPopular Rabelaisand has written inOur Corneron that great Freethinker.Taubert(A.), the maiden name of Dr. Hartmann’s first wife. She wroteThe Pessimists and their Opponents, 1873.Taule(Ferdinand), M.D., of Strassburg, author ofNotions on the Nature and Properties of Organised Matter. Paris, 1866.Taurellus(Nicolaus), German physician and philosopher, b. Montbéhard, 26 Nov. 1547, studied medicine at Tübingen and Basle. For daring to think for himself, and asking how theAristoteliandoctrine of the eternity of the world could be reconciled with the dogma of creation, he was stigmatised as an atheist. Wrote many works in Latin, the principal of which isPhilosophiæ Triumphans, 1573. He died of the plague 28 Sept. 1606.Taylor(Robert), ex-minister, orator, and critic, b. Edmonton,18 Aug. 1784. In 1805 he walked Guy’s and St. Thomas’s Hospital, and became M.R.C.S., 1807. Persuaded to join the Church, he entered St. John’s, Cambridge, Oct. 1809, in Jan. ’13 graduated B.A., and soon after took holy orders. He was curate at Midhurst till ’18, when he first became sceptical through discussions with a tradesman. He preached a sermon on Jonah which astonished his flock, and resigned. He then went to Dublin and publishedThe Clerical Reviewand started “The Society of Universal Benevolence.” In ’24 he came to London and started “The Christian Evidence Society,” and delivered discourses with discussion; also edited thePhilalethian. In ’27 he was indicted for blasphemy, tried Oct. 24, after an able defence he was found guilty, and on 7 Feb. ’28 sentenced to one year’s imprisonment in Oakham Gaol. Here he wrote hisSyntagmaon the Evidences of Christianity, and his chief work,The Diegesis, being a discovery of the origins, evidences, and early history of Christianity. He also contributed a weekly letter toThe Lion, which R. Carlile started on his behalf. On his liberation they both went on “an infidel mission” about the country, and on May 30 the Rotunda, Blackfriars, was taken, where Taylor attired in canonicals delivered the discourses published inThe Devil’s Pulpit. He was again prosecuted, and on 4 July, ’31, was sentenced to two year’s imprisonment. He was badly treated in gaol, and soon after coming out married a wealthy lady and retired. Died at Jersey, 5 June, 1844.Taylor(Thomas), known as “The Platonist,” b. London, 1758. He devoted his life to the elucidation and propagation of the Platonic philosophy. He translated the works of Plato, Aristotle, Porphyry, five books of Plotinus, six books of Proclus, Gamblichus on the Mysteries, Arguments of Celsus taken from Origen, Arguments of Julian against the Christians, Orations of Julian, etc. He is said to have been so thorough a Pagan that he sacrificed a bull to Zeus. Died in Walworth, 1 Nov. 1835.Taylor(William), of Norwich, b. 7 Nov. 1765. He formed an acquaintance with Southey, with whom he corresponded. His translations from the German, notably Lessing’sNathanthe Wise, brought him some repute. He also wrote aSurvey of German PoetryandEnglish Synonyms, 1830. He edited the NorwichIris, 1802, which he made the organ of his political and religions views. In ’10 he published anonymouslyA Letter Concerning the Two First Chapters of Luke, also entitledWho was the Father of Jesus Christ? 1810, in which he argues that Zacharias was the father of Jesus Christ. Also wrote largely in theMonthly Review, replying therein to the Abbé Barruel; and theCritical Reviewwhen edited by Fellowes, in which he gave an account of the rationalism of Paulus. Died at Norwich, 5 March, 1836.Tchernychewsky(N. G.) SeeChernuishevsky.“Tela(Josephus),” the Latinised name of Joseph Webbe who in 1818 edited thePhilosophical Library, containing the Life and Morals of Confucius, Epicurus, Isoscrates, Mahomet, etc., and other pieces. Webbe is also thought to have been concerned in the production ofEcce Homo, ’13. Cushing, in hisInitials and Pseudonyms, refers Tela to “Joseph Webb,” 1735–87; an American writer; Grand Master of Freemasons in America; died in Boston.” I am not satisfied that this is the same person.Telesio(Bernardino), Italian philosopher, b. of noble family at Cosenza, 1509. He studied at Padua, and became famous for his learning, optical discoveries, and new opinions in philosophy. He wrote in LatinOn the Nature of Things according to Proper Principles, 1565. He opposed theAristoteliandoctrine in physics, and employed mathematical principles in explaining nature, for which he was prosecuted by the clergy. He died Oct. 1588. His works were placed in theIndex, but this did not prevent their publication at Venice, 1590.Telle(Reinier), or Regnerus Vitellius, Dutch Humanist, b. Zierikzee, 1578. He translated ServetusOn the Errors of the Trinity, published 1620. Died at Amsterdam, 1618.Testa(Giacinto), of Messina, Italian author of a curiousStoria di Gesù di Nazareth, 1870, in which he maintains that Jesus was the son ofGiuseppePandera, a Calabrian of Brindisi.Thaer(Albrecht Daniel). German agriculturist, b. Celle, 14 May, 1752. Studied at Gottingen, and is said to haveinspired Lessing’s work onThe Education of the Human Race. Died 28 Oct. 1828.Theodorusof Cyrene, a Greek philosopher, whose opinions resembled those of Epicurus. He was banished for Atheism from his native city. He resided at Athens about 312B.C.When threatened with crucifixion, he said it mattered little whether he rotted in the ground or in the air.Theophile de Viau, French satiric poet, b. Clerac, 1590. For the alleged publication ofLe Parnasse Satyriques, he was accused of Atheism, condemned to death, and burnt in effigy. He fled, and was received by the Duc de Montmorency at Chantilly, where he died, 25 Sept. 1626.Thompson(Daniel Greenleaf), American author of works onThe Problem of Evil, ’87;The Religious Sentiments, etc. He is President of the Nineteenth Century Club.Thomson(Charles Otto), Captain, b. Stockholm, 3 Jan. 1833. Went to sea in ’49 and became a merchant captain in ’57, and was subsequently manager of the Eskilstuna gas works. At Eskilstuna he started a Utilitarian Society in ’88, of which he is president. He has done much to support Mr. Lennstrand in his Freethought work in Sweden; has translated articles by Ingersoll, Foote and others, and has lectured on behalf of the movement. He shares in the conduct ofFritänkaren.Thomson(James), Pessimistic poet, b. Port Glasgow, 23 Nov. 1834. Educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, he became a schoolmaster in the army, where he met Mr. Bradlaugh, whom he afterwards assisted on theNational Reformer. To this paper he contributed many valuable essays, translations, and poems, including his famous “City of Dreadful Night,” the most powerful pessimistic poem in the English language, (April, ’74, afterwards published with other poems in ’80). “Vane’s Story” with other poems was issued in ’81, and “A Voice from the Nile,” and “Shelley” (privately printed in ’84). Thomson also contributed to theSecularistandLiberal, edited by his friend Foote, who has published many of his articles in a volume entitledSatires and Profanities, which includes “The Story of a Famous Old Jewish Firm,” also published separately. Thomson employed much of his genius in the service of Freethought. Died 3 June, 1882.Thomson(William), of Cork. A disciple of Bentham, and author ofThe Distribution of Wealth, 1824;Appeal for Women, ’25;Labor Reward, ’27, and in theCo-operative Magazine.Thorild(Thomas), orThoren, Swedish writer, b. Bohuslau, 18 April, 1759. In 1775 he studied at Lund, and in 1779 went to Stockholm, and published many poems and miscellaneous pieces in Swedish, Latin, German, and English, in which he wroteCromwell, an epic poem. In 1786 he wroteCommon Sense on Liberty, with a view of extending the liberty of the press. He was a partisan of the French Revolution, and for a political work was imprisoned and exiled. He also wrote aSermon of Sermons, attacking the clergy, and a work maintaining the rights of women. Died at Greifswald; 1 Oct. 1808. He was a man far in advance of his time, and is now becoming appreciated.Thulie(Jean Baptiste Henri), French physician and anthropologist, b. Bordeaux, 1832. In ’56 he founded a journal, “Realism.” In ’66 he published a work onMadness and the Law. He contributed toLa Pensée Nouvelle, defending the views of Büchner. He has written an able study,La Femme, Woman, published in ’85. M. Thulie has been President of the Paris Municipal Council.Tiele(Cornelis Petrus), Dutch scholar, b. Leyden, 16 Dec. 1830. Although brought up in the Church, his works all tell in the service of Freethought, and he has shown his liberality of views in editing the poems of Genestet together with his life, ’68. He has written many articles on comparative religion, and two of his works have been translated into English, viz.,Outlines of the History of Religion, a valuable sketch of the old faiths, fourth ed. ’88; andComparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian Religions, ’82.Tillier(Claude), French writer, b. of poor parents, Clamecy, 11 April, 1801. He served as a conscript, and wrote some telling pamphlets directed against tyranny and superstition, and some novels, of which we noteMy Uncle Benjamin. Died at Nevers, 12 Oct. 1844. His works were edited by F. Pyat.Tindal(Matthew), LL.D., English Deist, b. Beer-ferris, Devon, 1657. Educated at Oxford, and at first a High Churchman, he was induced to turn Romanist in the reign ofJames II., but returned to Protestantism and wroteThe Rights of the Christian Church. This work was much attacked by the clergy, who even indicted the vendors. A defence which he published was ordered to be burnt by the House of Commons. In 1730 he publishedChristianity as Old as the Creation, to which no less than 150 answers were published. He died 16 Aug. 1733, and a second volume, which he left in MS., was destroyed by order of Gibson, Bishop of London.Toland(John), Irish writer, b. Redcastle, near Londonderry, 30 Nov. 1669. Educated as a Catholic, he renounced that faith in early youth, went to Edinburgh University, where he became M.A. in 1690, and proceeded to Leyden, studying under Spanheim, and becoming a sceptic. He also studied at Oxford, reading deeply in the Bodleian Library, and became the correspondent of Le Clerc and Bayle. In 1696 he startled the orthodox with hisChristianity not Mysterious, which was “presented” by the Grand Jury of Middlesex and condemned by the Lower House of Convocation. The work was also burnt at Dublin, Sept. 1697. He wrote aLife of Milton(1698), in which, mentioningEikon Basilike, he referred to the “suppositious pieces under the name of Christ, his apostles and other great persons.” For this he was denounced by Dr. Blackhall before Parliament. He replied withAmytor, in which he gives a catalogue of such pieces. He went abroad and was well received by the Queen of Prussia, to whom he wroteLetters to Serena(1704), which, says Lange, “handles the kernel of the whole question of Materialism.” In 1709 he publishedAdeisidænonandOrigines Judaicæ. In 1718Nazarenus, on Jewish, Gentile and Mahommedan Christianity, in which he gave an account of the Gospel of Barnabus. He also wrote four pieces entitledTetradymusandPantheisticon, which described a society of Pantheists with a liturgy burlesquing that of the Catholics. Toland died with the calmness of a philosopher, at Putney, 11 March, 1722. Lange praises him highly.Tollemache(Hon.Lionel Arthur), b. 1838, son of Baron Tollemache, a friend of C. Austin, of whom he has written. Wrote many articles inFortnightly Review, reprinted (privately) asStones of Stumbling, ’84. Has also writtenSafe Studies, ’84;Recollections of Pallison, ’85; andMr. Romanes’s Catechism, ’87.Tone(Theobald Wolfe), Irish patriot, b. Dublin, 20 June, 1763. Educated at Trinity College in 1784, he obtained a scholarship in 1786, B.A. He founded the Society of United Irishmen, 1791. Kept relations with the French revolutionists, and in 1796 induced the French Directory to send an expedition against England. He was taken prisoner and committed suicide in prison, dying 19 Nov. 1798.Topinard(Paul), M.D., French anthropologist, b. Isle-Adam 1830. Editor of theRevue d’Anthropologie, and author of a standard work on that subject published in the Library of Contemporary Science.Toulmin(George Hoggart), M.D., of Wolverhampton. Author ofThe Antiquity and Duration of the World, 1785;The Eternity of the Universe, 1789; the last being republished in 1825.Tournai(Simon de). SeeSimon.Traina(Tommaso), Italian jurist. Author of a work onThe Ethics of Herbert Spencer, Turin, 1881.Travis(Henry), Dr., b. Scarborough, 1807. He interested himself in the socialistic aspect of co-operation, and became a friend and literary executor to Robert Owen. In ’51–53 he editedRobert Owen’s Journal. He also wrote onEffectual Reform,Free Will and Law,Moral Freedom and Causation, andA Manual of Social Science, and contributed to theNational Reformer. Died 4 Feb. 1884.Trelawny(Edward John), b. Cornwall, Nov. 1792. Became intimate in Italy with Shelley, whose body he recovered and cremated in August, 1822. He accompanied Byron on his Greek expedition, and married a daughter of a Greek chief. He wroteAdventures of a Younger Son, ’31; andRecords of Shelley, Byron, and the Author, ’78. He died 13 Aug. 1881, and was cremated at Gotha, his ashes being afterwards placed beside those of Shelley. Trelawny was a vehement Pagan despising the creeds and conventions of society. Swinburne calls him “World-wide liberty’s lifelong lover.”Trenchard(John), English Deist and political writer, b. Somersetshire, 1669. He studied law, but abandoned it, and was appointed Commissioner of Forfeited Estates in Ireland. In conjunction with Gordon he wroteCato’s Letterson civil andreligious liberty, and conductedThe Independent Whig. He sat in the House of Commons as M.P. for Taunton; he also wrote theNatural History of Superstition, 1709; butLa Contagion Sacree, attributed to him, is really by d’Holbach. Died 17 Dec. 1723.Trevelyan(Arthur), of Tyneholm, Tranent, N.B., a writer in theReasonerandNational Reformer. PublishedThe Insanity of Mankind(Edinburgh, 1850), and some tracts. He was a Vice-President of the National Secular Society. Died at Tyneholm, 6 Feb. 1878.Trezza(Gaetano), Italian writer, b. Verona, Dec. 1828. Was brought up and ordained a priest, and was an eloquent preacher. Study led him to resign the clerical profession. He has published Confessions of a Sceptic, ’78; Critical Studies, ’78; New Critical Studies, ’81. He is Professor of Literature at the Institute of High Studies, Florence. To the first number of theRevue Internationale’83, he contributedLes Dieux s’en vont. He also wrote Religion and Religions, ’84; and aworkon St. Paul. A study on Lucretius has reached its third edition, ’87.Tridon(Edme Marie, Gustave), French publicist, b. Chatillon sur Seine, Burgundy, 5 June, 1841. Educated by his parents who were rich, he became a doctor of law but never practised. In ’64 he published inLe Journal des Ecoles, his remarkable study of revolutionary historyLes Hébertistes. In May, ’65 he founded with Blanqui, etc.,Le Candide, the precursor ofLa Libre Pensée, ’66, in both of which the doctrines of materialism were expounded. Delegated in ’65 to the International Students Congress at Liége his speech was furiously denounced by Bishop Dupanloup; he got more than two years’ imprisonment for articles inLe CandideandLa Libre Pensée, and in Ste Pelagie contracted the malady which killed him. While in prison he wrote the greater part of his workDu Molochisme Juif, critical and philosophical studies of the Jewish religion, only published in ’84. After 4 Sept. ’70, he foundedLa Patrie en Danger. In Feb. ’71 he was elected deputy to the Bordeaux Assembly, but resigned after voting against declaration of peace. He then became a member of the Paris Commune, retiring afterthe collapse to Brussels where he died 29 Aug. 1871. He received the most splendid Freethinker’s funeral witnessed in Belgium.Truebner(Nicolas), publisher, b. Heidelberg, 17 June, 1817. After serving with Longman and Co., he set up in business, and distinguished himself by publishing works on Freethought, religions, philosophy and Oriental literature. Died London, 30 March, 1884.Truelove(Edward), English publisher, b. 29 Oct. 1809. Early in life he embraced the views of Robert Owen, and for nine years was secretary of the John Street Institution. In ’44 and ’45 he threw in his lot with the New Harmony Community, Hampshire. In ’52 he took a shop in the Strand, where he sold advanced literature. He published Voltaire’sPhilosophical DictionaryandRomances, Paine’s complete works, D’Holbach’sSystem of Nature, and Taylor’sSyntagmaandDiegesis. In ’58 he was prosecuted for publishing a pamphlet onTyrannicide, by W. E. Adams, but the prosecution was abandoned. In ’78 he was, after two trials, sentenced to four months’ imprisonment for publishing R. D. Owen’sMoral Physiology. Upon his release he was presented with a testimonial and purse of 200 sovereigns.Trumbull(Matthew M.), American general, a native of London, b. 1826. About the age of twenty he went to America, served in the army in Mexico, and afterwards in the Civil War. General Grant made him Collector of Revenue for Iowa. He held that office eight years, and then visited England. In 1882 he went to Chicago, where he exerted himself on behalf of a fair trial for the Anarchists.Tschirnhausen(Walthier Ehrenfried), GermanCount, b. 1651. He was a friend of Leibniz and Wolff, and in philosophy a follower of Spinoza, though he does not mention him. Died 1708.Tucker(Benjamin R.), American writer, b. Dartmouth, Mass., 17 April, 1854. EditsLiberty, of Boston.Turbiglio(Sebastiano), Italian philosopher, b. Chiusa, 7 July,1842, author of a work onSpinoza and the Transformation of his Thoughts, 1875.Turgenev(Ivan Sergyeevich), Russian novelist, b. Orel, 28 Oct. 1818. In his novels,Fathers and SonsandVirgin Soilhe has depicted characters of the Nihilist movement. Died at Bougival, near Paris, 3 Sept. 1883.Turner(William), a surgeon of Liverpool, who, under the name of William Hammon, published anAnswer to Dr. Priestley’s Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever, 1782, in which he avows himself an Atheist.Tuuk(Titia, Van der), Dutch lady, b. Zandt, 27 Nov. 1854. Was converted to Freethought by reading Dekker, and is now one of the editors ofDe Dageraad.Twesten(Karl), German publicist and writer, b.Kiel, 22 April, 1820. Studied law, ’38–41, in Berlin and Heidelberg, and became magistrate in Berlin and one of the founders of the National Liberal Party. Wrote on the religious, political, and social ideas of Asiatics and Egyptians (2 vols.), ’72. Died Berlin, 14 Oct. 1870.Tylor(Edward Burnet), D.C.L., F.R.S., English anthropologist, b. Camberwell, 2 Oct. 1832. He has devoted himself to the study of the races of mankind, and is the first living authority upon the subject. He has wroteAnahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans, ’61;Researches into the Early History of Mankind, ’65;Primitive Culture; being researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom (2 vols.), ’71. In this splendid work he traces religion to animism, the belief in spirits. He has also written an excellent handbook ofAnthropology, an introduction to the Study of Man and Civilisation, ’81; and contributed to theEncyclopædia Britannica, as well as to periodical literature. He is President of the Anthropological Society.Tyndall(John), LL.D., F.R.S., Irish scientist, b. near Carlow, 1820. In ’47 he became a teacher in Queenswood College (Hants), and afterwards went to Germany to study. In ’56 he went to Switzerland with Professor Huxley, and they wrote a joint work on glaciers. He contributed to theFortnightly Review, notably an article on Miracles and Special Providence, ’66. In ’72 he went on a lecturing tour in the United States, and two years later was president of the British Association. His address at Belfast made a great stir, and has been published. In addition to other scientific works he haspublished popularFragments of Science, which has gone through several editions.Tyrell(Henry). SeeChurch.Tyssot de Patot(Simon), b. of French family in Delft, 1655. He became professor of mathematics at Deventer. Under the pen name of “Jacques Massé” he publishedVoyages and Adventures, Bordeaux, 1710, a work termed atheistic and scandalous by Reimmann. It was translated into English by S. Whatley, 1733, and has been attributed to Bayle.Ueberweg(Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Leichlingen 22 Jan. 1826; studied at Göttingen and Berlin, and became Professor of Philosophy at Königsberg, where he died 9 June, 1871. His chief work is aHistory of Philosophy. Lange cites Czolbe as saying “He was in every way distinctly an Atheist and Materialist.”Uhlich(Johann Jacob Marcus Lebericht), German religious reformer, b. Köthen 27 Feb. 1799. He studied at Halle and became a preacher. For his rationalistic views he was suspended in 1847, and founded the Free Congregation at Magdeburg. He wrote numerous brochures defending his opinions. HisReligion of Common Sensehas been translated and published in America. Died atMagdeburg, 23 March, 1872.Ule(Otto), German scientific writer, b. Lossow 22 Jan. 1820. Studied at Halle and Berlin. In ’52 he started the journalDie Natur, and wrote many works popularising science. Died at Halle 6 Aug. 1876.Underwood(Benjamin F.). American lecturer and writer, b. New York 6 July, 1839. Has been a student and a soldier in the Civil War. He fought at Ball’s Bluff, Virginia, 21 Oct. ’61, was wounded and held prisoner in Richmond for nine months. In ’81 he edited theIndexin conjunction with Mr. Potter, and in ’87 startedThe Open Courtat Chicago. He has had numerous debates; those with the Rev. J. Marples and O. A. Burgess being published. He has also publishedEssays and Lectures,The Religion of Materialism,Influence of Christianity on Civilisation, etc. His sister, Sara A., has writtenHeroines of Freethought, New York, 1876.Vacherot(Etienne), French writer, b. Langres, 29 July, 1809. In ’39 he replaced Victor Cousin in the Chair of Philosophyat the Sorbonne. For his free opinions expressed in hisCritical History of the School of Alexandria, a work in three vols. crowned by the Institute, ’46–51, he was much attacked by the clergy and at the Empire lost his position. He afterwards wroteEssays of Critical Philosophy, ’64, andLa Religion, ’69.Vacquerie(Auguste), French writer, b. Villequier, 1819. A friend of Victor Hugo. He has written many dramas and novels of merit, and was director ofLe Rappel.Vaillant(Edouard Marie), French publicist, b. Vierzon, 26 Jan. 1840. Educated at Paris and Germany. A friend of Tridon he took part in the Commune, and in ’84 was elected Muncipal Councillor of Paris.Vairasse(Denis) d’Alais, French writer of the seventeenth century. He became both soldier and lawyer. Author ofHistoire des Sevarambes, 1677; imaginary travels in which he introduced free opinions and satirised Christianity.Vale(Gilbert) author, b. London, 1788. He was intended for the church, but abandoned the profession and went to New York, where he edited theCitizen of the Worldand theBeacon. He publishedFanaticism; its Source and Influence, N.Y. 1835, and aLife of Paine, ’41. Died Brooklyn, N.Y. 17 Aug. 1866.Valk(T. A. F. van der), Dutch Freethinker, who, after being a Christian missionary in Java, changed his opinions, and wrote inDe Dageraadbetween 1860–70, using the pen name of “Thomas.”Valla(Lorenzo), Italian critic, b. Piacenza, 1415. Having hazarded some free opinions respecting Catholic doctrines, he was condemned to be burnt, but was saved by Alphonsus, King of Naples. Valla was then confined in a monastery, but Pope Nicholas V. called him to Rome and gave him a pension. He died there, 1 Aug. 1457.Vallee(Geoffrey), French martyr, b. Orleans, 1556. He wroteLa Béatitude des Chréstiens ou le Fléo de la Foy, for which he was accused of blasphemy, and hanged on the Place de Gréve, Paris, 9 Feb. 1574.Valliss(Rudolph), German author of works onThe Natural History of Gods(Leip., 1875);The Eternity of the World, ’75;Catechism of Human Duty, ’76, etc.Van Cauberg(Adolphe), Belgian advocate. One of the founders and president of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 1886.Van Effen.SeeEffen.Vanini(Lucilio, afterwardsJulius Cæsar), Italian philosopher and martyr, b. Taurisano (Otranto), 1585. At Rome and Padua he studied Averroism, entered the Carmelite order, and travelled in Switzerland, Germany, Holland and France making himself admired and respected by his rationalistic opinions. He returned to Italy in 1611, but the Inquisition was on his track and he took refuge at Venice. In 1612 he visited England, and in 1614 got lodged in the Tower. When released he went to Paris and published a Pantheistic work in LatinOn the Admirable Secrets of Nature, the Queen and Goddess of Mortals. It was condemned by the Sorbonne and burnt, and he fled to Toulouse in 1617; but there was no repose for Freethought. He was accused of instilling Atheism into his scholars, tried and condemned to have his tongue cut out, his body burned and his ashes scattered to the four winds. This was done 19 Feb. 1619. President Gramond, author ofHistory of France under Louis XIII., writes “I saw him in the tumbril as they led him to execution, mocking the Cordelier who had been sent to exhort him to repentance, and insulting our Savior by these impious words. ‘Hesweated with fear and weakness, and I die undaunted.’”Vapereau(Louis Gustave), French man of letters, b. Orleans 4 April, 1819. In ’41 he became the secretary of Victor Cousin. He collaborated on theDictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiquesand theLiberté de Penser, but is best known by his usefulDictionnaire Universel des Contemporains. In ’70 he was nominated prefect of Cantal, but on account of the violent attacks of the clericals was suspended in ’73 and resumed his literary labors, compiling aUniversal Dictionary of Writers, ’76, andElements of the History of French Literature, 1883–85.Varnhagen von Ense(Earl August Ludwig Philipp), German author, b. Dusseldorf, 21 Feb. 1785. He studied medicine and philosophy, entered the Austrian and Russian armies, and served in the Prussian diplomatic service. He was an intimate friend of Alex. von Humboldt, and shared hisFreethinking opinions. Died in Berlin, 10 Oct. 1858. He vividly depicts the men and events of his time in hisDiary.Vauvenargues(Luc deClapiers), Marquis; French moralist, b. Aix, 6 Aug. 1715. At eighteen he entered the army, and left the service with ruined health in 1743. He published in 1746 anIntroduction to the Knowledge of the Human Mind, followed by Reflections and Maxims, which was deservedly praised by his friend Voltaire. Died at Paris 28 May, 1747. His work, which though but mildly deistic, was rigorously suppressed, and was reprinted about 1770.Velthuysen(Lambert), Dutch physician, b. Utrecht, 1622. He wrote many works on theology and philosophy in Latin. His works,De Officio PastorumandDe Idolatria et Superstitionewere proceeded against in 1668, but he was let off with a fine. Died 1685.Venetianer(Moritz), German Pantheist, author ofDer Allgeist, 1874, and a work onSchopenhauer as a Scholastic.Vereschagin(Vasily), Russian painter, b. Novgorod, 1842. He studied at Paris under Gerome, took part in the Russo-Turkish war, and has travelled widely. The realistic and anti-religious conceptions of hisHoly FamilyandResurrectionwere the cause of their being withdrawn from the Vienna Exhibition in Oct. ’85, by order of the archbishop. In his Autobiographical Sketches, translated into English, ’87, he shows his free opinions.Vergniaud(Pierre Victurnien), French Girondist orator, b. Limoges, 31 May, 1759. He studied law, and became an advocate. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, he also became President of the Convention. At the trial of the King he voted for the appeal to the people, but that being rejected, voted death. With Gensonné and Guadet, he opposed the sanguinary measures of Robespierre, and, being beaten in the struggle, was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. Vergniaud was a brilliant speaker. He said: “Reason thinks, Religion dreams.” He had prepared poison for himself, but as there was not enough for his comrades, he resolved to suffer with them.Verlet(Henri), French founder and editor of a journal,La Libre Pensée, 1871, and author of a pamphlet onAtheism and the Supreme Being.Verliere(Alfred), French author of aGuide du Libre-Penseur(Paris, 1869); collaboratedLa Libre Pensée,Rationaliste, etc. To Bishop Dupanloup’sAthéismeet Peril Socialhe replied withDeisme et Peril Social, for which he was condemned to several months’ imprisonment.Vermersch(Eugène), French journalist, b. Lille about 1840. Took part in the Commune, and has written on many Radical papers.Vernes(Maurice), French critic, b. Mauroy, 1845. Has publishedMelanges de Critique Religieuse, and translated from Kuenen and Tiele.Veron(Eugène), French writer and publicist, b. Paris, 29 May, 1825. He wrote on many journals, foundedLa France Republicaineat Lyons, andl’Artat Paris. Besides historical works he has writtenL’Esthetiquein the “Library of Contemporary Science,” ’78;The Natural History of Religions, 2 vols., in theBibliothèque Materialiste, ’84; andLa Morale, ’84.Viardot(Louis), French writer, b. Dijon, 31 July, 1800. Hecame to Paris and became an advocate, but after a voyage in Spain, left the bar for literature, writing on theGlobe NationalandSiècle. In ’41 he founded theRevue Independantewith “George Sand,” and Pierre Leroux. He made translations from the Russian, and in addition to many works on art he wroteThe Jesuits, ’57;Apology of an Unbeliever, translated into English, ’69, and republished asLibre Examen, ’71. Died 1883.Vico(Giovanni Battista), Italian philosopher, b. Naples 1668. He became Professor of Rhetoric in the University of that city, and published aNew Science of the Common Nature of Nations, 1725, in which he argues that the events of history are determined by immutable laws. It presents many original thoughts. Died Naples, 21 Jan. 1743.Virchow(Rudolf), German anthropologist, b. SchivelbeinPomerania, 13 Oct. 1821. Studied medicine at Berlin and became lecturer, member of the National Assembly of ’48, and Professor of Pathological Anatomy at Berlin. HisCellular Pathology, ’58, established his reputation. He was chosendeputy and rose to the leadership of the Liberal opposition. His scientific views are advanced although he opposed the Haeckel in regard to absolute teaching of evolution.Vischer(Friedrich Theodor), German art critic, b. Ludwigsburg, 30 June, 1807. Was educated for the Church, became a minister, but renounced theology and became professor of[missing text]and isJahrbücher der Gegenwart, ’44, was accused of blasphemy and for his Freethinking opinions he was suspended two years. At the revolution of ’48 he was elected to the National Assembly. In ’55 he became Professor at Zürich. His work onÆsthetic, or the Science of the Beautiful, ’46–54, is considered classic. He has also written,Old and New, ’81, and several anonymous works. Died Gmunden, 14 Sept. 1887.Vitry(Guarin de) French author of aRapid Examination of Christian Dogma, addressed to the Council of 1869.Vloten(Johannes van), Dutch writer, b. Kampen, 18 Jan. 1818; studied theology at Leiden and graduated D.D. in ’43. He has, however, devoted himself to literature, and produced many works, translating plays of Shakespeare, editing Spinoza, and writing his life—translated into English by A. Menzies. He edited alsoDe Levensbode, 1865, etc.Voelkel(Titus), Dr., German lecturer and writer, b. Wirsitz (Prussian Poland) 14 Dec. 1841. Studied (’59–65) theology, natural philosophy, and mathematics, and spent some years in France. He returned ’70, and was for ten years employed as teacher at higher schools. Since ’80 has been “sprecher” of Freethought associations and since ’85 editor of theNeuesFreireligiösesSonntags-Blatt, atMagdeburg. In ’88 he was several times prosecuted for blasphemy and each time acquitted. He represented several German societies at the Paris Congress of Freethinkers, ’89.Voglet(Prosper), Belgian singer, b. Brussels, 1825. He was blinded through his baptism by a Catholic priest, and has in consequence to earn his living as a street singer. His songs, of his own composition, are anti-religious. Many have appeared inLa Tribune du Peuple, which he edited.Vogt(Karl), German scientist, b. Giessen, 5 July, 1817, the son of a distinguished naturalist. He studied medicine andbecame acquainted with Agassiz. In ’48 he was elected deputy to the National Assembly. Deprived of his chair and exiled, he became professor of Natural History at Geneva. His lectures onMan, His Position in Creation and in the History of the Earth, ’63, made a sensation by their endorsement of Darwinism. They were translated into English and published by the Anthropological Society. He has also written aManual of Geology,Physiological Letters,Zoological Letters,Blind Faith and Science, etc., and has contributed to the leading Freethought journals of Germany and Switzerland.Volkmar(Gustav), Swiss critic, b. Hersfeld, 11 Jan. 1809. Studied at Marburg ’29–32; becameprivat docentat Zurich, ’53, and professor ’63. He has written rationalist works on the Gospel of Marcion, ’52; Justin Martyr, ’53; theOrigin of the Gospels, ’66;Jesus and the first Christian Ages, ’82, etc.Volney(Constantin FrançoisChasseboufde), Count, French philosopher, b. Craon (Anjou) 3 Feb. 1757. Having studied at Ancenis and Angers, he went to Paris in 1774. Here he met D’Holbach and others. In 1783 he started for Egypt and Syria, and in 1787 published an account of his travels. Made Director of Commerce in Corsica, he resigned on being elected to the Assembly. Though a wealthy landlord, he wrote and spoke for division of landed property. In 1791 his eloquentRuinsappeared. During the Terror he was imprisoned for ten months. In ’95 he visited America. Returning to France, Napoleon asked him to become colleague in the consulship but Volney declined. He remonstrated with Napoleon when he re-established Christianity by the Concordat, April 1802. Among his other works was aHistory of Samueland theLaw of Nature. Died 25 April, 1820.Voltaire(François Marie.Arouetde), French poet, historian and philosopher, b. Paris 21 Nov. 1694. Educated by the Jesuits, he early distinguished himself by his wit. For a satirical pamphlet on the death of Louis XIV he was sent to the Bastille for a year and was afterwards committed again for a quarrel with the Chevalier de Rohan. On his liberation he came to England at the invitation of Lord Bolingbroke, and became acquainted with the English Freethinkers. HisLettres Philosophiquestranslated as “Letters on the English,” 1732,gave great offence to the clergy and was condemned to be burnt. About 1735 he retired to the estate of the Marquise de Châtelet at Cirey, where he produced many plays. We may mentionMahomet, dedicated to the Pope, who was unable to see that its shafts were aimed at the pretences of the church. In 1750 he accepted the invitation of Frederick II. to reside at his court. But he could not help laughing at the great king’s poetry. The last twenty years of his life was passed at Ferney near the Genevan territory, which through his exertions became a thriving village. He did more than any other man of his century to abolish torture and other relics of barbarism, and to give just notions of history. To the last he continued to wage war against intolerance and superstition. His works comprise over a thousand pieces in seventy volumes. Over fifty works were condemned by the Index, and Voltaire used no less than one hundred and thirty different pen-names. His name has risen above the clouds of detraction made by his clerical enemies. Died 30 May, 1778.Voo(G. W. van der), Dutch writer, b. 6 April, 1806. For more than half a century he was schoolmaster and teacher of the French language at Rotterdam, where he still lives. He contributed many articles toDe Dageraad.Vosmaer(Carel), Dutch writer, b. the Hague 20 March, 1826. Studied law at Leyden. He edited theTydstroom(1858–9) andSpectator(1860–73), and wrote several works on Dutch art and other subjects. Died atMontreux(Switzerland), 12 June, 1888.Voysey(Charles), English Theist, b. London 18 March, 1828. Graduated B.A. at Oxford, ’51, was vicar of Healaugh, Yorkshire, ’64–71, and deprived 11 Feb. ’71 for heresy in sermons published inThe Sling and the Stone. He has since established a Theistic Church in Swallow Street, Piccadilly, and his sermons are regularly published. He has also issuedFragments from Reimarus, ’79, editedThe Langham Magazineand publishedLectures on the Bible and the Theistic Faith, etc.Vulpian(Edme Felix Alfred), French physician, b. 5 Jan. 1826. Wrote several medical works and upon being appointed lecturer at the School of Medicine, ’69, was violently opposedon account of his Atheism. He was afterwards elected to the Academy of Sciences. Died 17 May, 1887.Wagner(Wilhelm Richard), German musical composer and poet, b. Leipsic, 22 May, 1813. From ’42–49 he was conductor of the Royal Opera, Dresden, but his revolutionary sentiments caused his exile to Switzerland, where he produced his “Lohengrin.” In ’64 he was patronised by Ludwig II. of Bavaria, and produced many fine operas, in which he sought that poetry, scenery, and music should aid each other in making opera dramatic. In philosophy he expressed himself a follower of Schopenhauer. Died at Venice, 13 Feb. 1883.Waite(Charles Burlingame), American judge, b. Wayne county, N.Y. 29 Jan. 1824. Educated at Knox College, Illinois, he was admitted to the Bar in ’47. After successful practice in Chicago, he was appointed by President Lincoln Justice of the Supreme Court of Utah. In ’81 he issued hisHistory of the Christian Religion to the yearA.D.200, a rationalistic work, which explodes the evangelical narratives.Wakeman(Thaddeus B.), American lawyer and Positivist, b. 29 Dec. 1834, was one of the editors ofManand a president of the New York Liberal Club. A contributor to theFreethinkers’ Magazine.Walferdin(François-Hippolyte), b. Langres, 8 June, 1795. A friend of Arago he contributed with him to the enlargement of science, and was decorated with the Legion of Honor in 1844. He published a fine edition of the works of Diderot in ’57, and left the bust of that philosopher to the Louvre. Died 25 Jan. 1880.Walker(E.), of Worcester. Owenite author ofIs the Bible True?andWhat is Blasphemy?1843.Walker(Edwin C.), editor ofLuciferandFair Play, Valley Falls, Kansas.Walker(Thomas), orator, b. Preston, Lancashire, 5 Feb. 1858. Went to America and at the age of sixteen took to the platform. In ’77 he went to Australia, and for a while lectured at the Opera, Melbourne. In ’82 he started the Australian Secular Association, of which he was president for two years when he went to Sydney. In ’85 he was convicted for lecturingon Malthusianism, but the conviction was quashed by the Supreme Court. In ’87 he was elected M.P. for Northumberland district. Is President of Australian Freethought Union.Walser(George H.), American reformer, b. Dearborn Co. Indiana, 26 May, 1834. Became a lawyer, and a member of the legislature of his State. He founded the town of Liberal Barton Co. Missouri, to try the experiment of a town without any priest, church, chapel or drinking saloon. Mr. Walser has also sought to establish there a Freethought University.Ward(Lester Frank). American botanist, b. Joliet, Illinois, 18 June, 1841. He served in the National Army during the civil war and was wounded. In ’65 he settled at Washington and became librarian of the U.S. bureau of statistics. He is now curator of botany and fossil plants in the U.S. national museum. Has written many works on paleo-botany, and two volumes of sociological studies entitledDynamic Sociology. He has contributedtothePopular Science Monthly.Ward(Mary A.), translator ofAmiel’s Journal, and authoress of a popular novelRobert Elsmere, 1888.Warren(Josiah). American reformer, b. 26 June, 1798. He took an active part in Robert Owen’s communistic experiment at New Harmony, Indiana, in ’25–6. His own ideas he illustrated by establishing a “time store” at Cincinnati. His views are given in a work entitledTrue Civilisation. Died Boston, Mass. 14 April, 1874.Washburn(L. K.), American lecturer and writer, b. Wareham, Plymouth, Mass., 25 March, 1846. In ’57 he went to Barre. Was sent to a Unitarian school for ministers, and was ordained in Ipswich, Feb. ’70. He read from the pulpit extracts from Parker, Emerson, and others instead of the Bible. He went to Minneapolis, where he organised the first Freethought Society in the State. Heafterwardsresided at Revere, and delivered many Freethought lectures, of which several have been published. He now edits theBoston Investigator.Waters(Nathaniel Ramsey), American author ofRome v. Reason, a memoir of Christian and extra Christian experience.Watson(James), English upholder of a free press, b. Malton (Yorks), 21 Sept. 1799. During the prosecution of Carlile and his shopmen in 1822 he volunteered to come from London toLeeds. In Feb. ’23 he was arrested for selling Palmer’sPrinciples of Nature, tried 23 April, and sentenced to twelve months’ imprisonment, during which he read Gibbon, Hume, and Mosheim. When liberated he became a compositor on theRepublican. In ’31 Julian Hibbert gave him his type and presses, and he issued Volney’sLectures on History. In Feb. ’33 he was sentenced to six months’ imprisonment for sellingThe Poor Man’s Guardian. Hibbert left him £450, which he used in printing d’Holbach’sSystem of Nature, Volney’sRuins, F. Wright’sLectures, R. D. Owen’s pamphlets, Paine’s works, and other volumes. Died at Norwood, 29 Nov. 1874.Watson(Thomas), author ofThe Mystagogue, Leeds, 1847.Watts(Charles), Secularist orator, b. Bristol, 28 Feb. 1835. Converted to Freethought by hearing Charles Southwell, he became a lecturer and assistant editor on theNational Reformer. Mr. Watts has had numerous debates, both in England and America, with Dr. Sexton, Rev. Mr. Harrison, Brewin Grant, and others. He started theSecular Reviewwith G. W. Foote, and afterwardsSecular Thoughtof Toronto. He wrote a portion ofThe Freethinker’s Text Book, and has publishedChristianity: its Origin, Nature and Influence;The Teachings of Secularism compared with Orthodox Christianity, and other brochures.Watts(Charles A.), a son of above, b. 27 May, 1858. ConductsWatts’s Literary Gazetteand edits theAgnostic Annual.Watts(John), brother of Charles, b. Bedminster, Bristol, 2 Oct. 1834. His father was a Wesleyan preacher, and he was converted to Freethought by his brother Charles. He became sub-editor of theReasoner, and afterwards for a time edited theNational Reformer. He editedHalf Hours With Freethinkerswith “Iconoclast,” and published several pamphlets,Logic and Philosophy of Atheism,Origin of Man,Is Man Immortal?The Devil,Who were the Writers of the New Testament, etc. Died 31 Oct. 1866.Watts(of Lewes, Sussex), author of theYahoo, a satire in verse (first published in 1833), alsoThe Great Dragon Cast Out.Webber(Zacharias), Dutch painter, who in the seventeenth century wrote heretical worksOn the Temptation of ChristandThe Seduction of Adam and Eve, etc. He defended Bekker, whom he surpassed in boldness. Under the pen name J. Adolphs hewroteThe True Origin, Continuance and Destruction of Satan. Died in 1679.Weber(Karl Julius), German author, b. Langenburg, 16 April, 1767. Studied law at Erlangen and Göttingen. He lived for a while in Switzerland and studied French philosophy, which suited his satirical turn of mind. He wrote a history ofMonkery, 1818–20;Letters of Germans Travelling in Germany, ’26–28; andDemokritos, or the Posthumous Papers of a Laughing Philosopher, ’32–36. Died Kupferzell, 19 July, 1832.Weitling(Wilhelm), German social democrat, b. Magdeburg, 1808. He was a leader of “Der Bund der Gerechten,” the League of the Just, and published at ZürichThe Gospel of Poor Sinners. He also wroteHumanity, As It Is and As It Should Be. He emigrated to America, where he died 25 Jan. 1871.Wellhausen(Julius), German critic, b. Hameln 17 May, 1844, studied theology at Göttingen, and became professor in Griefswald, Halle, and Marburg. Is renowned for hisHistory of Israelin progress, ’78, etc., and hisProlegomenato the same, and his contributions to theEncyclopædia Britannica.Westbrook(Richard Brodhead), Dr., American author, b. Pike co., Pennsylvania, 8 Feb. 1820. He became a Methodist preacher in ’40, and afterwards joined the Presbyterians, but withdrew about ’60, and has since writtenThe Bible: Whence and What?andMan: Whence and Whither?In ’88 Dr. Westbrook was elected President of the American Secular Union, and has since offered a prize for the best essay on teaching morality apart from religion.Westerman(W. B.) During many years, from 1856–68, an active co-operator onDe Dageraad.Westra(P.), Dutch Freethinker, b. 16 March, 1851. Has for some years been active secretary of the Dutch Freethought society, “De Dageraad.”Wettstein(Otto), German American materialist, b. Barmen, 7 April, 1838. About ’48 his parents emigrated. In ’58 he set up in business as a jeweller at Rochelle. He contributed to theFreethinkers’ Magazine,The Ironclad Age, and other journals, and is treasurer of the National Secular Union.White(Andrew Dickson), American educator, b. Homer, N.Y., 7 Nov. 1832. He studied at Yale, where he graduatedin ’53; travelled in Europe, and in ’57 was elected professor of history and English literature in the University of Michigan. He was elected to the State Senate, and in ’67 became first president of Cornell, a university which he has largely endowed. Among his works we must mentionThe Warfare of Science(N.Y., ’76) andStudies in General History and in the History of Civilisation, ’85.Whitman(Walt), American poet, b. West Hills, Long Island, N.Y., 31 May, 1819. Educated in public schools, he became a printer, and travelled much through the States. In the civil war he served as a volunteer army nurse. His chief work,Leaves of Grass, with its noble preface, appeared in ’55, and was acclaimed by Emerson as “the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet contributed.” It was followed byDrum Taps,November BoughsandSands at Seventy. This “good gray poet” has also written prose essays calledDemocratic VietasandSpecimen Days and Collect.Wicksell(Knut), Swedish author and lecturer, b. Stockholm, 30 Dec. 1851, studied at Upsala, and became licentiate of philosophy in ’85. Has written brochures on Population, Emigration, Prostitution, etc., and anonymously a satirical work on Bible Stories, as by Tante Malin. Represented Sweden at the Paris Conference of ’89.Wieland(Christopher Martin), German poet and novelist, b. near Biberach, 5 Sept. 1733. A voluminous writer, he was called the Voltaire of Germany. Among his works we noticeDialogues of the Gods,Agathon, a novel, andEuthanasia, in which he argues against immortality. He translated Horace, Lucian and Shakespeare. Died Weimer, 20 Jan. 1813. His last words were “To be or not to be.”Wiener(Christian), Dr., German author of a materialistic work on theElements of Natural Laws, 1863.Wiessner(Alexander), German writer, author of an examination of spiritualism (Leipsic, 1875).Wigand(Otto Friedrich), German publisher, b. Göttingen, 10 Aug. 1795. In 1832 he established himself in Leipsic, where he issued the works of Ruge, Bauer, Feuerbach, Scherr, and other Freethinkers. Died 31 Aug. 1870.Wightman(Edward), English anti-Trinitarian martyr of Burton-on-Trent. Was burnt at Lichfield 11 April, 1612, being the last person burnt for heresy in England.Wihl(Ludwig), German poet, b. 24 Oct. 1807. Died Brussels, 16 Jan. 1882.Wilbrandt(Adolf), German author, b. Rosbock, 24 Aug. 1837. Has written on Heinrich von Kleist, Hölderlin, the poet of Pantheism, and published many plays, of which we may mentionGiordano Bruno, 1874, and also some novels.Wilhelmi(Hedwig Henrich), German lecturess and author ofVortrage, published at Milwaukee, 1889. She attended the Paris Congress of ’89.Wilkinson(Christopher), of Bradford, b. 1803. Wrote with Squire Farrah an ableExamination of Dr. Godwin’s Arguments for the Existence of God, published at Bradford, 1853.Williams(David), Welsh deist, b. Cardiganshire, 1738. He became a dissenting minister but after publishing two volumes ofSermons on Religious Hypocrisy, 1774, dissolved the connections. In conjunction with Franklin and others he founded a club and drew up aLiturgy on the Universal Principles of Religion and Morality, which he used at a Deistic chapel opened in Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, 7 April, 1776. He wrote various political and educational works, and established the literary fund in 1789. Died Soho, London, 29 June, 1816.Willis(Robert), physician and writer, b. Edinburgh, 1799. He studied at the University and became M.D. in 1819. He soon after came to London, and in ’23 became M.R.C.S. He became librarian to the College of Surgeons. Besides many medical works he wrote a Life of Spinoza, ’70, andServetus and Calvin, ’77. He also wrote onThe Pentateuch and Book of Joshua in the face of the Science and Moral Senses of our Age, andA Dialogue by Way of Catechism, both published by T. Scott. Died at Barnes, 21 Sept. 1878.Wilson(John), M.A., of Trin. Coll., Dublin, author ofThoughts on Science, Theology and Ethics, 1885.Wirmarsius(Henrik), Dutch author ofDen Ingebeelde Chaos, 1710.Wislicenus(Gustav Adolf), German rationalist, b. Saxony,20 Nov. 1803. He studied theology at Halle, and became a minister, but in consequence of his workLetter or Spirit(1845) was suspended and founded the Free Congregation. For his work onThe Bible in the Light of Modern Culturehe was, in Sept. ’53, sentenced to prison for two years. He went to America, and lectured in Boston and New York. He returned to Europe in ’56, and stayed in Zürich, where he died 14 Oct. 1785. His chief work,The Bible for Thinking Readers, was published at Leipsic in ’63.Wittichius(Jacobus), Dutch Spinozist, b. Aken, 11 Jan. 1671. Wrote on the Nature of God, 1711. Died 18 Oct. 1739.Wixon(Susan H.), American writer and editor of the “Children’s Corner” in theTruthseeker, has for many years been an advocate of Freethought, temperance, and women’s rights. She was a school teacher and member of the Board of Education of the City of Fall River, Mass., where she resides. She contributes to theBoston Investigator.Wollny(Dr. F.), German author ofPrinciples of Psychology(Leipsic, 1887), in the preface to which he professes himself an Atheist.Wollstonecraft(Mary), English authoress, b. Hoxton, 27 April, 1759. She became a governess. In 1796 she settled in London, and began her literary labors withThoughts on the Education of Daughters. She also wrote aVindication of the Rights of Man, in answer to Burke, andVindication of the Rights of Woman. In 1797 she married William Godwin, and died in childbirth.Wooley(Milton), Dr., American author ofScience of the Bible1877;Career of Jesus Christ, ’77; and a pamphlet on the name God. Died Aug. 1885.Woolston(Thomas), Rev. English deist, b. Northampton, 1669. He studied at Cambridge, and became a Fellow at Sydney College and a minister. He published in 1705The Old Apology, which was followed by other works in favor of an allegorical interpretation of Scripture. In 1726 he began hisSix Discourses upon the Miracles, which wereassailedin forcible, homely language. Thirty thousand copies are said to have been sold, and sixty pamphlets were written in opposition. Woolston was tried for blasphemy and sentenced (March, 1729) to oneyear’s imprisonment and a fine of £100. This he could not pay, and died in prison 29 Jan. 1733.Wright(Elizur), American reformer, b. South Canaan, Litchfield Co., Connecticut, 12 Feb. 1804. He graduated at Yale College, ’26. Having warmly embraced the principles of the Abolitionists, he became secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, and edited theAbolitionistandCommonwealth. He was a firm and uncompromising Atheist, and a contributor to theBoston Investigator, theFreethinker’s Magazine, etc. Died at Boston, 21 Dec. ’85. His funeral oration was delivered by Col. Ingersoll.Wright(Frances), afterwardsD’Arusmont, writer and lecturess, b. Dundee, 6 Sept. 1795. At the age of eighteen she wroteA Few Days in Athens, in which she expounds and defends the Epicurean philosophy. She visited the United States, and wroteViews on Society and Manners in America, 1820. She bought 2,000 acres in Tennessee, and peopled it with slave families she purchased and redeemed. She afterwards joined Owen’s experiment; in part edited theNew Harmony Gazette, and afterwards theFree Inquirer. ACourse of Popular Lectureswas published at New York in ’29, in which she boldly gives her views on religion. She also wrote a number of fables and tracts, and assisted in founding theBoston Investigator. Died at Cincinnati, 14 Dec. 1852.Wright(Henry Clarke), American reformer, b. Sharon, Litchfield co. Connecticut, 29 Aug. 1797. A conspicuous anti-slavery orator, he was a friend of Ernestine Rose, Lucretia Mott, etc. He wroteThe Living, Present and the Dead Past. Died Pawtucket, Rhode Island, 16 Aug. 1870.Wright(Susannah), one of Carlile’s shopwomen. Tried 14 Nov. 1822, for selling pamphlets by Carlile. She made a good defence, in the course of which she was continually interrupted.Wundt(Wilhelm Max), German scientist, b. Neckaran (Baden), 16 Aug. 1832. His father was a clergyman. He studied medicine at Tübingen, Heidelberg, and Berlin, and became professor of physiology at Heidelberg in ’64, and has since held chairs at Zurich and Leipsic. His principal worksarePrinciples of Physiological Psychology, ’74;Manual of Human Physiology;Logic, ’83;Essays, ’85;Ethik, ’86.Wuensch(Christian Ernest), German physician, b. Hohenstein, 1744. Was Professor of Mathematics and Physics in Frankfort on the Oder, 1828.Wyrouboff(Gr.), Count; Russian Positivist, who established theRevue de Philosophie Positivewith Littré, and edited it with him from 1867–83.Xenophanes, Greek philosopher, b. Colophon, about 600B.C.He founded the Eleatic school, and wrote a poem on Nature and Eleaticism, in which he ridiculed man making gods in his own image.Ximines(Augustin Louis),Marquis de, French writer, b. Paris, 26 Feb. 1726. Was an intimate friend of Voltaire, and wrote several plays. Died Paris, 31 May, 1817.York(J. L.), American lecturer, b. New York, 1830. He became a blacksmith, then a Methodist minister, then Unitarian, and finally Freethought advocate. He was for some years member of the California Legislature, and has made lecturing tours in Australia and through the States.Yorke(J. F.), author of ableNotes on Evolution and Christianity, London, 1882.Youmans(Edward Livingstone), American scientist, b. Coeymans, N.Y., 3 June, 1821. Though partially blind he was a great student. He became M.D. about 1851, and began to lecture on science, popularly expounding the doctrines of the conservation of energy and evolution. He popularised Herbert Spencer, planned the “International Scientific Series,” and in ’72 established thePopular Science Monthly, in which he wrote largely. Died at New York, 18 Jan. 1887.Zaborowski Moindrin(Sigismond), French scientific writer, b. La Créche, 1851. Has written onThe Antiquity of Man, ’74;Pre-historic Man, ’78;Origin of Languages, ’79;The Great Apes, ’81;Scientific Curiosities, ’83.Zambrini(Francesco), Italian writer, b. Faenza, 25 Jan. 1810. Educated at Ravenna and Bologna. He devoted himself to literature and produced a great number of works. Died 9 July, 1887.

Sue(Marie Joseph, called Eugène), French novelist, b. Paris, 10 Dec. 1804. He wrote many romances, of whichThe Mysteries of ParisandThe Wandering Jew, ’42–45, were the most popular. In ’50 he was elected deputy and sat at the extreme left, but was exiled by thecoup d’etat. He died as a Freethinker at Annecy (Savoy), 3 July 1857.

Sullivan(J.), author ofSearch for Deity, an inquiry as to the origin of the conception of God (London, 1859).

Sully Prudhomme(Renè François Armand), French poet, b. Paris, 16 March 1839. He studied law but took to poetry and has published many volumes. In ’78 he was made Chevalier of Honor, and in ’82 member of the Academy. His poems are of pessimistic cast, and full of delicacy of philosophical suggestion.

Sunderland(La Roy), American author and orator, b. Exeter (Rhode Island), 18 May, 1803. He became a Methodist preacher and was prominent in the temperance and anti-slavery movements.He came out of the Church as the great bulwark of slavery and opposed Christianity during the forty years preceding his death. He wrote many works against slavery and Pathetism, ’47;Book of Human Nature, ’53, andIdeology, 3 vols., ’86–9. Died in Quincy (Mass.) 15 May, 1885.

Suttner(Bertha von),Baroness, Austrian author ofInventory of a Soul, 1886, and of several novels.

Sutton(Henry S.), anonymous author ofQuinquenergia; or, Proposals for a New Practical Theology, andLetters from a Father to a Son on Revealed Religion.

Swinburne(Algernon Charles), English poet and critic, b. London, 5 April, 1837, educated at Oxford, and went to Florence, where he spent some time with W. S. Landor.Atalanta in Calydon, a splendid reproduction of Greek tragedy, first showed his genius.Poems and Ballads, 1866, evinced his unconventional lyrical passion and power, and provoked some outcry. In hisSongs before Sunrise, 1871, he glorifies Freethought and Republicanism, with unsurpassed wealth of diction and rhythm. Mr. Swinburne has put forward many other volumes of melodious and dramatic poems, and also essays, studies, and prose miscellanies.

Symes(Joseph), English lecturer and writer, b. Portland, 29 Jan. 1841, of pious Methodist parents. In ’64 he offered himself as candidate for the ministry, and was sent to the Wesleyan College, Richmond, and in ’67 went on circuit as preacher. Having come to doubt orthodoxy, he resigned in ’72, preached his first open Freethought lecture at Newcastle, 17 Dec. ’76. Had several debates, wrotePhilosophic Atheism,Man’s Place in Nature,Hospitals not of Christian Origin,Christianity a Persecuting Religion,Blows at the Bible, etc. He contributed to theFreethinker, and was ready to conduct it during Mr. Foote’s imprisonment. He went to Melbourne, Dec. ’83, and there established theLiberator, and has writtenLife and Death of My Religion, ’84;Christianity and Slavery,Phallic Worship, etc.

Symonds(John Addington), English poet and author, b. Bristol, 5 Oct. 1840, educated at Harrow and Oxford, and was elected in ’62 to a Fellowship at Magdalen College, which he vacated on his marriage. His chief work is on theRenaissance inItaly, 7 vols., completed in ’86. He has also written critical sketches, studies, and poems. Ill health compels his living abroad.

Taine(Hippolyte Adolphe), D.C.L., brilliant French man of letters, b. Vouziers, 21 April, 1828. Educated at the College Bourbon (now the Condorcet Lyceum), in ’53 he took the degree of Doctor of Letters. In ’56 appears hisFrench Philosophers of the Nineteenth Century, in which he sharply criticised the spiritualist and religious school. He came to England and studied English Literature; his Hand History of which was sent in for the Academy prize, ’63, but rejected on the motion of Bishop Dupanloup on account of its materialist opinions. Also wrote onEnglish Positivism, a study of J. S. Mill. In ’71 Oxford made him D.C.L., and in Nov. ’78, he was elected to the French Academy; his latest work isThe Origins of Contemporary France.

Talandier(Alfred), French publicist, b. Limoges, 7 Sept. 1828. After entering the bar, he became a socialist and took part in the revolution of ’48. Proscribed after 12 Dec. he came to England, started trades unions and co-operation, translated Smiles’s Self-Help, and wrote in theNational Reformer. Returned to Paris in ’70 and became professor at the Lycée Henri IV. In ’74 he was deprived of his chair, but elected on the Municipal council of Paris, and two years later chosen as deputy, and was re-elected in ’81. In ’83 he published aPopular Rabelaisand has written inOur Corneron that great Freethinker.

Taubert(A.), the maiden name of Dr. Hartmann’s first wife. She wroteThe Pessimists and their Opponents, 1873.

Taule(Ferdinand), M.D., of Strassburg, author ofNotions on the Nature and Properties of Organised Matter. Paris, 1866.

Taurellus(Nicolaus), German physician and philosopher, b. Montbéhard, 26 Nov. 1547, studied medicine at Tübingen and Basle. For daring to think for himself, and asking how theAristoteliandoctrine of the eternity of the world could be reconciled with the dogma of creation, he was stigmatised as an atheist. Wrote many works in Latin, the principal of which isPhilosophiæ Triumphans, 1573. He died of the plague 28 Sept. 1606.

Taylor(Robert), ex-minister, orator, and critic, b. Edmonton,18 Aug. 1784. In 1805 he walked Guy’s and St. Thomas’s Hospital, and became M.R.C.S., 1807. Persuaded to join the Church, he entered St. John’s, Cambridge, Oct. 1809, in Jan. ’13 graduated B.A., and soon after took holy orders. He was curate at Midhurst till ’18, when he first became sceptical through discussions with a tradesman. He preached a sermon on Jonah which astonished his flock, and resigned. He then went to Dublin and publishedThe Clerical Reviewand started “The Society of Universal Benevolence.” In ’24 he came to London and started “The Christian Evidence Society,” and delivered discourses with discussion; also edited thePhilalethian. In ’27 he was indicted for blasphemy, tried Oct. 24, after an able defence he was found guilty, and on 7 Feb. ’28 sentenced to one year’s imprisonment in Oakham Gaol. Here he wrote hisSyntagmaon the Evidences of Christianity, and his chief work,The Diegesis, being a discovery of the origins, evidences, and early history of Christianity. He also contributed a weekly letter toThe Lion, which R. Carlile started on his behalf. On his liberation they both went on “an infidel mission” about the country, and on May 30 the Rotunda, Blackfriars, was taken, where Taylor attired in canonicals delivered the discourses published inThe Devil’s Pulpit. He was again prosecuted, and on 4 July, ’31, was sentenced to two year’s imprisonment. He was badly treated in gaol, and soon after coming out married a wealthy lady and retired. Died at Jersey, 5 June, 1844.

Taylor(Thomas), known as “The Platonist,” b. London, 1758. He devoted his life to the elucidation and propagation of the Platonic philosophy. He translated the works of Plato, Aristotle, Porphyry, five books of Plotinus, six books of Proclus, Gamblichus on the Mysteries, Arguments of Celsus taken from Origen, Arguments of Julian against the Christians, Orations of Julian, etc. He is said to have been so thorough a Pagan that he sacrificed a bull to Zeus. Died in Walworth, 1 Nov. 1835.

Taylor(William), of Norwich, b. 7 Nov. 1765. He formed an acquaintance with Southey, with whom he corresponded. His translations from the German, notably Lessing’sNathanthe Wise, brought him some repute. He also wrote aSurvey of German PoetryandEnglish Synonyms, 1830. He edited the NorwichIris, 1802, which he made the organ of his political and religions views. In ’10 he published anonymouslyA Letter Concerning the Two First Chapters of Luke, also entitledWho was the Father of Jesus Christ? 1810, in which he argues that Zacharias was the father of Jesus Christ. Also wrote largely in theMonthly Review, replying therein to the Abbé Barruel; and theCritical Reviewwhen edited by Fellowes, in which he gave an account of the rationalism of Paulus. Died at Norwich, 5 March, 1836.

Tchernychewsky(N. G.) SeeChernuishevsky.

“Tela(Josephus),” the Latinised name of Joseph Webbe who in 1818 edited thePhilosophical Library, containing the Life and Morals of Confucius, Epicurus, Isoscrates, Mahomet, etc., and other pieces. Webbe is also thought to have been concerned in the production ofEcce Homo, ’13. Cushing, in hisInitials and Pseudonyms, refers Tela to “Joseph Webb,” 1735–87; an American writer; Grand Master of Freemasons in America; died in Boston.” I am not satisfied that this is the same person.

Telesio(Bernardino), Italian philosopher, b. of noble family at Cosenza, 1509. He studied at Padua, and became famous for his learning, optical discoveries, and new opinions in philosophy. He wrote in LatinOn the Nature of Things according to Proper Principles, 1565. He opposed theAristoteliandoctrine in physics, and employed mathematical principles in explaining nature, for which he was prosecuted by the clergy. He died Oct. 1588. His works were placed in theIndex, but this did not prevent their publication at Venice, 1590.

Telle(Reinier), or Regnerus Vitellius, Dutch Humanist, b. Zierikzee, 1578. He translated ServetusOn the Errors of the Trinity, published 1620. Died at Amsterdam, 1618.

Testa(Giacinto), of Messina, Italian author of a curiousStoria di Gesù di Nazareth, 1870, in which he maintains that Jesus was the son ofGiuseppePandera, a Calabrian of Brindisi.

Thaer(Albrecht Daniel). German agriculturist, b. Celle, 14 May, 1752. Studied at Gottingen, and is said to haveinspired Lessing’s work onThe Education of the Human Race. Died 28 Oct. 1828.

Theodorusof Cyrene, a Greek philosopher, whose opinions resembled those of Epicurus. He was banished for Atheism from his native city. He resided at Athens about 312B.C.When threatened with crucifixion, he said it mattered little whether he rotted in the ground or in the air.

Theophile de Viau, French satiric poet, b. Clerac, 1590. For the alleged publication ofLe Parnasse Satyriques, he was accused of Atheism, condemned to death, and burnt in effigy. He fled, and was received by the Duc de Montmorency at Chantilly, where he died, 25 Sept. 1626.

Thompson(Daniel Greenleaf), American author of works onThe Problem of Evil, ’87;The Religious Sentiments, etc. He is President of the Nineteenth Century Club.

Thomson(Charles Otto), Captain, b. Stockholm, 3 Jan. 1833. Went to sea in ’49 and became a merchant captain in ’57, and was subsequently manager of the Eskilstuna gas works. At Eskilstuna he started a Utilitarian Society in ’88, of which he is president. He has done much to support Mr. Lennstrand in his Freethought work in Sweden; has translated articles by Ingersoll, Foote and others, and has lectured on behalf of the movement. He shares in the conduct ofFritänkaren.

Thomson(James), Pessimistic poet, b. Port Glasgow, 23 Nov. 1834. Educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, he became a schoolmaster in the army, where he met Mr. Bradlaugh, whom he afterwards assisted on theNational Reformer. To this paper he contributed many valuable essays, translations, and poems, including his famous “City of Dreadful Night,” the most powerful pessimistic poem in the English language, (April, ’74, afterwards published with other poems in ’80). “Vane’s Story” with other poems was issued in ’81, and “A Voice from the Nile,” and “Shelley” (privately printed in ’84). Thomson also contributed to theSecularistandLiberal, edited by his friend Foote, who has published many of his articles in a volume entitledSatires and Profanities, which includes “The Story of a Famous Old Jewish Firm,” also published separately. Thomson employed much of his genius in the service of Freethought. Died 3 June, 1882.

Thomson(William), of Cork. A disciple of Bentham, and author ofThe Distribution of Wealth, 1824;Appeal for Women, ’25;Labor Reward, ’27, and in theCo-operative Magazine.

Thorild(Thomas), orThoren, Swedish writer, b. Bohuslau, 18 April, 1759. In 1775 he studied at Lund, and in 1779 went to Stockholm, and published many poems and miscellaneous pieces in Swedish, Latin, German, and English, in which he wroteCromwell, an epic poem. In 1786 he wroteCommon Sense on Liberty, with a view of extending the liberty of the press. He was a partisan of the French Revolution, and for a political work was imprisoned and exiled. He also wrote aSermon of Sermons, attacking the clergy, and a work maintaining the rights of women. Died at Greifswald; 1 Oct. 1808. He was a man far in advance of his time, and is now becoming appreciated.

Thulie(Jean Baptiste Henri), French physician and anthropologist, b. Bordeaux, 1832. In ’56 he founded a journal, “Realism.” In ’66 he published a work onMadness and the Law. He contributed toLa Pensée Nouvelle, defending the views of Büchner. He has written an able study,La Femme, Woman, published in ’85. M. Thulie has been President of the Paris Municipal Council.

Tiele(Cornelis Petrus), Dutch scholar, b. Leyden, 16 Dec. 1830. Although brought up in the Church, his works all tell in the service of Freethought, and he has shown his liberality of views in editing the poems of Genestet together with his life, ’68. He has written many articles on comparative religion, and two of his works have been translated into English, viz.,Outlines of the History of Religion, a valuable sketch of the old faiths, fourth ed. ’88; andComparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian Religions, ’82.

Tillier(Claude), French writer, b. of poor parents, Clamecy, 11 April, 1801. He served as a conscript, and wrote some telling pamphlets directed against tyranny and superstition, and some novels, of which we noteMy Uncle Benjamin. Died at Nevers, 12 Oct. 1844. His works were edited by F. Pyat.

Tindal(Matthew), LL.D., English Deist, b. Beer-ferris, Devon, 1657. Educated at Oxford, and at first a High Churchman, he was induced to turn Romanist in the reign ofJames II., but returned to Protestantism and wroteThe Rights of the Christian Church. This work was much attacked by the clergy, who even indicted the vendors. A defence which he published was ordered to be burnt by the House of Commons. In 1730 he publishedChristianity as Old as the Creation, to which no less than 150 answers were published. He died 16 Aug. 1733, and a second volume, which he left in MS., was destroyed by order of Gibson, Bishop of London.

Toland(John), Irish writer, b. Redcastle, near Londonderry, 30 Nov. 1669. Educated as a Catholic, he renounced that faith in early youth, went to Edinburgh University, where he became M.A. in 1690, and proceeded to Leyden, studying under Spanheim, and becoming a sceptic. He also studied at Oxford, reading deeply in the Bodleian Library, and became the correspondent of Le Clerc and Bayle. In 1696 he startled the orthodox with hisChristianity not Mysterious, which was “presented” by the Grand Jury of Middlesex and condemned by the Lower House of Convocation. The work was also burnt at Dublin, Sept. 1697. He wrote aLife of Milton(1698), in which, mentioningEikon Basilike, he referred to the “suppositious pieces under the name of Christ, his apostles and other great persons.” For this he was denounced by Dr. Blackhall before Parliament. He replied withAmytor, in which he gives a catalogue of such pieces. He went abroad and was well received by the Queen of Prussia, to whom he wroteLetters to Serena(1704), which, says Lange, “handles the kernel of the whole question of Materialism.” In 1709 he publishedAdeisidænonandOrigines Judaicæ. In 1718Nazarenus, on Jewish, Gentile and Mahommedan Christianity, in which he gave an account of the Gospel of Barnabus. He also wrote four pieces entitledTetradymusandPantheisticon, which described a society of Pantheists with a liturgy burlesquing that of the Catholics. Toland died with the calmness of a philosopher, at Putney, 11 March, 1722. Lange praises him highly.

Tollemache(Hon.Lionel Arthur), b. 1838, son of Baron Tollemache, a friend of C. Austin, of whom he has written. Wrote many articles inFortnightly Review, reprinted (privately) asStones of Stumbling, ’84. Has also writtenSafe Studies, ’84;Recollections of Pallison, ’85; andMr. Romanes’s Catechism, ’87.

Tone(Theobald Wolfe), Irish patriot, b. Dublin, 20 June, 1763. Educated at Trinity College in 1784, he obtained a scholarship in 1786, B.A. He founded the Society of United Irishmen, 1791. Kept relations with the French revolutionists, and in 1796 induced the French Directory to send an expedition against England. He was taken prisoner and committed suicide in prison, dying 19 Nov. 1798.

Topinard(Paul), M.D., French anthropologist, b. Isle-Adam 1830. Editor of theRevue d’Anthropologie, and author of a standard work on that subject published in the Library of Contemporary Science.

Toulmin(George Hoggart), M.D., of Wolverhampton. Author ofThe Antiquity and Duration of the World, 1785;The Eternity of the Universe, 1789; the last being republished in 1825.

Tournai(Simon de). SeeSimon.

Traina(Tommaso), Italian jurist. Author of a work onThe Ethics of Herbert Spencer, Turin, 1881.

Travis(Henry), Dr., b. Scarborough, 1807. He interested himself in the socialistic aspect of co-operation, and became a friend and literary executor to Robert Owen. In ’51–53 he editedRobert Owen’s Journal. He also wrote onEffectual Reform,Free Will and Law,Moral Freedom and Causation, andA Manual of Social Science, and contributed to theNational Reformer. Died 4 Feb. 1884.

Trelawny(Edward John), b. Cornwall, Nov. 1792. Became intimate in Italy with Shelley, whose body he recovered and cremated in August, 1822. He accompanied Byron on his Greek expedition, and married a daughter of a Greek chief. He wroteAdventures of a Younger Son, ’31; andRecords of Shelley, Byron, and the Author, ’78. He died 13 Aug. 1881, and was cremated at Gotha, his ashes being afterwards placed beside those of Shelley. Trelawny was a vehement Pagan despising the creeds and conventions of society. Swinburne calls him “World-wide liberty’s lifelong lover.”

Trenchard(John), English Deist and political writer, b. Somersetshire, 1669. He studied law, but abandoned it, and was appointed Commissioner of Forfeited Estates in Ireland. In conjunction with Gordon he wroteCato’s Letterson civil andreligious liberty, and conductedThe Independent Whig. He sat in the House of Commons as M.P. for Taunton; he also wrote theNatural History of Superstition, 1709; butLa Contagion Sacree, attributed to him, is really by d’Holbach. Died 17 Dec. 1723.

Trevelyan(Arthur), of Tyneholm, Tranent, N.B., a writer in theReasonerandNational Reformer. PublishedThe Insanity of Mankind(Edinburgh, 1850), and some tracts. He was a Vice-President of the National Secular Society. Died at Tyneholm, 6 Feb. 1878.

Trezza(Gaetano), Italian writer, b. Verona, Dec. 1828. Was brought up and ordained a priest, and was an eloquent preacher. Study led him to resign the clerical profession. He has published Confessions of a Sceptic, ’78; Critical Studies, ’78; New Critical Studies, ’81. He is Professor of Literature at the Institute of High Studies, Florence. To the first number of theRevue Internationale’83, he contributedLes Dieux s’en vont. He also wrote Religion and Religions, ’84; and aworkon St. Paul. A study on Lucretius has reached its third edition, ’87.

Tridon(Edme Marie, Gustave), French publicist, b. Chatillon sur Seine, Burgundy, 5 June, 1841. Educated by his parents who were rich, he became a doctor of law but never practised. In ’64 he published inLe Journal des Ecoles, his remarkable study of revolutionary historyLes Hébertistes. In May, ’65 he founded with Blanqui, etc.,Le Candide, the precursor ofLa Libre Pensée, ’66, in both of which the doctrines of materialism were expounded. Delegated in ’65 to the International Students Congress at Liége his speech was furiously denounced by Bishop Dupanloup; he got more than two years’ imprisonment for articles inLe CandideandLa Libre Pensée, and in Ste Pelagie contracted the malady which killed him. While in prison he wrote the greater part of his workDu Molochisme Juif, critical and philosophical studies of the Jewish religion, only published in ’84. After 4 Sept. ’70, he foundedLa Patrie en Danger. In Feb. ’71 he was elected deputy to the Bordeaux Assembly, but resigned after voting against declaration of peace. He then became a member of the Paris Commune, retiring afterthe collapse to Brussels where he died 29 Aug. 1871. He received the most splendid Freethinker’s funeral witnessed in Belgium.

Truebner(Nicolas), publisher, b. Heidelberg, 17 June, 1817. After serving with Longman and Co., he set up in business, and distinguished himself by publishing works on Freethought, religions, philosophy and Oriental literature. Died London, 30 March, 1884.

Truelove(Edward), English publisher, b. 29 Oct. 1809. Early in life he embraced the views of Robert Owen, and for nine years was secretary of the John Street Institution. In ’44 and ’45 he threw in his lot with the New Harmony Community, Hampshire. In ’52 he took a shop in the Strand, where he sold advanced literature. He published Voltaire’sPhilosophical DictionaryandRomances, Paine’s complete works, D’Holbach’sSystem of Nature, and Taylor’sSyntagmaandDiegesis. In ’58 he was prosecuted for publishing a pamphlet onTyrannicide, by W. E. Adams, but the prosecution was abandoned. In ’78 he was, after two trials, sentenced to four months’ imprisonment for publishing R. D. Owen’sMoral Physiology. Upon his release he was presented with a testimonial and purse of 200 sovereigns.

Trumbull(Matthew M.), American general, a native of London, b. 1826. About the age of twenty he went to America, served in the army in Mexico, and afterwards in the Civil War. General Grant made him Collector of Revenue for Iowa. He held that office eight years, and then visited England. In 1882 he went to Chicago, where he exerted himself on behalf of a fair trial for the Anarchists.

Tschirnhausen(Walthier Ehrenfried), GermanCount, b. 1651. He was a friend of Leibniz and Wolff, and in philosophy a follower of Spinoza, though he does not mention him. Died 1708.

Tucker(Benjamin R.), American writer, b. Dartmouth, Mass., 17 April, 1854. EditsLiberty, of Boston.

Turbiglio(Sebastiano), Italian philosopher, b. Chiusa, 7 July,1842, author of a work onSpinoza and the Transformation of his Thoughts, 1875.

Turgenev(Ivan Sergyeevich), Russian novelist, b. Orel, 28 Oct. 1818. In his novels,Fathers and SonsandVirgin Soilhe has depicted characters of the Nihilist movement. Died at Bougival, near Paris, 3 Sept. 1883.

Turner(William), a surgeon of Liverpool, who, under the name of William Hammon, published anAnswer to Dr. Priestley’s Letters to a Philosophical Unbeliever, 1782, in which he avows himself an Atheist.

Tuuk(Titia, Van der), Dutch lady, b. Zandt, 27 Nov. 1854. Was converted to Freethought by reading Dekker, and is now one of the editors ofDe Dageraad.

Twesten(Karl), German publicist and writer, b.Kiel, 22 April, 1820. Studied law, ’38–41, in Berlin and Heidelberg, and became magistrate in Berlin and one of the founders of the National Liberal Party. Wrote on the religious, political, and social ideas of Asiatics and Egyptians (2 vols.), ’72. Died Berlin, 14 Oct. 1870.

Tylor(Edward Burnet), D.C.L., F.R.S., English anthropologist, b. Camberwell, 2 Oct. 1832. He has devoted himself to the study of the races of mankind, and is the first living authority upon the subject. He has wroteAnahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans, ’61;Researches into the Early History of Mankind, ’65;Primitive Culture; being researches into the development of mythology, philosophy, religion, art, and custom (2 vols.), ’71. In this splendid work he traces religion to animism, the belief in spirits. He has also written an excellent handbook ofAnthropology, an introduction to the Study of Man and Civilisation, ’81; and contributed to theEncyclopædia Britannica, as well as to periodical literature. He is President of the Anthropological Society.

Tyndall(John), LL.D., F.R.S., Irish scientist, b. near Carlow, 1820. In ’47 he became a teacher in Queenswood College (Hants), and afterwards went to Germany to study. In ’56 he went to Switzerland with Professor Huxley, and they wrote a joint work on glaciers. He contributed to theFortnightly Review, notably an article on Miracles and Special Providence, ’66. In ’72 he went on a lecturing tour in the United States, and two years later was president of the British Association. His address at Belfast made a great stir, and has been published. In addition to other scientific works he haspublished popularFragments of Science, which has gone through several editions.

Tyrell(Henry). SeeChurch.

Tyssot de Patot(Simon), b. of French family in Delft, 1655. He became professor of mathematics at Deventer. Under the pen name of “Jacques Massé” he publishedVoyages and Adventures, Bordeaux, 1710, a work termed atheistic and scandalous by Reimmann. It was translated into English by S. Whatley, 1733, and has been attributed to Bayle.

Ueberweg(Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Leichlingen 22 Jan. 1826; studied at Göttingen and Berlin, and became Professor of Philosophy at Königsberg, where he died 9 June, 1871. His chief work is aHistory of Philosophy. Lange cites Czolbe as saying “He was in every way distinctly an Atheist and Materialist.”

Uhlich(Johann Jacob Marcus Lebericht), German religious reformer, b. Köthen 27 Feb. 1799. He studied at Halle and became a preacher. For his rationalistic views he was suspended in 1847, and founded the Free Congregation at Magdeburg. He wrote numerous brochures defending his opinions. HisReligion of Common Sensehas been translated and published in America. Died atMagdeburg, 23 March, 1872.

Ule(Otto), German scientific writer, b. Lossow 22 Jan. 1820. Studied at Halle and Berlin. In ’52 he started the journalDie Natur, and wrote many works popularising science. Died at Halle 6 Aug. 1876.

Underwood(Benjamin F.). American lecturer and writer, b. New York 6 July, 1839. Has been a student and a soldier in the Civil War. He fought at Ball’s Bluff, Virginia, 21 Oct. ’61, was wounded and held prisoner in Richmond for nine months. In ’81 he edited theIndexin conjunction with Mr. Potter, and in ’87 startedThe Open Courtat Chicago. He has had numerous debates; those with the Rev. J. Marples and O. A. Burgess being published. He has also publishedEssays and Lectures,The Religion of Materialism,Influence of Christianity on Civilisation, etc. His sister, Sara A., has writtenHeroines of Freethought, New York, 1876.

Vacherot(Etienne), French writer, b. Langres, 29 July, 1809. In ’39 he replaced Victor Cousin in the Chair of Philosophyat the Sorbonne. For his free opinions expressed in hisCritical History of the School of Alexandria, a work in three vols. crowned by the Institute, ’46–51, he was much attacked by the clergy and at the Empire lost his position. He afterwards wroteEssays of Critical Philosophy, ’64, andLa Religion, ’69.

Vacquerie(Auguste), French writer, b. Villequier, 1819. A friend of Victor Hugo. He has written many dramas and novels of merit, and was director ofLe Rappel.

Vaillant(Edouard Marie), French publicist, b. Vierzon, 26 Jan. 1840. Educated at Paris and Germany. A friend of Tridon he took part in the Commune, and in ’84 was elected Muncipal Councillor of Paris.

Vairasse(Denis) d’Alais, French writer of the seventeenth century. He became both soldier and lawyer. Author ofHistoire des Sevarambes, 1677; imaginary travels in which he introduced free opinions and satirised Christianity.

Vale(Gilbert) author, b. London, 1788. He was intended for the church, but abandoned the profession and went to New York, where he edited theCitizen of the Worldand theBeacon. He publishedFanaticism; its Source and Influence, N.Y. 1835, and aLife of Paine, ’41. Died Brooklyn, N.Y. 17 Aug. 1866.

Valk(T. A. F. van der), Dutch Freethinker, who, after being a Christian missionary in Java, changed his opinions, and wrote inDe Dageraadbetween 1860–70, using the pen name of “Thomas.”

Valla(Lorenzo), Italian critic, b. Piacenza, 1415. Having hazarded some free opinions respecting Catholic doctrines, he was condemned to be burnt, but was saved by Alphonsus, King of Naples. Valla was then confined in a monastery, but Pope Nicholas V. called him to Rome and gave him a pension. He died there, 1 Aug. 1457.

Vallee(Geoffrey), French martyr, b. Orleans, 1556. He wroteLa Béatitude des Chréstiens ou le Fléo de la Foy, for which he was accused of blasphemy, and hanged on the Place de Gréve, Paris, 9 Feb. 1574.

Valliss(Rudolph), German author of works onThe Natural History of Gods(Leip., 1875);The Eternity of the World, ’75;Catechism of Human Duty, ’76, etc.

Van Cauberg(Adolphe), Belgian advocate. One of the founders and president of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 1886.

Van Effen.SeeEffen.

Vanini(Lucilio, afterwardsJulius Cæsar), Italian philosopher and martyr, b. Taurisano (Otranto), 1585. At Rome and Padua he studied Averroism, entered the Carmelite order, and travelled in Switzerland, Germany, Holland and France making himself admired and respected by his rationalistic opinions. He returned to Italy in 1611, but the Inquisition was on his track and he took refuge at Venice. In 1612 he visited England, and in 1614 got lodged in the Tower. When released he went to Paris and published a Pantheistic work in LatinOn the Admirable Secrets of Nature, the Queen and Goddess of Mortals. It was condemned by the Sorbonne and burnt, and he fled to Toulouse in 1617; but there was no repose for Freethought. He was accused of instilling Atheism into his scholars, tried and condemned to have his tongue cut out, his body burned and his ashes scattered to the four winds. This was done 19 Feb. 1619. President Gramond, author ofHistory of France under Louis XIII., writes “I saw him in the tumbril as they led him to execution, mocking the Cordelier who had been sent to exhort him to repentance, and insulting our Savior by these impious words. ‘Hesweated with fear and weakness, and I die undaunted.’”

Vapereau(Louis Gustave), French man of letters, b. Orleans 4 April, 1819. In ’41 he became the secretary of Victor Cousin. He collaborated on theDictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiquesand theLiberté de Penser, but is best known by his usefulDictionnaire Universel des Contemporains. In ’70 he was nominated prefect of Cantal, but on account of the violent attacks of the clericals was suspended in ’73 and resumed his literary labors, compiling aUniversal Dictionary of Writers, ’76, andElements of the History of French Literature, 1883–85.

Varnhagen von Ense(Earl August Ludwig Philipp), German author, b. Dusseldorf, 21 Feb. 1785. He studied medicine and philosophy, entered the Austrian and Russian armies, and served in the Prussian diplomatic service. He was an intimate friend of Alex. von Humboldt, and shared hisFreethinking opinions. Died in Berlin, 10 Oct. 1858. He vividly depicts the men and events of his time in hisDiary.

Vauvenargues(Luc deClapiers), Marquis; French moralist, b. Aix, 6 Aug. 1715. At eighteen he entered the army, and left the service with ruined health in 1743. He published in 1746 anIntroduction to the Knowledge of the Human Mind, followed by Reflections and Maxims, which was deservedly praised by his friend Voltaire. Died at Paris 28 May, 1747. His work, which though but mildly deistic, was rigorously suppressed, and was reprinted about 1770.

Velthuysen(Lambert), Dutch physician, b. Utrecht, 1622. He wrote many works on theology and philosophy in Latin. His works,De Officio PastorumandDe Idolatria et Superstitionewere proceeded against in 1668, but he was let off with a fine. Died 1685.

Venetianer(Moritz), German Pantheist, author ofDer Allgeist, 1874, and a work onSchopenhauer as a Scholastic.

Vereschagin(Vasily), Russian painter, b. Novgorod, 1842. He studied at Paris under Gerome, took part in the Russo-Turkish war, and has travelled widely. The realistic and anti-religious conceptions of hisHoly FamilyandResurrectionwere the cause of their being withdrawn from the Vienna Exhibition in Oct. ’85, by order of the archbishop. In his Autobiographical Sketches, translated into English, ’87, he shows his free opinions.

Vergniaud(Pierre Victurnien), French Girondist orator, b. Limoges, 31 May, 1759. He studied law, and became an advocate. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in 1791, he also became President of the Convention. At the trial of the King he voted for the appeal to the people, but that being rejected, voted death. With Gensonné and Guadet, he opposed the sanguinary measures of Robespierre, and, being beaten in the struggle, was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. Vergniaud was a brilliant speaker. He said: “Reason thinks, Religion dreams.” He had prepared poison for himself, but as there was not enough for his comrades, he resolved to suffer with them.

Verlet(Henri), French founder and editor of a journal,La Libre Pensée, 1871, and author of a pamphlet onAtheism and the Supreme Being.

Verliere(Alfred), French author of aGuide du Libre-Penseur(Paris, 1869); collaboratedLa Libre Pensée,Rationaliste, etc. To Bishop Dupanloup’sAthéismeet Peril Socialhe replied withDeisme et Peril Social, for which he was condemned to several months’ imprisonment.

Vermersch(Eugène), French journalist, b. Lille about 1840. Took part in the Commune, and has written on many Radical papers.

Vernes(Maurice), French critic, b. Mauroy, 1845. Has publishedMelanges de Critique Religieuse, and translated from Kuenen and Tiele.

Veron(Eugène), French writer and publicist, b. Paris, 29 May, 1825. He wrote on many journals, foundedLa France Republicaineat Lyons, andl’Artat Paris. Besides historical works he has writtenL’Esthetiquein the “Library of Contemporary Science,” ’78;The Natural History of Religions, 2 vols., in theBibliothèque Materialiste, ’84; andLa Morale, ’84.

Viardot(Louis), French writer, b. Dijon, 31 July, 1800. Hecame to Paris and became an advocate, but after a voyage in Spain, left the bar for literature, writing on theGlobe NationalandSiècle. In ’41 he founded theRevue Independantewith “George Sand,” and Pierre Leroux. He made translations from the Russian, and in addition to many works on art he wroteThe Jesuits, ’57;Apology of an Unbeliever, translated into English, ’69, and republished asLibre Examen, ’71. Died 1883.

Vico(Giovanni Battista), Italian philosopher, b. Naples 1668. He became Professor of Rhetoric in the University of that city, and published aNew Science of the Common Nature of Nations, 1725, in which he argues that the events of history are determined by immutable laws. It presents many original thoughts. Died Naples, 21 Jan. 1743.

Virchow(Rudolf), German anthropologist, b. SchivelbeinPomerania, 13 Oct. 1821. Studied medicine at Berlin and became lecturer, member of the National Assembly of ’48, and Professor of Pathological Anatomy at Berlin. HisCellular Pathology, ’58, established his reputation. He was chosendeputy and rose to the leadership of the Liberal opposition. His scientific views are advanced although he opposed the Haeckel in regard to absolute teaching of evolution.

Vischer(Friedrich Theodor), German art critic, b. Ludwigsburg, 30 June, 1807. Was educated for the Church, became a minister, but renounced theology and became professor of[missing text]and isJahrbücher der Gegenwart, ’44, was accused of blasphemy and for his Freethinking opinions he was suspended two years. At the revolution of ’48 he was elected to the National Assembly. In ’55 he became Professor at Zürich. His work onÆsthetic, or the Science of the Beautiful, ’46–54, is considered classic. He has also written,Old and New, ’81, and several anonymous works. Died Gmunden, 14 Sept. 1887.

Vitry(Guarin de) French author of aRapid Examination of Christian Dogma, addressed to the Council of 1869.

Vloten(Johannes van), Dutch writer, b. Kampen, 18 Jan. 1818; studied theology at Leiden and graduated D.D. in ’43. He has, however, devoted himself to literature, and produced many works, translating plays of Shakespeare, editing Spinoza, and writing his life—translated into English by A. Menzies. He edited alsoDe Levensbode, 1865, etc.

Voelkel(Titus), Dr., German lecturer and writer, b. Wirsitz (Prussian Poland) 14 Dec. 1841. Studied (’59–65) theology, natural philosophy, and mathematics, and spent some years in France. He returned ’70, and was for ten years employed as teacher at higher schools. Since ’80 has been “sprecher” of Freethought associations and since ’85 editor of theNeuesFreireligiösesSonntags-Blatt, atMagdeburg. In ’88 he was several times prosecuted for blasphemy and each time acquitted. He represented several German societies at the Paris Congress of Freethinkers, ’89.

Voglet(Prosper), Belgian singer, b. Brussels, 1825. He was blinded through his baptism by a Catholic priest, and has in consequence to earn his living as a street singer. His songs, of his own composition, are anti-religious. Many have appeared inLa Tribune du Peuple, which he edited.

Vogt(Karl), German scientist, b. Giessen, 5 July, 1817, the son of a distinguished naturalist. He studied medicine andbecame acquainted with Agassiz. In ’48 he was elected deputy to the National Assembly. Deprived of his chair and exiled, he became professor of Natural History at Geneva. His lectures onMan, His Position in Creation and in the History of the Earth, ’63, made a sensation by their endorsement of Darwinism. They were translated into English and published by the Anthropological Society. He has also written aManual of Geology,Physiological Letters,Zoological Letters,Blind Faith and Science, etc., and has contributed to the leading Freethought journals of Germany and Switzerland.

Volkmar(Gustav), Swiss critic, b. Hersfeld, 11 Jan. 1809. Studied at Marburg ’29–32; becameprivat docentat Zurich, ’53, and professor ’63. He has written rationalist works on the Gospel of Marcion, ’52; Justin Martyr, ’53; theOrigin of the Gospels, ’66;Jesus and the first Christian Ages, ’82, etc.

Volney(Constantin FrançoisChasseboufde), Count, French philosopher, b. Craon (Anjou) 3 Feb. 1757. Having studied at Ancenis and Angers, he went to Paris in 1774. Here he met D’Holbach and others. In 1783 he started for Egypt and Syria, and in 1787 published an account of his travels. Made Director of Commerce in Corsica, he resigned on being elected to the Assembly. Though a wealthy landlord, he wrote and spoke for division of landed property. In 1791 his eloquentRuinsappeared. During the Terror he was imprisoned for ten months. In ’95 he visited America. Returning to France, Napoleon asked him to become colleague in the consulship but Volney declined. He remonstrated with Napoleon when he re-established Christianity by the Concordat, April 1802. Among his other works was aHistory of Samueland theLaw of Nature. Died 25 April, 1820.

Voltaire(François Marie.Arouetde), French poet, historian and philosopher, b. Paris 21 Nov. 1694. Educated by the Jesuits, he early distinguished himself by his wit. For a satirical pamphlet on the death of Louis XIV he was sent to the Bastille for a year and was afterwards committed again for a quarrel with the Chevalier de Rohan. On his liberation he came to England at the invitation of Lord Bolingbroke, and became acquainted with the English Freethinkers. HisLettres Philosophiquestranslated as “Letters on the English,” 1732,gave great offence to the clergy and was condemned to be burnt. About 1735 he retired to the estate of the Marquise de Châtelet at Cirey, where he produced many plays. We may mentionMahomet, dedicated to the Pope, who was unable to see that its shafts were aimed at the pretences of the church. In 1750 he accepted the invitation of Frederick II. to reside at his court. But he could not help laughing at the great king’s poetry. The last twenty years of his life was passed at Ferney near the Genevan territory, which through his exertions became a thriving village. He did more than any other man of his century to abolish torture and other relics of barbarism, and to give just notions of history. To the last he continued to wage war against intolerance and superstition. His works comprise over a thousand pieces in seventy volumes. Over fifty works were condemned by the Index, and Voltaire used no less than one hundred and thirty different pen-names. His name has risen above the clouds of detraction made by his clerical enemies. Died 30 May, 1778.

Voo(G. W. van der), Dutch writer, b. 6 April, 1806. For more than half a century he was schoolmaster and teacher of the French language at Rotterdam, where he still lives. He contributed many articles toDe Dageraad.

Vosmaer(Carel), Dutch writer, b. the Hague 20 March, 1826. Studied law at Leyden. He edited theTydstroom(1858–9) andSpectator(1860–73), and wrote several works on Dutch art and other subjects. Died atMontreux(Switzerland), 12 June, 1888.

Voysey(Charles), English Theist, b. London 18 March, 1828. Graduated B.A. at Oxford, ’51, was vicar of Healaugh, Yorkshire, ’64–71, and deprived 11 Feb. ’71 for heresy in sermons published inThe Sling and the Stone. He has since established a Theistic Church in Swallow Street, Piccadilly, and his sermons are regularly published. He has also issuedFragments from Reimarus, ’79, editedThe Langham Magazineand publishedLectures on the Bible and the Theistic Faith, etc.

Vulpian(Edme Felix Alfred), French physician, b. 5 Jan. 1826. Wrote several medical works and upon being appointed lecturer at the School of Medicine, ’69, was violently opposedon account of his Atheism. He was afterwards elected to the Academy of Sciences. Died 17 May, 1887.

Wagner(Wilhelm Richard), German musical composer and poet, b. Leipsic, 22 May, 1813. From ’42–49 he was conductor of the Royal Opera, Dresden, but his revolutionary sentiments caused his exile to Switzerland, where he produced his “Lohengrin.” In ’64 he was patronised by Ludwig II. of Bavaria, and produced many fine operas, in which he sought that poetry, scenery, and music should aid each other in making opera dramatic. In philosophy he expressed himself a follower of Schopenhauer. Died at Venice, 13 Feb. 1883.

Waite(Charles Burlingame), American judge, b. Wayne county, N.Y. 29 Jan. 1824. Educated at Knox College, Illinois, he was admitted to the Bar in ’47. After successful practice in Chicago, he was appointed by President Lincoln Justice of the Supreme Court of Utah. In ’81 he issued hisHistory of the Christian Religion to the yearA.D.200, a rationalistic work, which explodes the evangelical narratives.

Wakeman(Thaddeus B.), American lawyer and Positivist, b. 29 Dec. 1834, was one of the editors ofManand a president of the New York Liberal Club. A contributor to theFreethinkers’ Magazine.

Walferdin(François-Hippolyte), b. Langres, 8 June, 1795. A friend of Arago he contributed with him to the enlargement of science, and was decorated with the Legion of Honor in 1844. He published a fine edition of the works of Diderot in ’57, and left the bust of that philosopher to the Louvre. Died 25 Jan. 1880.

Walker(E.), of Worcester. Owenite author ofIs the Bible True?andWhat is Blasphemy?1843.

Walker(Edwin C.), editor ofLuciferandFair Play, Valley Falls, Kansas.

Walker(Thomas), orator, b. Preston, Lancashire, 5 Feb. 1858. Went to America and at the age of sixteen took to the platform. In ’77 he went to Australia, and for a while lectured at the Opera, Melbourne. In ’82 he started the Australian Secular Association, of which he was president for two years when he went to Sydney. In ’85 he was convicted for lecturingon Malthusianism, but the conviction was quashed by the Supreme Court. In ’87 he was elected M.P. for Northumberland district. Is President of Australian Freethought Union.

Walser(George H.), American reformer, b. Dearborn Co. Indiana, 26 May, 1834. Became a lawyer, and a member of the legislature of his State. He founded the town of Liberal Barton Co. Missouri, to try the experiment of a town without any priest, church, chapel or drinking saloon. Mr. Walser has also sought to establish there a Freethought University.

Ward(Lester Frank). American botanist, b. Joliet, Illinois, 18 June, 1841. He served in the National Army during the civil war and was wounded. In ’65 he settled at Washington and became librarian of the U.S. bureau of statistics. He is now curator of botany and fossil plants in the U.S. national museum. Has written many works on paleo-botany, and two volumes of sociological studies entitledDynamic Sociology. He has contributedtothePopular Science Monthly.

Ward(Mary A.), translator ofAmiel’s Journal, and authoress of a popular novelRobert Elsmere, 1888.

Warren(Josiah). American reformer, b. 26 June, 1798. He took an active part in Robert Owen’s communistic experiment at New Harmony, Indiana, in ’25–6. His own ideas he illustrated by establishing a “time store” at Cincinnati. His views are given in a work entitledTrue Civilisation. Died Boston, Mass. 14 April, 1874.

Washburn(L. K.), American lecturer and writer, b. Wareham, Plymouth, Mass., 25 March, 1846. In ’57 he went to Barre. Was sent to a Unitarian school for ministers, and was ordained in Ipswich, Feb. ’70. He read from the pulpit extracts from Parker, Emerson, and others instead of the Bible. He went to Minneapolis, where he organised the first Freethought Society in the State. Heafterwardsresided at Revere, and delivered many Freethought lectures, of which several have been published. He now edits theBoston Investigator.

Waters(Nathaniel Ramsey), American author ofRome v. Reason, a memoir of Christian and extra Christian experience.

Watson(James), English upholder of a free press, b. Malton (Yorks), 21 Sept. 1799. During the prosecution of Carlile and his shopmen in 1822 he volunteered to come from London toLeeds. In Feb. ’23 he was arrested for selling Palmer’sPrinciples of Nature, tried 23 April, and sentenced to twelve months’ imprisonment, during which he read Gibbon, Hume, and Mosheim. When liberated he became a compositor on theRepublican. In ’31 Julian Hibbert gave him his type and presses, and he issued Volney’sLectures on History. In Feb. ’33 he was sentenced to six months’ imprisonment for sellingThe Poor Man’s Guardian. Hibbert left him £450, which he used in printing d’Holbach’sSystem of Nature, Volney’sRuins, F. Wright’sLectures, R. D. Owen’s pamphlets, Paine’s works, and other volumes. Died at Norwood, 29 Nov. 1874.

Watson(Thomas), author ofThe Mystagogue, Leeds, 1847.

Watts(Charles), Secularist orator, b. Bristol, 28 Feb. 1835. Converted to Freethought by hearing Charles Southwell, he became a lecturer and assistant editor on theNational Reformer. Mr. Watts has had numerous debates, both in England and America, with Dr. Sexton, Rev. Mr. Harrison, Brewin Grant, and others. He started theSecular Reviewwith G. W. Foote, and afterwardsSecular Thoughtof Toronto. He wrote a portion ofThe Freethinker’s Text Book, and has publishedChristianity: its Origin, Nature and Influence;The Teachings of Secularism compared with Orthodox Christianity, and other brochures.

Watts(Charles A.), a son of above, b. 27 May, 1858. ConductsWatts’s Literary Gazetteand edits theAgnostic Annual.

Watts(John), brother of Charles, b. Bedminster, Bristol, 2 Oct. 1834. His father was a Wesleyan preacher, and he was converted to Freethought by his brother Charles. He became sub-editor of theReasoner, and afterwards for a time edited theNational Reformer. He editedHalf Hours With Freethinkerswith “Iconoclast,” and published several pamphlets,Logic and Philosophy of Atheism,Origin of Man,Is Man Immortal?The Devil,Who were the Writers of the New Testament, etc. Died 31 Oct. 1866.

Watts(of Lewes, Sussex), author of theYahoo, a satire in verse (first published in 1833), alsoThe Great Dragon Cast Out.

Webber(Zacharias), Dutch painter, who in the seventeenth century wrote heretical worksOn the Temptation of ChristandThe Seduction of Adam and Eve, etc. He defended Bekker, whom he surpassed in boldness. Under the pen name J. Adolphs hewroteThe True Origin, Continuance and Destruction of Satan. Died in 1679.

Weber(Karl Julius), German author, b. Langenburg, 16 April, 1767. Studied law at Erlangen and Göttingen. He lived for a while in Switzerland and studied French philosophy, which suited his satirical turn of mind. He wrote a history ofMonkery, 1818–20;Letters of Germans Travelling in Germany, ’26–28; andDemokritos, or the Posthumous Papers of a Laughing Philosopher, ’32–36. Died Kupferzell, 19 July, 1832.

Weitling(Wilhelm), German social democrat, b. Magdeburg, 1808. He was a leader of “Der Bund der Gerechten,” the League of the Just, and published at ZürichThe Gospel of Poor Sinners. He also wroteHumanity, As It Is and As It Should Be. He emigrated to America, where he died 25 Jan. 1871.

Wellhausen(Julius), German critic, b. Hameln 17 May, 1844, studied theology at Göttingen, and became professor in Griefswald, Halle, and Marburg. Is renowned for hisHistory of Israelin progress, ’78, etc., and hisProlegomenato the same, and his contributions to theEncyclopædia Britannica.

Westbrook(Richard Brodhead), Dr., American author, b. Pike co., Pennsylvania, 8 Feb. 1820. He became a Methodist preacher in ’40, and afterwards joined the Presbyterians, but withdrew about ’60, and has since writtenThe Bible: Whence and What?andMan: Whence and Whither?In ’88 Dr. Westbrook was elected President of the American Secular Union, and has since offered a prize for the best essay on teaching morality apart from religion.

Westerman(W. B.) During many years, from 1856–68, an active co-operator onDe Dageraad.

Westra(P.), Dutch Freethinker, b. 16 March, 1851. Has for some years been active secretary of the Dutch Freethought society, “De Dageraad.”

Wettstein(Otto), German American materialist, b. Barmen, 7 April, 1838. About ’48 his parents emigrated. In ’58 he set up in business as a jeweller at Rochelle. He contributed to theFreethinkers’ Magazine,The Ironclad Age, and other journals, and is treasurer of the National Secular Union.

White(Andrew Dickson), American educator, b. Homer, N.Y., 7 Nov. 1832. He studied at Yale, where he graduatedin ’53; travelled in Europe, and in ’57 was elected professor of history and English literature in the University of Michigan. He was elected to the State Senate, and in ’67 became first president of Cornell, a university which he has largely endowed. Among his works we must mentionThe Warfare of Science(N.Y., ’76) andStudies in General History and in the History of Civilisation, ’85.

Whitman(Walt), American poet, b. West Hills, Long Island, N.Y., 31 May, 1819. Educated in public schools, he became a printer, and travelled much through the States. In the civil war he served as a volunteer army nurse. His chief work,Leaves of Grass, with its noble preface, appeared in ’55, and was acclaimed by Emerson as “the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet contributed.” It was followed byDrum Taps,November BoughsandSands at Seventy. This “good gray poet” has also written prose essays calledDemocratic VietasandSpecimen Days and Collect.

Wicksell(Knut), Swedish author and lecturer, b. Stockholm, 30 Dec. 1851, studied at Upsala, and became licentiate of philosophy in ’85. Has written brochures on Population, Emigration, Prostitution, etc., and anonymously a satirical work on Bible Stories, as by Tante Malin. Represented Sweden at the Paris Conference of ’89.

Wieland(Christopher Martin), German poet and novelist, b. near Biberach, 5 Sept. 1733. A voluminous writer, he was called the Voltaire of Germany. Among his works we noticeDialogues of the Gods,Agathon, a novel, andEuthanasia, in which he argues against immortality. He translated Horace, Lucian and Shakespeare. Died Weimer, 20 Jan. 1813. His last words were “To be or not to be.”

Wiener(Christian), Dr., German author of a materialistic work on theElements of Natural Laws, 1863.

Wiessner(Alexander), German writer, author of an examination of spiritualism (Leipsic, 1875).

Wigand(Otto Friedrich), German publisher, b. Göttingen, 10 Aug. 1795. In 1832 he established himself in Leipsic, where he issued the works of Ruge, Bauer, Feuerbach, Scherr, and other Freethinkers. Died 31 Aug. 1870.

Wightman(Edward), English anti-Trinitarian martyr of Burton-on-Trent. Was burnt at Lichfield 11 April, 1612, being the last person burnt for heresy in England.

Wihl(Ludwig), German poet, b. 24 Oct. 1807. Died Brussels, 16 Jan. 1882.

Wilbrandt(Adolf), German author, b. Rosbock, 24 Aug. 1837. Has written on Heinrich von Kleist, Hölderlin, the poet of Pantheism, and published many plays, of which we may mentionGiordano Bruno, 1874, and also some novels.

Wilhelmi(Hedwig Henrich), German lecturess and author ofVortrage, published at Milwaukee, 1889. She attended the Paris Congress of ’89.

Wilkinson(Christopher), of Bradford, b. 1803. Wrote with Squire Farrah an ableExamination of Dr. Godwin’s Arguments for the Existence of God, published at Bradford, 1853.

Williams(David), Welsh deist, b. Cardiganshire, 1738. He became a dissenting minister but after publishing two volumes ofSermons on Religious Hypocrisy, 1774, dissolved the connections. In conjunction with Franklin and others he founded a club and drew up aLiturgy on the Universal Principles of Religion and Morality, which he used at a Deistic chapel opened in Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, 7 April, 1776. He wrote various political and educational works, and established the literary fund in 1789. Died Soho, London, 29 June, 1816.

Willis(Robert), physician and writer, b. Edinburgh, 1799. He studied at the University and became M.D. in 1819. He soon after came to London, and in ’23 became M.R.C.S. He became librarian to the College of Surgeons. Besides many medical works he wrote a Life of Spinoza, ’70, andServetus and Calvin, ’77. He also wrote onThe Pentateuch and Book of Joshua in the face of the Science and Moral Senses of our Age, andA Dialogue by Way of Catechism, both published by T. Scott. Died at Barnes, 21 Sept. 1878.

Wilson(John), M.A., of Trin. Coll., Dublin, author ofThoughts on Science, Theology and Ethics, 1885.

Wirmarsius(Henrik), Dutch author ofDen Ingebeelde Chaos, 1710.

Wislicenus(Gustav Adolf), German rationalist, b. Saxony,20 Nov. 1803. He studied theology at Halle, and became a minister, but in consequence of his workLetter or Spirit(1845) was suspended and founded the Free Congregation. For his work onThe Bible in the Light of Modern Culturehe was, in Sept. ’53, sentenced to prison for two years. He went to America, and lectured in Boston and New York. He returned to Europe in ’56, and stayed in Zürich, where he died 14 Oct. 1785. His chief work,The Bible for Thinking Readers, was published at Leipsic in ’63.

Wittichius(Jacobus), Dutch Spinozist, b. Aken, 11 Jan. 1671. Wrote on the Nature of God, 1711. Died 18 Oct. 1739.

Wixon(Susan H.), American writer and editor of the “Children’s Corner” in theTruthseeker, has for many years been an advocate of Freethought, temperance, and women’s rights. She was a school teacher and member of the Board of Education of the City of Fall River, Mass., where she resides. She contributes to theBoston Investigator.

Wollny(Dr. F.), German author ofPrinciples of Psychology(Leipsic, 1887), in the preface to which he professes himself an Atheist.

Wollstonecraft(Mary), English authoress, b. Hoxton, 27 April, 1759. She became a governess. In 1796 she settled in London, and began her literary labors withThoughts on the Education of Daughters. She also wrote aVindication of the Rights of Man, in answer to Burke, andVindication of the Rights of Woman. In 1797 she married William Godwin, and died in childbirth.

Wooley(Milton), Dr., American author ofScience of the Bible1877;Career of Jesus Christ, ’77; and a pamphlet on the name God. Died Aug. 1885.

Woolston(Thomas), Rev. English deist, b. Northampton, 1669. He studied at Cambridge, and became a Fellow at Sydney College and a minister. He published in 1705The Old Apology, which was followed by other works in favor of an allegorical interpretation of Scripture. In 1726 he began hisSix Discourses upon the Miracles, which wereassailedin forcible, homely language. Thirty thousand copies are said to have been sold, and sixty pamphlets were written in opposition. Woolston was tried for blasphemy and sentenced (March, 1729) to oneyear’s imprisonment and a fine of £100. This he could not pay, and died in prison 29 Jan. 1733.

Wright(Elizur), American reformer, b. South Canaan, Litchfield Co., Connecticut, 12 Feb. 1804. He graduated at Yale College, ’26. Having warmly embraced the principles of the Abolitionists, he became secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, and edited theAbolitionistandCommonwealth. He was a firm and uncompromising Atheist, and a contributor to theBoston Investigator, theFreethinker’s Magazine, etc. Died at Boston, 21 Dec. ’85. His funeral oration was delivered by Col. Ingersoll.

Wright(Frances), afterwardsD’Arusmont, writer and lecturess, b. Dundee, 6 Sept. 1795. At the age of eighteen she wroteA Few Days in Athens, in which she expounds and defends the Epicurean philosophy. She visited the United States, and wroteViews on Society and Manners in America, 1820. She bought 2,000 acres in Tennessee, and peopled it with slave families she purchased and redeemed. She afterwards joined Owen’s experiment; in part edited theNew Harmony Gazette, and afterwards theFree Inquirer. ACourse of Popular Lectureswas published at New York in ’29, in which she boldly gives her views on religion. She also wrote a number of fables and tracts, and assisted in founding theBoston Investigator. Died at Cincinnati, 14 Dec. 1852.

Wright(Henry Clarke), American reformer, b. Sharon, Litchfield co. Connecticut, 29 Aug. 1797. A conspicuous anti-slavery orator, he was a friend of Ernestine Rose, Lucretia Mott, etc. He wroteThe Living, Present and the Dead Past. Died Pawtucket, Rhode Island, 16 Aug. 1870.

Wright(Susannah), one of Carlile’s shopwomen. Tried 14 Nov. 1822, for selling pamphlets by Carlile. She made a good defence, in the course of which she was continually interrupted.

Wundt(Wilhelm Max), German scientist, b. Neckaran (Baden), 16 Aug. 1832. His father was a clergyman. He studied medicine at Tübingen, Heidelberg, and Berlin, and became professor of physiology at Heidelberg in ’64, and has since held chairs at Zurich and Leipsic. His principal worksarePrinciples of Physiological Psychology, ’74;Manual of Human Physiology;Logic, ’83;Essays, ’85;Ethik, ’86.

Wuensch(Christian Ernest), German physician, b. Hohenstein, 1744. Was Professor of Mathematics and Physics in Frankfort on the Oder, 1828.

Wyrouboff(Gr.), Count; Russian Positivist, who established theRevue de Philosophie Positivewith Littré, and edited it with him from 1867–83.

Xenophanes, Greek philosopher, b. Colophon, about 600B.C.He founded the Eleatic school, and wrote a poem on Nature and Eleaticism, in which he ridiculed man making gods in his own image.

Ximines(Augustin Louis),Marquis de, French writer, b. Paris, 26 Feb. 1726. Was an intimate friend of Voltaire, and wrote several plays. Died Paris, 31 May, 1817.

York(J. L.), American lecturer, b. New York, 1830. He became a blacksmith, then a Methodist minister, then Unitarian, and finally Freethought advocate. He was for some years member of the California Legislature, and has made lecturing tours in Australia and through the States.

Yorke(J. F.), author of ableNotes on Evolution and Christianity, London, 1882.

Youmans(Edward Livingstone), American scientist, b. Coeymans, N.Y., 3 June, 1821. Though partially blind he was a great student. He became M.D. about 1851, and began to lecture on science, popularly expounding the doctrines of the conservation of energy and evolution. He popularised Herbert Spencer, planned the “International Scientific Series,” and in ’72 established thePopular Science Monthly, in which he wrote largely. Died at New York, 18 Jan. 1887.

Zaborowski Moindrin(Sigismond), French scientific writer, b. La Créche, 1851. Has written onThe Antiquity of Man, ’74;Pre-historic Man, ’78;Origin of Languages, ’79;The Great Apes, ’81;Scientific Curiosities, ’83.

Zambrini(Francesco), Italian writer, b. Faenza, 25 Jan. 1810. Educated at Ravenna and Bologna. He devoted himself to literature and produced a great number of works. Died 9 July, 1887.

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