Chapter 4

That all the books of MosesWere nothing but supposes.He had to resign a position at court. In later life he wroteDe Fide et Officiis Christianorum(on Christian Faith and Duties), in which he regards historical religions as based on the religion of nature, and rejects original sin and the “magical” theory of sacraments; andDe Statu Mortuorum et Resurgentium, on the State of the Dead and Resurrected, in which he opposed the doctrine of eternal punishment and shadowed forth a scheme of Deism. These books he kept to himself to avoid a prosecution for heresy, but had a few copies printed for private friends. He died in the Charterhouse 27 Sept. 1715. A tract entitledHell Torments not Eternalwas published in 1739.Burnett(James), Lord Monboddo, a learned Scotch writer and judge, was b. Monboddo, Oct. 1714. He adopted the law as his profession, became a celebrated advocate, and was made a judge in 1767. His work on theOrigin and Progress of Language(published anonymously 1773–92), excited much derision by his studying man as one of the animals and collecting facts about savage tribes to throw light on civilisation. He first maintained that the orang-outang was allied to the human species. He also wrote onAncient Metaphysics. He was a keen debater and discussed with Hume, Adam Smith, Robertson, and Lord Kames. Died in Edinburgh, 26 May, 1799.Burnouf(Emile Louis), French writer, b. Valonges, 25 Aug. 1821. He became professor of ancient literature to the faculty of Nancy. Author of many works, including a translation of selections from theNovum Organumof Bacon, the Bhagvat-Gita, an Introduction to the Vedas, a history of Greek Literature, Studies in Japanese, and articles in theRevue des deux Mondes. His heresy is pronounced in his work on theScience of Religions, 1878, in hisContemporary Catholicism, andLife and Thought, 1886.Burnouf(Eugène), French Orientalist, cousin of the preceding; b. Paris, 12 Aug. 1801. He opened up to the Western world the Pali language, and with it the treasures of Buddhism, whose essentially Atheistic character he maintained. To him also we are largely indebted for a knowledge of Zend and of the Avesta of the Zoroastrians. He translated numerous Oriental works and wrote a valuableIntroduction to the History of Indian Buddhism. Died at Paris, 28 May, 1852.Burns(Robert), Scotland’s greatest poet, b. near Ayr, 25 Jan. 1759. His father was a small farmer, of enlightened views. The life and works of Burns are known throughout the world. His Freethought is evident from such productions as the “Holy Fair,” “The Kirk’s Alarm,” and “Holy Willie’s Prayer,” and many passages in private letters to his most familiarmalefriends. Died at Dumfries, 21 July, 1796.Burr(William Henry), American author, b. 1819, Gloversville, N.Y., graduated at Union College, Schenectady, became a shorthand reporter to the Senate. In 1869 he retired and devoted himself to literary research. He is the anonymousauthor ofRevelations of Antichrist, a learned book which exposes the obscurity of the origin of Christianity, and seeks to show that the historical Jesus lived almost a century before the Christian era. He has also written several pamphlets:Thomas Paine was Junius, 1880:Self Contradictions of the Bible;Is the Bible a Lying Humbug?A Roman Catholic Canard, etc. He has also frequently contributed to theBoston Investigator, the New YorkTruthseeker, and theIronclad AgeofIndianapolis.Burton(Sir Richard Francis), traveller, linguist, and author, b. Barham House, Herts, 19 March, 1821. Intended for the Church, he matriculated at Oxford, but in 1842 entered the East India Company’s service, served on the staff of Sir C. Napier, and soon acquired reputation as an intrepid explorer. In ’51 he returned to England and started for Mecca and Medina, visiting those shrines unsuspected, as a Moslem pilgrim. He was chief of the staff of the Osmanli cavalry in the Crimean war, and has made many remarkable and dangerous expeditions in unknown lands; he discovered and opened the lake regions in Central Africa and explored the highlands of Brazil. He has been consul at Fernando Po, Santos, Damascus, and since 1872 at Trieste, and speaks over thirty languages. His latest work is a new translation ofThe Thousand Nights and a Nightin 10 vols. Being threatened with a prosecution, he intended justifying “literal naturalism” from the Bible. Burton’s knowledge of Arabic is so perfect that when he used to read the tales to Arabs, they would roll on the ground in fits of laughter.Butler(Samuel), poet, b. in Strensham, Worcestershire, Feb. 1612. In early life he came under the influence of Selden. He studied painting, and is said to have painted a head of Cromwell from life. He became clerk to Sir Samuel Luke, one of Cromwell’s Generals, whom he has satirised as Hudibras. This celebrated burlesque poem appeared in 1663 and became famous, but, although the king and court were charmed with its wit, the author was allowed to remain in poverty and obscurity till he died at Covent Garden, London, 25 Sept. 1680. Butler expressed the opinion that“Religion is the interest of churchesThat sell in other worlds in this to purchase.”Buttmann(Philipp Karl), German philologist, b. Frankfort, 5 Dec. 1764. Became librarian of the Royal Library at Berlin. He edited many of the Greek Classics, wrote on theMyth of the Deluge, 1819, and a learned work on Mythology, 1828. Died Berlin, 21 June, 1829.Buzot(François Léonard Nicolas), French Girondin, distinguished as an ardent Republican and a friend and lover of Madame Roland. Born at Evreux, 1 March, 1760; he died from starvation when hiding after the suppression of his party June, 1793.Byelinsky(Vissarion G.) SeeBelinsky.Byron(George Gordon Noel) Lord, b. London, 22 Jan. 1788. He succeeded his grand-uncle William in 1798; was sent to Harrow and Cambridge. In 1807 hepublishedhisHours of Idleness, and awoke one morning to find himself famous. His power was, however, first shown in hisEnglish Bards and Scotch Reviewers, in which he satirised his critics, 1809. He then travelled on the Continent, the result of which was seen in hisChilde Harold’s Pilgrimageand other works. He married 2 Jan. 1815, but a separation took place in the following year. Lord Byron then resided in Italy, where he made the acquaintance of Shelley. In 1823 he devoted his name and fortune to the cause of the Greek revolution, but was seized with fever and died at Missolonghi, 19 April, 1824. His drama ofCain: a Mystery, 1822, is his most serious utterance, and it shows a profound contempt for religious dogma. This feeling is also exhibited in his magnificent burlesque poem,The Vision of Judgment, which places him at the head of English satirists. In his letters to the Rev. Francis Hodgson, 1811, he distinctly says: “I do not believe in any revealed religion.... I will have nothing to do with your immortality; we are miserable enough in this life, without the absurdity of speculating upon another.... The basis of your religion is injustice; the Son of God, the pure, the immaculate, the innocent, is sacrificed for the guilty,” etc.Cabanis(Pierre Jean George), called by Lange “the father of the materialistic physiology,” b. Conac, 5 June, 1757. Became pupil of Condillac and friend of Mirabeau, whom he attended in his last illness, of which he published an account1791. He was also intimate with Turgot, Condorcet, Holbach, Diderot, and other distinguished Freethinkers, and was elected member of the Institute and of the Council of Five Hundred in the Revolution. His works are mostly medical, the chief beingDes Rapports du Physique et du Morale de l’Homme, in which he contends that thoughts are a secretion of the brain. Died Rueil, near Paris, 5 May, 1808.Cæsalpinus(Andreas), Italian philosopher of the Renaissance, b. Arezzo, Tuscany, 1519. He became Professor of Botany at Pisa, and Linnæus admits his obligations to his work,De Plantis, 1583. He also wrote works on metals and medicine, and showed acquaintance with the circulation of the blood. In a work entitledDemonum Investigatio, he contends that “possession” by devils is amenable to medical treatment. HisQuæstionum Peripateticarum, in five books, Geneva, 1568, was condemned as teaching a Pantheistic doctrine similar to that of Spinoza. Bishop Parker denounced him. Died 23 Feb. 1603.Cæsar(Caius Julius), the “foremost man of all this world,” equally renowned as soldier, statesman, orator, and writer, b. 12 July, 100B.C., of noble family. His life, the particulars of which are well known, was an extraordinary display of versatility, energy, courage, and magnanimity. He justified the well-known line of Pope, “Cæsar the world’s great master and his own.” His military talents elevated him to the post of dictator, but this served to raise against him a band of aristocratic conspirators, by whom he was assassinated, 15 March, 44B.C.HisCommentariesare a model of insight and clear expression. Sallust relates that he questioned the existence of a future state in the presence of the Roman senate. Froude says: “His own writings contain nothing to indicate that he himself had any religious belief at all. He saw no evidence that the gods practically interfered in human affairs.... He held to the facts of this life and to his own convictions; and as he found no reason for supposing that there was a life beyond the grave he did not pretend to expect it.”Cahuac(John), bookseller, revised an edition of Palmer’sPrinciples of Nature, 1819. For this he was prosecuted at the instance of the “Vice Society,” but the matter was compromised. He was also prosecuted for selling theRepublican, 1820.Calderino(Domizio), a learned writer of the Renaissance, b. in 1445, in the territory of Verona, and lived at Rome, where he was professor of literature, in 1477. He edited and commented upon many of the Latin poets. Bayle says he was without religion. Died in 1478.Calenzio(Eliseo), an Italian writer, b. in the kingdom of Naples about 1440. He was preceptor to Prince Frederic, the son of Ferdinand, the King of Naples. He died in 1503, leaving behind a number of satires, fables and epigrams, some of which are directed against the Church.Call(Wathen Mark Wilks), English author, b. 7 June, 1817. Educated at Cambridge, entered the ministry in 1843, but resigned his curacy about 1856 on account of his change of opinions, which he recounts in his preface toReverberations, 1876. Mr. Call is of the Positivist school, and has contributed largely to theFortnightlyandWestminster Reviews.Callet(Pierre Auguste), French politician, b. St. Etienne, 27 Oct. 1812; became editor of theGazetteof France till 1840. In 1848 he was nominated Republican representative. At thecoup d’étatof 2 Dec. 1851, he took refuge in Belgium. He returned to France, but was imprisoned for writing against the Empire. In 1871, Callet was again elected representative for the department of the Loire. His chief Freethought work isL’Enfer, an attack upon the Christian doctrine of hell, 1861.Camisani(Gregorio), Italian writer, b. at Venice, 1810. A Professor of Languages in Milan. He has translated theUpasof Captain R. H. Dyas and other works.Campanella(Tommaso), Italian philosopher, b. Stilo, Calabria, 5 Sept. 1568. He entered the Dominican order, but was too much attracted by the works of Telesio to please his superiors. In 1590 hisPhilosophia Sensibus Demonstratiowas printed at Naples. Being prosecuted, he fled to Rome, and thence to Florence, Venice, and Padua. At Bologna some of his MS. fell into the hands of the Inquisition, and he was arrested. He ably defended himself and was acquitted. Returning to Calabria in 1599, he was arrested on charges of heresy and conspiracy against the Spanish Government of Naples, and having appealed to Rome, was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment in the prison of the Holy Office. Hewas put to the torture seven times, his torments on one occasion extending over forty hours, but he refused to confess. He was dragged from one prison to another for twenty-sevenyears, during which he wrote some sonnets, a history of the Spanish monarchy, and several philosophical works. On 15 May, 1626, he was released by the intervention of Pope Urban VIII. He was obliged to fly from Rome to France, where he met Gassendi. He also visited Descartes in Holland. Julian Hibbert remarked that hisAtheismus Triumphatus—Atheism Subdued, 1631, would be better entitledAtheismus Triumphans—Atheism Triumphant—as the author puts his strongest arguments on the heterodox side. In hisCity of the Sun, Campanella follows Plato and More in depicting an ideal republic and a time when a new era of earthly felicity should begin. Hallam says “The strength of Campanella’s genius lay in his imagination.” His “Sonnets” have been translated by J. A. Symonds. Died Paris, 21 May, 1639.Campbell(Alexander), Socialist of Glasgow, b. about the beginning of the century. He early became a Socialist, and was manager at the experiment at Orbiston under Abram Combe, of whom he wrote a memoir. Upon the death of Combe, 1827, he became a Socialist missionary in England. He took an active part in the co-operative movement, and in the agitation for an unstamped press, for which he was tried and imprisoned at Edinburgh, 1833–4. About 1849 he returned to Glasgow and wrote on theSentinel. In 1867 he was presented with a testimonial and purse of 90 sovereigns by admirers of his exertions in the cause of progress. Died about 1873.Campion(William), a shoemaker, who became one of R. Carlile’s shopmen; tried 8 June, 1824, for selling Paine’sAge of Reason. After a spirited defence he was found guilty and sentenced to three years’ imprisonment. In prison he edited, in conjunction with J. Clarke, E. Hassell, and T. R. Perry, theNewgate Monthly Magazine, to which he contributed some thoughtful papers, from Sept. 1824, to Aug. 1826, when he was removed to the Compter.Canestrini(Giovanni), Italian naturalist, b. Rerò, 1835. He studied at Vienna, and in ’60 was nominated Professor of Natural History at Geneva. Signor Canestrini contributed totheAnnuario Filosofico del Libero Pensiero, and is known for his popularisation of the works of Darwin, which he has translated into Italian. He has written upon theOrigin of Man, which has gone through two editions, Milan, ’66–’70, and on theTheory of Evolution, Turin, ’77. He was appointed Professor of Zoology, Anatomy and Comparative Physiology at Padua, where he has published a Memoir of Charles Darwin, ’82.Cardano(Girolamo), better known asJerome Cardan, Italian mathematician, and physician, b. Pavia, 24 Sept. 1501. He studied medicine, but was excluded from the Milan College of Physicians on account of illegitimate birth. He and his young wife were at one time compelled to take refuge in the workhouse. It is not strange that his first work was an exposure of the fallacies of the faculty. A fortunate cure brought him into notice and he journeyed to Scotland as the medical adviser of the Archbishop of St. Andrews, 1551. In 1563 he was arrested at Bologna for heresy, but was released, although deprived of his professorship. He died at Rome, 20 Sept. 1576, having, it is said, starved himself to verify his own prediction of his death. Despite some superstition, Cardano did much to forward science, especially by his work on Algebra, and in his worksDe Subtilitate RerumandDe Varietate Rerum, amid much that is fanciful, perceived the universality of natural law and the progressive evolution of life. Scaliger accused him of Atheism. Pünjer says “Cardanus deserves to be named along with Telesius as one of the principal founders of Natural Philosophy.”Carducci(Giosuè), Italian poet and Professor of Italian Literature at the University of Bologna, b. Pietrasantra, in the province of Lucca, 27 July, 1836. As early as ’49 he cried,Abasso tutti i re! viva la republica—Down with all kings! Long live the republic! Sprung into fame by hisHymn to Satan, ’69, by which he intended the spirit of resistance. He has written many poems and satires in which he exhibits himself an ardent Freethinker and Republican. At the end of ’57 he wrote his famous verse “Il secoletto vil che cristianeggia”—“This vile christianising century.” In ’60 he became professor of Greek in Bologna University, being suspended for a short while in ’67 for an address to Mazzini. In ’76 he was elected as republicandeputy to the Italian Parliament for Lugo di Romagna.Carlile(Eliza Sharples), second wife of Richard Carlile, came from Lancashire during the imprisonment of Carlile and Taylor, 1831, delivered discourses at the Rotunda, and started a journal, theIsis, which lasted from 11 Feb. to 15 Dec. 1832. TheIsiswas dedicated to the young women of England “until superstition is extinct,” and contained Frances Wright’s discourses, in addition to those by Mrs. Carlile, who survived till ’61. Mr. Bradlaugh lodged with Mrs. Carlile at the Warner Place Institute, in 1849. She had three children, Hypatia, Theophila and Julian, of whom the second is still living.Carlile(Jane), first wife of R. Carlile, who carried on his business during his imprisonment, was proceeded against, and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, 1821. She had three children, Richard, Alfred, and Thomas Paine Carlile, the last of whom edited theRegenerator, a Chartist paper published at Manchester, 1839.Carlile(Richard), foremost among the brave upholders of an English free press, b. Ashburton, Devon, 8 Dec. 1790. He was apprenticed to a tin-plate worker, and followed that business till he was twenty-six, when, having read the works of Paine, he began selling works like Wooler’sBlack Dwarf, which Government endeavored to suppress. Sherwin offered him the dangerous post of publisher of theRepublican, which he accepted. He then published Southey’sWat Tyler, reprinted the political works of Paine and the parodies for which Hone was tried, but which cost Carlile eighteen weeks’ imprisonment. In 1818 he published Paine’s Theological Works. The prosecution instituted induced him to go on printing similar works, such as Palmer’sPrinciples of Nature,Watson Refuted,Jehovah Unveiled, etc. By Oct. 1819, he had six indictments to answer, on two of which he was tried from 12 to 16 October. He read the whole of theAge of Reasonin his defence, in order to have it in the report of the trial. He was found guilty and sentenced (16 Nov.) to fifteen hundred pounds fine and three years’ imprisonment in Dorchester Gaol. During his imprisonment his business was kept on by a succession of shopmen. Refusing to find securities not to publish, he was kept in prison till 18Nov. 1835, when he was liberated unconditionally. During his imprisonment he edited theRepublican, which extended to fourteen volumes. He also edited theDeist, theMoralist, theLion(four volumes), thePrompter(for No. 3 of which he again suffered thirty-two months’ imprisonment), and theGauntlet. Amongst his writings areAn Address to Men of Science,The Gospel according to R. Carlile,What is God?Every Woman’s Book, etc. He publishedDoubts of Infidels,Janus on Sion,Sepher Toldoth Jeshu, D’Holbach’sGood Sense, Volney’sRuins, and many other Freethought works. He died 10 Feb. 1843, bequeathing his body to Dr. Lawrence for scientific purposes.Carlyle(Thomas), one of the most gifted and original writers of the century, b. 4 Dec. 1795, at Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, where his father, a man of intellect and piety, held a small farm. Showing early ability he was intended for the Kirk, and educated at the University of Edinburgh. He, however, became a tutor, and occupied his leisure in translating from the German. He married Jane Welsh 17 Oct. 1826, and wrote in theLondon MagazineandEdinburgh Reviewmany masterly critical articles, notably on Voltaire, Diderot, Burns, and German literature. In 1833–4 hisSartor Resartusappeared inFraser’s Magazine. In ’34 he removed to London and began writing theFrench Revolution, the MS. of the first vol. of which he confided to Mill, with whom it was accidentally burnt. He re-wrote the work without complaint, and it was published in ’37. He then delivered a course of lectures on “German Literature” and on “Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History,” in which he treats Mahomet as the prophet “we are freest to speak of.” HisPast and Presentwas published in ’43. In ’45 appearedOliver Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches. In ’50 he publishedLatter-Day Pamphlets, which contains his most distinctive political and social doctrines, and in the following year hisLife of John Sterling, in which his heresy clearly appears. His largest work is hisHistory of the Life and Times of Frederick the Great, in 10 vols. He was elected rector of Edinburgh University in ’65. Died 5 Feb. 1881. Mr. Froude, in hisBiography of Carlyle, says, “We have seen him confessing to Irving that he did not believe as his friend did in the Christian religion.” ... “the special miraculous occurrences of sacred history were not credible to him.”Carneades, sceptical philosopher, b. Cyrene about B.C. 213. He went early to Athens, and attended the lectures of the Stoics, learning logic from Diogenes. In the year 155, he was chosen with other deputies to go to Rome to deprecate a fine which had been placed on the Athenians. During his stay at Rome he attracted great attention by his philosophical orations. Carneades attacked the very idea of a God at once infinite and an individual. He denied providence and design. Many of his arguments are preserved in Cicero’sAcademicsandDe Natura Deorum. Carneades left no written works; his views seem to have been systematised by his follower Clitomachus. He diedB.C.129. Carneades is described as a man of unwearied industry. His ethics were of elevated character.Carneri(Bartholomäus von), German writer, b. Trieste, 3 Nov. 1821. Educated at Vienna. In 1870 he sat in the Austrian Parliament with the Liberals. Author of an able work onMorality and Darwinism, Vienna, 1871. Has also writtenDer Mensch als Selbstweck, “Humanity as its own proper object,” 1877;Grundlegung der Ethik, Foundation of Morals, 1881; and Ethical Essays on Evolution and Happiness, Stuttgart, 1886.Carra(Jean Louis), French man of letters and Republican, b. 1743 at Pont de Veyle. He travelled in Germany, Italy, Turkey, Russia, and Moldavia, where he became secretary to the hospodar. On returning to France he became employed in the King’s library and wrote aHistory of Moldaviaand anEssay on Aerial Navigation. He warmly espoused the revolution and was one of the most ardent orators of the Jacobin club. In the National Assembly he voted for the death of Louis XVI., but was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. His Freethought sentiments are evident from hisSystem of Reason, 1773; hisSpirit of Morality and Philosophy, 1777;New Principles of Physic, 1782–3, and other works.Carrel(Jean Baptiste Nicolas Armand), called by Saint Beuve “the Junius of the French press,” b. Rouen, 8 May, 1800. He became a soldier, but, being a Republican, fought on behalf of the Spanish revolution. Being taken prisoner, he was condemned to death, but escaped through some informality. He became secretary to Thierry, edited the works of P. L. Courier, and established theNationin conjunction with Thiersand Mignet. J. S. Mill writes of him in terms of high praise. The leading journalist of his time, his slashing articles led to several duels, and in an encounter with Emile de Girardin (22 July, 1836) he was fatally wounded. On his death-bed, says M. Littré, he said “Point de prêtres, point d’église”—no priests nor church. Died 24 July, 1836. He wrote aHistory of the Counter-Revolution in England, with an eye to events in his own country.Carus(Julius Viktor), German zoologist, b. Leipsic, 25 Aug. 1825. Has been keeper of anatomical museum at Oxford, and has translated Darwin’s works and the philosophy of G. H. Lewes.Carus(Karl Gustav), German physiologist and Pantheist, b. Leipsic, 3 Jan. 1789. He taughtcomparativeanatomy at the university of that town, and published a standard introduction to that subject. He also wrotePsyche, a history of the development of the human soul, 1846, andNature and Idea, 1861. Died at Dresden, 28 July, 1869.Castelar y Ripoll(Emilio), Spanish statesman, b. Cadiz, 8 Sept. 1832. He began as a journalist, and became known by his novelErnesto, 1855. As professor of history and philosophy, he delivered lectures on “Civilisation during the first three centuries of Christendom.”La Formula del Progressocontains a sketch of democratic principles. On the outbreak of the revolution of ’68 he advocated a Federal Republic in a magnificent oration. The Crown was however offered to Amadeus of Savoy. “Glass, with care,” was Castelar’s verdict on the newdynasty, and in Feb. ’73 Castelar drew up a Republican Constitution; and for a year was Dictator of Spain. Upon his retirement to France he wrote a sketchyHistory of the Republican Movement in Europe. In ’76 he returned to Spain and took part in the Cortes, where he has continued to advocate Republican views. HisOld Rome and New Italy, andLife of Lord Byronhave been translated into English.Castelli(David), Italian writer, b. Livorno, 30 Dec. 1836. Since 1873 he has held the chair of Hebrew in the Institute of Superior Studies at Florence. He has translated the book of Ecclesiastes with notes, and written rationalistic works onTalmudic Legends, 1869;The Messiah According to the Hebrews,’74; theBible Prophets, ’82; andThe History of the Israelites, 1887.Castilhon(Jean Louis), French man of letters, b. at Toulouse in 1720. He wrote in numerous publications, and edited theJournal of Jurisprudence. His history of dogmas and philosophical opinions had some celebrity, and he shows himself a Freethinker in hisEssay on Ancient and Modern Errors and Superstitions, Amsterdam, 1765; hisPhilosophical Almanack, 1767; and hisHistory of Philosophical Opinions, 1769. Died 1793.Cattell(Christopher Charles), writer in English Secular journals, author ofSearch for the First Man;Against Christianity;The Religion of this Life, etc.Caumont(Georges), French writer of genius, b. about 1845. Suffering from consumption, he wroteJudgment of a Dying Man upon Life, and humorous and familiarConversations of a Sick Person with the Divinity. Died at Madeira, 1875.Cavalcante(Guido), noble Italian poet and philosopher, b. Florence, 1230. A friend of Dante, and a leader of the Ghibbelin party. He married a daughter of Farinata delgi Uberti. Bayle says, “it is said his speculation has as their aim to provethereis no God. Dante places his father in the hell of Epicureans, who denied the immortality of the soul.” Guido died in 1300. An edition of his poems was published in 1813.Cavallotti(Felice Carlo Emanuel), Italian poet and journalist, b. Milan, 6 Nov. 1842, celebrated for his patriotic poems; is a pronounced Atheist. He was elected member of the Italian parliament in 1873.Cayla(Jean Mamert), French man of letters and politician b. Vigan (Lot) 1812. Became in ’37 editor of theEmancipatorof Toulouse, a city of which he wrote the history. At Paris he wrote to theSiècle, theRépublique Françaiseand other journals, and publishedEuropean Celebritiesand numerous anti-clerical brochures, such asThe Clerical Conspiracy, ’61;The Devil, his Grandeur and Decay, ’64;Hell Demolished, ’65;Suppression of Religious Orders, ’70; andThe History of the Mass,’74. He died 2 May, 1877.Cazelles(Emile), French translator of Bentham’sInfluence ofNatural Religion, Paris, 1875. Has also translated Mill’sSubjection of Womenand hisAutobiographyandEssays on Religion.Cecco d’Ascoli,i.e.,Stabili(Francesco degli), Italian poet, b. Ascoli, 1257. He taught astrology and philosophy at Bologna. In 1324 he was arrested by the Inquisition for having spoken against the faith, and was condemned to fine and penitence. He was again accused at Florence, and was publicly burnt as an heretic 16 Sept. 1327. His best known work is entitledAcerba, a sort of encyclopædia in rhyme.Cellarius(Martin), Anabaptist, who deserves mention as the first avowed Protestant Anti-trinitarian. He studied Oriental languages with Reuchlin and Melancthon, but having discussed with Anabaptists acknowledged himself converted, 1522, and afterwards gave up the deity of Christ. He was imprisoned, and on his release went to Switzerland, where he died 11 Oct. 1564.Celsus, a Pagan philosopher, who lived in the second century. He was a friend of Lucian, who dedicated to him his treatise on the False Prophet. He wrote an attack on Christianity, calledThe True Word. The work was destroyed by the early Christians. The passages given by his opponent, Origen, suffice to show that he was a man of high attainments, well acquainted with the religion he attacked, and that his power of logic and irony was most damaging to the Christian faith.Cerutti(GiuseppeAntonio Gioachino), poet, converted Jesuit, b. Turin, 13 June, 1738. He became a Jesuit, and wrote a defence of the Society. He afterwards became a friend of Mirabeau,adopted the principles of 1789, wrote in defence of the Revolution, and wrote and published aPhilosophical Breviary, or history of Judaism, Christianity, and Deism, which he attributed to Frederick of Prussia. His opinions may also be gathered from his poem,Les Jardins de Betz, 1792. Died Paris, 3 Feb. 1792.Chaho(J. Augustin), Basque man of letters, b. Tardets, Basses-Pyrénées,10 Oct. 1811. His principal works are aPhilosophy of Comparative Religion, and a Basque dictionary. At Bayonne he edited the Ariel. In 1852 this was suppressed and he was exiled. Died 23 Oct. 1858.Chaloner(Thomas), M.P., Regicide, b. Steeple Claydon, Bucks, 1595. Educated at Oxford, he became member for Richmond(Yorks), 1645. Was a witness against Archbishop Laud, and one of King Charles’s Judges. In 1651 he was made Councillor of State. Wood says he “was as far from being a Puritan as the east is from the west,” and that he “was of the natural religion.” He wrote a pretendedTrue and Exact Relation of the Finding of Moses His Tomb, 1657, being a satire directed against the Presbyterians. Upon the Restoration he fled to the Low Countries, and died at Middelburg, Zeeland, in 1661.Chambers(Ephraim), originator of the Cyclopædia of Arts and Sciences, b. Kendal about 1680. The first edition of his work appeared in 1728, and procured him admission to the Royal Society. A French translation gave rise to Diderot and D’Alembert’sEncyclopédie. Chambers also edited theLiterary Magazine, 1836, etc. His infidel opinions were well known, and the Cyclopædia was placed upon theIndex, but he was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Died 15 May, 1740.Chamfort(Sébastien Roch Nicolas), French man of letters, b. in Auvergne, near Clermont, 1741. He knew no parent but his mother, a peasant girl, to supply whose wants he often denied himself necessaries. At Paris he gained a prize from the Academy for his eulogy on Molière. About 1776 he published a Dramatic Dictionary and wrote several plays. In 1781 he obtained a seat in the Academy, being patronised by Mme. Helvetius. He became a friend of Mirabeau, who called himune tête électrique. In 1790 he commenced a work calledPictures of the Revolution. In the following year he became secretary of the Jacobin Club and National Librarian. Arrested by Robespierre, he desperately, but vainly, endeavored to commit suicide. He died 13 April, 1794, leaving behind numerous works and a collection ofMaxims, Thoughts, Characters, and Anecdotes, which show profound genius and knowledge of human nature.Chapman(John), M.R.C.S., b. 1839. Has written largely in theWestminster Review, of which he is proprietor.Chappellsmith(Margaret), néeReynolds, b. Aldgate, 22 Feb. 1806. Early in life she read the writings of Cobbett. In ’36 she began writing political articles in theDispatch, and afterwards became a Socialist and Freethought lecturess. She married John Chappellsmith in ’39, and in ’42 she beganbusinessas a bookseller. In ’37 she expressed a preference for the development theory before that of creation. In ’50 they emigrated to the United States, where Mrs. Chappellsmith contributed many articles to theBoston Investigator.Charles(Rudolf). SeeGiessenburg.Charma(Antoine), French philosopher, b. 15 Jan. 1801. In ’30 he was nominated to the Chair of Philosophy at Caen. He was denounced for his impiety by the Count de Montalembert in the Chamber of peers, and an endeavor was made to unseat him. He wrote many philosophical works, and an account of Didron’sHistoire de Dieu. Died 5 Aug. 1869.Charron(Pierre), French priest and sceptic, b. Paris, 1513. He was an intimate friend of Montaigne. His principal work is aTreatise on Wisdom, 1601, which was censured as irreligious by the Jesuits. Franck says “the scepticism of Charron inclines visibly to ‘sensualisme’ and even to materialism.” Died Paris, 16 Nov. 1603.Chassebœuf de Volney(Constantin François). SeeVolney.Chastelet duorChatelet Lomont(Gabrielle Emiliele Tonnelier de Breteuil), Marquise, Frenchsavante, b. Paris, 17 Dec 1706. She was learned in mathematics and other sciences, and in Latin, English and Italian. In 1740 she published a work on physical philosophy entitledInstitutions de Physique. She afterwards made a good French translation of Newton’sPrincipia. She lived some years with Voltaire at Cirey between 1735 and 1747, and addressed to himDoubts on Revealed Religions, published in 1792. She also wrote aTreatise on Happiness, which was praised by Condorcet.Chastellux(François Jean de), Marquis. A soldier, traveller and writer, b. Paris 1734. WroteOn Public Happiness(2 vols., Amst. 1776), a work Voltaire esteemed highly. He contributed to theEncyclopédie; one article on “Happiness,” being suppressed by the censor because it did not mention God. Died Paris, 28 Oct. 1788.Chatterton(Thomas), the marvellous boy poet, b. Bristol, 20 Nov, 1752. His poems, which he pretended were written by one Thomas Rowley in the fourteenth century and discoveredby him in an old chest in Redcliffe Church, attracted much attention. In 1769 he visited London in hopes of rising by his talents, but after a bitter experience of writing for the magazines, destroyed himself in a fit of despair 25 Aug. 1770. Several of his poems betray deistic opinions.Chaucer(Geoffrey), the morning star of English poetry and first English Humanist, b. London about 1340. In 1357 he was attached to the household of Lionel, third son of Edward III. He accompanied the expedition to France 1359–60, was captured by the French, and ransomed by the king. He was patronised by John of Gaunt, and some foreign missions were entrusted to him, one of them being to Italy, where he met Petrarch. All his writings show the influence of the Renaissance, and in hisCanterbury Pilgrimshe boldly attacks the vices of the ecclesiastics. Died 25 Oct. 1400, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.Chaumette(Pierre Gaspard), afterwards Anaxagoras, French revolutionary, b. Nevers, 24 May, 1763. The son of a shoemaker, he was in turn cabin boy, steersman, and attorney’s clerk. In early youth he received lessons in botany from Rousseau. He embraced the revolution with ardor, was the first to assume the tri-color cockade, became popular orator at the club of the Cordeliers, and was associated with Proudhomme in the journalLes Revolutions de Paris. Nominated member of the Commune 10 Aug. 1792, he took the name of Anaxagoras to show his little regard for his baptismal saints. He was elected Procureur Syndic, in which capacity he displayed great activity. He abolished the rod in schools, suppressed lotteries, instituted workshops for fallen women, established the first lying-in-hospital, had books sent to the hospitals, separated the insane from the sick, founded the Conservatory of Music, opened the public libraries every day (under theancien régimethey were only open two hours per week), replaced books of superstition by works of morality and reason, put a graduated tax on the rich to provide for the burial of the poor, and was the principal mover in the feasts of Reason and closing of the churches. He was accused by Robespierre of conspiring with Cloots “to efface all idea of the Deity,” and was guillotined 13 April, 1794.Chaussard(Pierre Jean Baptiste), French man of letters, b. Paris, 8 Oct. 1766. At the Revolution he took the name of Publicola, and published patriotic odes,Esprit de Mirabeau, and other works. He was preacher to the Theophilanthropists, and became professor ofbelles lettresat Orleans. Died 9 Jan. 1823.Chemin-Dupontes(Jean Baptiste), b. 1761. One of the founders of French Theophilanthropy; published many writings, the best known of which is entitledWhat is Theophilanthropy?Chenier(Marie André de), French poet, b. Constantinople, 29 Oct. 1762. His mother, a Greek, inspired him with a love for ancient Greek literature. Sent to college at Paris, he soon manifested his genius by writing eclogues and elegies of antique simplicity and sensibility. In 1787 he came to England as Secretary of Legation. He took part in the legal defence of Louis XVI., eulogised Charlotte Corday, and gave further offence by some letters in theJournal de Paris. He was committed to prison, and here met his ideal in the Comtesse de Coigny. Confined in the same prison, to her he addressed the touching verses, The Young Captive (La jeune Captive). He was executed 25 July, 1794, leaving behind, among other poems, an imitation of Lucretius, entitledHermes, which warrants the affirmation of de Chênedolle, that “AndréChénierétaitathée avec délices.”Chenier(Marie Joseph de), French poet and miscellaneous writer, brother of the preceding, b. Constantinople, 28 Aug. 1764. He served two years in the army, and then applied himself to literature. His first successful drama, “Charles IX.,” was produced in 1789, and was followed by others. He wrote many patriotic songs, and was made member of the Convention. He was a Voltairean, and in hisNouveaux Saints(1801) satirised those who returned to the old faith. He wrote many poems and an account of French literature. Died Paris, 10 Jan. 1811.ChernuishevskyorTchernycheiosky(Nikolai Gerasimovich), Russian Nihilist, b. Saratof, 1829. Educated at the University of St. Petersburg, translated Mill’sPolitical Economy, and wrote onSuperstition and the Principles of Logic, ’59. Hisbold romance,What is to be Done?was published ’63. In the following year he was sentenced to the Siberian mines, where, after heartrending cruelties, he has become insane.Chesneau Du Marsais(César). SeeDumarsais.Chevalier(Joseph Philippe), French chemist, b. Saint Pol,21 March, 1806, is the author of an able book on “The Soul from the standpoint of Reason and Science,” Paris, ’61. He died at Amiens in 1865.Chies y Gomez(Ramon), Spanish Freethinker, b. Medina de Pomar, Burgos, 13 Oct. 1845. His father, a distinguished Republican, educated him without religion. In ’65 Chies went to Madrid, and followed a course of law and philosophy at the University, and soon after wrote for a Madrid paperLa Discusion. He took an active part in the Revolution of ’65, and at the proclamation of the Republic, ’73, became civil governor of Valencia. In ’81 he founded a newspaperEl Voto Nacional, and since ’83 has editedLas Dominicales del Libre Pensamiento, which he also founded. Ramon Chies is one of the foremost Freethought champions in Spain and lectures as well as writes.Child(Lydia Maria) néeFrancis, American authoress, b. Medford, Mass., 11 Feb. 1802. She early commenced writing, publishingHobomok, a Tale of Early Times, in ’21. From ’25 she kept a private school in Watertown until ’28, when she married David Lee Child, a Boston lawyer. She, with him, edited theAnti-Slavery Standard, ’41, etc., and by her numerous writings did much to form the opinion which ultimately prevailed. She was, however, long subjected to public odium, her heterodoxy being well known. Her principal work isThe Progress of Religious Ideas, 3 vols.; ’55. Died Wayland, Mass., 20 Oct. 1880. She was highly eulogised by Wendell Phillips.Chilton(William), of Bristol, was born in 1815. In early life he was a bricklayer, but in ’41 he was concerned with Charles Southwell in starting theOracle of Reason, which he set up in type, and of which he became one of the editors. He contributed some thoughtful articles on the Theory of Development to theLibrary of Reason, and wrote in theMovementand theReasoner. Died at Bristol, 28 May, 1855.Chubb(Thomas), English Deist, b. East Harnham, nearSalisbury, 29 Sept. 1679, was one of the first to show Rationalism among the common people. Beginning by contending for theSupremacy of the Father, he gradually relinquished supernatural religion, and considered that Jesus Christ was of the religion of Thomas Chubb. Died 8 Feb. 1747, leaving behind two vols. which he callsA Farewell to his Readers, from which it appears that he rejected both revelation and special providence.Church(Henry Tyrell), lecturer and writer, edited Tallis’sShakespeare, wroteWoman and her Failings, 1858, and contributed to theInvestigatorwhen edited by Mr. Bradlaugh. Died 19 July, 1859.Clapiers(Luc de). SeeVauvenargues.Claretie(Jules Armand Arsène), French writer, b. Limoges, 3 Dec. 1840. A prolific writer, of whose works we only citeFree Speech, ’68; his biographies of contemporary celebrities; and his workCamille Desmoulins, ’75.Clarke(John), brought up in the Methodist connection, changed his opinion by studying the Bible, and became one of Carlile’s shopmen. He was tried 10 June, 1824, for selling a blasphemous libel in number 17, vol. ix., ofThe Republican, and after a spirited defence, in which he read many of the worst passages in the Bible, was sentenced to three years’ imprisonment, and to find securities for good behavior during life. He wrote while in prison,A Critical Review of the Life, Character, and Miracles of Jesus, a work showing with some bitterness much bold criticism and Biblical knowledge. It first appeared in theNewgate Magazineand was afterwards published in book form, 1825 and ’39.Clarke(Marcus), Australian writer, b. Kensington, 1847. Went to Victoria, ’63; joined the staff ofMelbourne Argus. In ’76 was made assistant librarian of the Public Library. He has compiled a history of Australia, and writtenThe Peripatetic Philosopher(a series of clever sketches),His Natural Life(a powerful novel), and some poems. An able Freethought paper, “Civilisation without Delusion,” in theVictoria Review, Nov. ’79, was replied to by Bishop Moorhouse. The reply, with Clarke’s answer, which was suppressed, was published in ’80. Died 1884.Claude-Constant, author of a Freethinkers’ Catechism published at Paris in 1875.Clavel(Adolphe), French Positivist and physician, b. Grenoble, 1815. He has written on the Principles of 1789, on those of the nineteenth century, on Positive Morality, and some educational works.Clavel(F. T. B.), French author of aPicturesque History of Freemasonry, and also aPicturesque History of Religions, 1844, in which Christianity takes a subordinate place.Clayton(Robert), successively Bishop of Killala, Cork, and Clogher, b. Dublin, 1695. By his benevolence attracted the friendship of Samuel Clarke, and adopted Arianism, which he maintained in several publications. In 1756 he proposed, in the Irish House of Lords, the omission of the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds from the Liturgy, and stated that he then felt more relieved in his mind than for twenty years before. A legal prosecution was instituted, but he died, it is said, from nervous agitation (26 Feb. 1758) before the matter was decided.Cleave(John), bookseller, and one of the pioneers of a cheap political press. Started theLondon Satirist, andCleave’s Penny Gazette of Variety, Oct. 14, 1837, to Jan. 20, ’44. He published many Chartist and Socialistic works, and an abridgment of Howitt’sHistory of Priestcraft. In May, ’40, he was sentenced to four months’ imprisonment for selling Haslam’sLetters to the Clergy.Clemenceau(Georges Benjamin Eugene), French politician, b. Moulleron-en-Pareds, 28 Sept. 1841. Educated at Nantes and Paris, he took his doctor’s degree in ’65. His activity as Republican ensured him a taste of gaol. He visited the United States and acted as correspondent on theTemps. He returned at the time of the war and was elected deputy to the Assembly. In Jan. 1880 he foundedLa Justice, having as collaborateurs M. C. Pelletan, Prof. Acollas and Dr. C. Letourneau. As one of the chiefs of the Radical party he was largely instrumental in getting M. Carnot elected President.Clemetshaw(C.), French writer, using the nameCilwa. B. 14 Sept. 1864 of English parents; has contributed to many journals, was delegate to the International Congress, London, of ’87, and is editor ofLe Danton.Clemens(Samuel Langhorne), American humorist, better known as “Mark Twain,” b. Florida, Missouri, 30 Nov. 1835. In ’55 he served as Mississippi pilot, and takes his pen name from the phrase used in sounding. InInnocents Abroad, or the New Pilgrim’s Progress, ’69, by which he made his name, there is much jesting with “sacred” subjects. Mr. Clemens is an Agnostic.Clifford(Martin), English Rationalist. Was Master of the Charterhouse, 1671, and published anonymously a treatise ofHuman Reason, London, ’74, which was reprinted in the following year with the author’s name. A short while after its publication Laney, Bishop of Ely, was dining in Charterhouse and remarked, not knowing the author, “’twas no matter if all the copies were burnt and the author with them, because it made every man’s private fancy judge of religion.” Clifford died 10 Dec. 1677. In theNouvelle Biographie GénéraleClifford is amusingly described as an “English theologian of the order des Chartreux,” who, it is added, was “prior of his order.”Clifford(William Kingdon), mathematician, philosopher, and moralist, of rare originality and boldness, b. Exeter 4 May, 1845. At the age of fifteen he was sent to King’s College, London, where he showed an early genius for mathematics, publishing theAnalogues of Pascal’s Theoremat the age of eighteen. Entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in ’63. In ’67 he was second wrangler. Elected fellow of his college, he remained at Cambridge till 1870, when he accompanied the eclipse expedition to theMediterranean. The next year he was appointed Professor of mathematics at London University, a post he held till his death. He was chosen F.R.S. ’74. Married Miss Lucy Lane in April, ’75. In the following year symptoms of consumption appeared, and he visited Algeria and Spain. He resumed work, but in ’79 took a voyage to Madeira, where he died 3 March. Not long before his death appeared the first volume of his great mathematical work,Elements of Dynamic. Since his death have been publishedThe Common Sense of the Exact Sciences, andLectures and Essays, in two volumes, edited by Leslie Stephen and Mr. F. Pollock. These volumes include his most striking Freethought lectures and contributions to theFortnightlyand other reviews. Heintended to form them into a volume onThe Creed of Science. Clifford was an outspoken Atheist, and he wrote of Christianity as a religion which wrecked one civilisation and very nearly wrecked another.ClootsorClootz(Johann Baptist, afterwards Anacharsis) Baron du Val de Grâce, Prussian enthusiast, b. near Cleves, 24 June, 1755, was a nephew of Cornelius de Pauw. In 1780 he published theThe Certainty of the Proofs of Mohammedanism, under the pseudonym of Ali-gier-ber, an anagram of Bergier, whoseCertainty of the Proofs of Christianityhe parodies. He travelled widely, but became a resident of Paris and a warm partisan of the Revolution, to which he devoted his large fortune. He wrote a reply to Burke, and continually wrote and spoke in favor of a Universal Republic. On 19 June, 1790, he, at the head of men of all countries, asked a place at the feast of Federation, and henceforward was styled “orator of the human race.” He was, with Paine, Priestley, Washington and Klopstock, made a French citizen, and in 1792 was elected to the Convention by two departments. He debaptised himself, taking the name Anacharsis, was a prime mover in the Anti-Catholic party, and induced Bishop Gobel to resign. He declared there was no other God but Nature. Incurring the enmity of Robespierre, he and Paine were arrested as foreigners. After two and a half months’ imprisonment at St. Lazare, he was brought to the scaffold with the Hébertistes, 24 March, 1794. He died calmly, uttering materialist sentiments to the last.Clough(Arthur Hugh), poet, b. Liverpool, 1 Jan. 1819. He was educated at Rugby, under Dr. Arnold, and at Oxford, where he showed himself of the Broad School. Leslie Stephen says, “He never became bitter against the Church of his childhood, but he came to regard its dogmas as imperfect and untenable.” In ’48 he visited Paris, and the same year produced hisBothie of Toper-na-Fuosich: a Long-Vacation Pastoral. Between ’49 and ’52 he was professor of English literature in London University. In ’52 he visited the United States, where he gained the friendship of Emerson and Longfellow, and revised the Dryden translation ofPlutarch’s Lives. Died at Florence, 13 Nov. 1861. His Remains are published in two volumes, and include an essay on Religious Tradition andsome notable poems. He is the Thyrsis of Matthew Arnold’s exquisite Monody.Cnuzius(Matthias). SeeKnutzen.Coke(Henry), author ofCreeds of the Day, or collated opinions of reputable thinkers, in 2 vols, London, 1883.Cole(Peter), a tanner of Ipswich, was burnt for blasphemy in the castle ditch, Norwich, 1587. A Dr. Beamond preached to him before the mayor, sheriffs, and aldermen, “but he would not recant.” SeeHamont.Colenso(John William), b. 24 Jan. 1814. Was educated at St. John’s, Cambridge, and became a master at Harrow. After acquiring fame by his valuableTreatise on Algebra, ’49, he became first Bishop of Natal, ’54. Besides other works, he publishedThe Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined, 1862–79, which made a great stir, and was condemned by both Houses of Convocation and its author declared deposed. The Privy Council, March ’65, declared this deposition “null and void in law.” Colenso pleaded the cause of the natives at the time of the Zulu War. He died 20 June, 1883.Colins(Jean Guillaume César Alexandre Hippolyte) Baron de, Belgian Socialist and founder of “Collectivism,” b. Brussels, 24 Dec. 1783. Author of nineteen volumes on Social Science. He denied alike Monotheism and Pantheism, but taught the natural immortality of the soul. Died at Paris, 12 Nov. 1859. A number of disciples propagate his opinions in thePhilosophie de l’Avenir.Collins(Anthony), English Deist, b. Heston, Middlesex, 21 June, 1676. He studied at Cambridge and afterwards at the Temple, and became Justice of the Peace and Treasurer of the County of Essex. He was an intimate friend of Locke, who highly esteemed him and made him his executor. He wrote anEssay on Reason, 1707;Priestcraft in Perfection, 1710; aVindication of the Divine Attributes, and aDiscourse on Freethinking, 1713. This last occasioned a great outcry, as it argued that all belief must be based on free inquiry, and that the use of reason would involve the abandonment of supernatural revelation. In 1719 he publishedAn Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty, a brief, pithy defence of necessitarianism, and in 1729A Discourse on Libertyand Necessity. In 1724 appeared hisDiscourse on the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion, and this was followed byThe Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered, 1726. He was a skilful disputant, and wrote with great ability. He is also credited withA Discourse Concerning Ridicule and Irony in Writing. Died at London, 13 Dec. 1729. Collins, says Mr. Leslie Stephen, “appears to have been an amiable and upright man, and to have made all readers welcome to the use of a free library.” Professor Fraser calls him “a remarkable man,” praises his “love of truth and moral courage,” and allows that in answering Dr. Samuel Clarke on the question of liberty and necessity he “states the arguments against human freedom with a logical force unsurpassed by any necessitarian.” A similar testimony to Collins as a thinker and dialectician is borne by Professor Huxley.Colman(Lucy N.), American reformer, b. 26 July, 1817, has spent most of her life advocating the abolition of slavery, women’s rights, and Freethought. She has lectured widely, written Reminisences in theLife of a Reformer of Fifty Years, and contributed to theTruthseekerandBoston Investigator.Colotes, of Lampsacus, a hearer and disciple of Epicurus, with whom he was a favorite. He wrote a work in favor of his master’s teachings. He held it was unworthy of a philosopher to use fables.Combe(Abram), one of a noted Scotch family of seventeen, b. Edinburgh, 15 Jan. 1785. He traded as a tanner, but, becoming acquainted with Robert Owen, founded a community at Orbiston upon the principle of Owen’s New Lanark, devoting nearly the whole of his large fortune to the scheme. But his health gave way and he died 11 Aug. 1827. He wroteMetaphysical Sketches of the Old and New Systemsand other works advocating Owenism.Combe(Andrew), physician, brother of the above, b. Edinburgh, 27 Oct. 1797; studied there and in Paris; aided his brother George in founding the Phrenological Society; wrote popular works on thePrinciples of Physiologyand theManagement of Infancy. Died near Edinburgh, 9 Aug. 1847.Combe(George), phrenologist and educationalist, b. Edinburgh, 21 Oct. 1788. He was educated for the law. Became acquainted with Spurzheim, and publishedEssays on Phrenology,1819, and founded thePhrenological Journal. In ’28 he published theConstitution of Man, which excited great controversy especially for removing the chimeras of special providence and efficacy of prayer. In ’33 he married a daughter of Mrs. Siddons. He visited the United States and lectured on Moral Philosophy and Secular Education. His last work wasThe Relations between Science and Religion, ’57, in which he continued to uphold Secular Theism. He also published many lectures and essays. Among his friends were Miss Evans (George Eliot), who spent a fortnight with him in ’52. He did more than any man of his time, save Robert Owen, for the cause of Secular education. Died at Moor Park, Surrey, 14 Aug. 1858.Combes(Paul), French writer, b. Paris, 13 June, 1856. Has written onDarwinism, ’83, and other works popularising science.Commazzi(Gian-Battista), Count author ofPolitica e religione trovate insieme nella persona di Giesù Cristo, Nicopoli [Vienna] 4 vols., 1706–7, in which he makes Jesus to be a political impostor. It was rigorously confiscated at Rome and Vienna.Comparetti(Domenico), Italian philologist, b. Rome in 1835. Signor Comparetti is Professor at the Institute of Superior Studies, Rome, and has written many works on the classic writers, in which he evinces his Pagan partialities.Comte(Isidore Auguste Marie François Xavier), French philosopher, mathematician and reformer, b. at Montpelier, 12 Jan. 1798. Educated at Paris in the Polytechnic School, where he distinguished himself by his mathematical talent. In 1817 he made the acquaintance of St. Simon, agreeing with him as to the necessity of a Social renovation based upon a mental revolution. On the death of St. Simon (’25) Comte devoted himself to the elaboration of an original system of scientific thought, which, in the opinion of some able judges, entitles him to be called the Bacon of the nineteenth century. Mill speaks of him as the superior of Descartes and Leibniz. In ’25 he married, but the union proved unhappy. In the following year he lectured, but broke down under an attack of brain fever, which occasioned his detention in an asylum. He speedily recovered, and in ’28 resumed his lectures, which were attended by men like Humboldt, Ducrotay, Broussais, Carnot, etc. In ’30 he put forward the first volumes of hisCourse of Positive Philosophy, which in ’42 was completed by the publication of the sixth volume. A condensed English version of this work was made by Harriet Martineau, ’53. In ’45 Comte formed a passionate Platonic attachement to Mme. Clotilde de Vaux, who died in the following year, having profoundely influenced Comte’s life. In consequence of his opinions, he lost his professorship, and was supported by his disciples—Mill, Molesworth and Grote, in England, assisting. Among other works, Comte publishedA General View of Positivism, ’48, translated by Dr. Bridges, ’65;A System of Positive Polity, ’51, translated by Drs. Bridges, Beesley, F. Harrison, etc., ’75–79; andA Positive Catechism, ’54, translated by Dr. Congreve, ’58. He also wrote on Positive Logic, which he intended to follow with Positive Morality and Positive Industrialism. Comte was a profound and suggestive thinker. He resolutely sets aside all theology and metaphysics, coordinates the sciences and substitutes the service of man for the worship of God. Mr. J. Cotter Morison says “He belonged to that small class of rare minds, whose errors are often more valuable and stimulating than other men’s truths.” He died of cancer in the stomach at Paris, 5 Sept. 1857.Condillac(EtienneBonnot de), French philosopher, b. Grenoble, about 1715. His life was very retired, but his works show much acuteness. They are in 23 vols., the principal beingA Treatise on the Sensations, 1764;A Treatise on Animals, andAn Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge. In the first-named he shows that all mental life is gradually built up out of simple sensations. Died 3 Aug. 1780.Condorcet(Marie Jean Antoine NicolasCaritat, Marquis de), French philosopher and politician, b. Ribemont, Picardy, 17 Sept. 1743. Dedicated to the Virgin by a pious mother, he was kept in girl’s clothes until the age of 11. Sent to a Jesuit’s school, he soon gave up religion. At sixteen he maintained a mathematical thesis in the presence of Alembert. In the next year he dedicated to Turgot aProfession of Faith. After some mathematical works, he was made member of the Academy, of which he was appointed perpetual secretary, 1773. In 1776 he published his atheisticLetters of a Theologian. He also wrote biographies of Turgot and Voltaire, and in favor ofAmerican independence and against negro slavery. In 1791 he represented Paris in the National Assembly, of which he became Secretary. It was on his motion that, in the following year, all orders of nobility were abolished. Voting against the death of the king and siding with the Gironde drew on him the vengeance of the extreme party. He took shelter with Madame Vernet, but fearing to bring into trouble her and his wife, at whose instigation he wrote his fineSketch of the Progress of the Human Mindwhile in hiding, he left, but, being arrested, died of exhaustion or by poison self-administered, at Bourg la Reine, 27 March, 1794.Condorcet(Sophie de GrouchyCaritat, Marquise de), wife of above, and sister of General Grouchy and of Mme. Cabanis, b. 1765. She married Condorcet 1786, and was considered one of the most beautiful women of her time. She shared her husband’s sentiments and opinions and, while he was proscribed, supported herself by portrait painting. She was arrested, and only came out of prison after the fall of Robespierre. She translated Adam Smith’sTheory of the Moral Sentiments, which she accompanied with eight letters on Sympathy, addressed to Cabanis. She died 8 Sept. 1822. Her only daughter married Gen. Arthur O’Connor.Confucius(Kung Kew) or Kung-foo-tsze, the philosopher Kung, a Chinese sage, b. in the State of Loo, now part of Shantung, aboutB.C.551. He was distinguished by filial piety and learning. In his nineteenth year he married, and three years after began as a teacher, rejecting none who came to him. He travelled through many states. When past middle age he was appointed chief minister of Loo, but finding the Duke desired the renown of his name without adopting his counsel, he retired, and devoted his old age to editing the sacred classics of China. He died aboutB.C.478. His teaching, chiefly found in theLun-Yu, or Confucian Analects, was of a practical moral character, and did not include any religious dogmas.Congreve(Richard), English Positivist, born in 1819. Educated at Rugby under T. Arnold, and Oxford 1840, M.A. 1843; was fellow of Wadham College 1844–54. In ’55 he published his edition ofAristotle Politics. He became a follower of Comte and influenced many to embrace Positivism. TranslatedComte’sCatechism of Positive Philosophy, 1858, and has written many brochures. Dr. Congreve is considered the head of the strict or English Comtists, and has long conducted a small “Church of Humanity.”Connor(Bernard), a physician, b. Co. Kerry, of Catholic family, 1666. He travelled widely, and was made court physician to John Sobieski, King of Poland. He wrote a work entitledEvangelium Medici(1697), in which he attempts to account for the Christian miracles on natural principles. For this he was accused of Atheism. He died in London 27 Oct. 1698.Constant de Rebecque(Henri Benjamin), Swiss writer, b. Lausanne, 25 Oct. 1767, and educated at Oxford, Erlangen and Edinburgh. In 1795 he entered Paris as aprotégéof Mme. de Stael, and in 1799 became a member of the Tribunal. He opposed Buonaparte and wrote onRoman Polytheismand an important work onReligion Considered in its Source, its Forms and its Developments(6 vols.; 1824–32). Died 8 Dec. 1830. Constant professed Protestantism, but was at heart a sceptic, and has been called a second Voltaire. A son was executor to Auguste Comte.Conta(Basil), Roumanian philosopher, b. Neamtza 27 Nov. 1845. Studied in Italy and Belgium, and became professor in the University of Jassy, Moldavia. In ’77 he publishedinBrussels, in French, a theory of fatalism, which created some stir by its boldness of thought.Conway(Moncure Daniel), author, b. in Fredericksburg, Stafford co. Virginia, 17 March, 1832. He entered the Methodist ministry ’50, but changing his convictions through the influence of Emerson and Hicksite Quakers, entered the divinity school at Cambridge, where he graduated in ’54 and became pastor of a Unitarian church until dismissed for his anti-slavery discourses. In ’57 he preached inCincinnatiand there publishedThe Natural History of the Devil, and other pamphlets. In ’63 Mr. Conway came to England and was minister of South Place from the close of ’63 until his return to the States in ’84. Mr. Conway is a frequent contributor to the press. He has also publishedThe Earthward Pilgrimage, 1870, a theory reversing Bunyan’sPilgrim’s Progress; collectedaSacred Anthologyfrom the various sacred books of the world 1873,which he used in his pulpit; has written onHuman Sacrifices, 1876, andIdols and Ideals, 1877. His principal work isDemonology and Devil Lore, 1878, containing much information on mythology. He also issued his sermons under the title ofLessons for the Day, two vols., 1883, and has published a monograph on theWandering Jew, a biography of Emerson, and is at present engaged on a life of Thomas Paine.Cook(Kenningale Robert), LL.D., b. in Lancashire 26 Sept. 1845, son of the vicar of Stallbridge. When a boy he used to puzzle his mother by such questions as, “If God was omnipotent could he make what had happened not have happened.” He was intended for the Church, but declined to subscribe the articles. Graduated at Dublin in ’66, and took LL.D. in ’75. In ’77 he became editor of the DublinUniversity Magazine, in which appeared some studies of the lineage of Christian doctrine and traditions afterwards published under the title ofThe Fathers of Jesus. Dr. Cook wrote several volumes of choice poems. Died July, 1886.

That all the books of MosesWere nothing but supposes.He had to resign a position at court. In later life he wroteDe Fide et Officiis Christianorum(on Christian Faith and Duties), in which he regards historical religions as based on the religion of nature, and rejects original sin and the “magical” theory of sacraments; andDe Statu Mortuorum et Resurgentium, on the State of the Dead and Resurrected, in which he opposed the doctrine of eternal punishment and shadowed forth a scheme of Deism. These books he kept to himself to avoid a prosecution for heresy, but had a few copies printed for private friends. He died in the Charterhouse 27 Sept. 1715. A tract entitledHell Torments not Eternalwas published in 1739.Burnett(James), Lord Monboddo, a learned Scotch writer and judge, was b. Monboddo, Oct. 1714. He adopted the law as his profession, became a celebrated advocate, and was made a judge in 1767. His work on theOrigin and Progress of Language(published anonymously 1773–92), excited much derision by his studying man as one of the animals and collecting facts about savage tribes to throw light on civilisation. He first maintained that the orang-outang was allied to the human species. He also wrote onAncient Metaphysics. He was a keen debater and discussed with Hume, Adam Smith, Robertson, and Lord Kames. Died in Edinburgh, 26 May, 1799.Burnouf(Emile Louis), French writer, b. Valonges, 25 Aug. 1821. He became professor of ancient literature to the faculty of Nancy. Author of many works, including a translation of selections from theNovum Organumof Bacon, the Bhagvat-Gita, an Introduction to the Vedas, a history of Greek Literature, Studies in Japanese, and articles in theRevue des deux Mondes. His heresy is pronounced in his work on theScience of Religions, 1878, in hisContemporary Catholicism, andLife and Thought, 1886.Burnouf(Eugène), French Orientalist, cousin of the preceding; b. Paris, 12 Aug. 1801. He opened up to the Western world the Pali language, and with it the treasures of Buddhism, whose essentially Atheistic character he maintained. To him also we are largely indebted for a knowledge of Zend and of the Avesta of the Zoroastrians. He translated numerous Oriental works and wrote a valuableIntroduction to the History of Indian Buddhism. Died at Paris, 28 May, 1852.Burns(Robert), Scotland’s greatest poet, b. near Ayr, 25 Jan. 1759. His father was a small farmer, of enlightened views. The life and works of Burns are known throughout the world. His Freethought is evident from such productions as the “Holy Fair,” “The Kirk’s Alarm,” and “Holy Willie’s Prayer,” and many passages in private letters to his most familiarmalefriends. Died at Dumfries, 21 July, 1796.Burr(William Henry), American author, b. 1819, Gloversville, N.Y., graduated at Union College, Schenectady, became a shorthand reporter to the Senate. In 1869 he retired and devoted himself to literary research. He is the anonymousauthor ofRevelations of Antichrist, a learned book which exposes the obscurity of the origin of Christianity, and seeks to show that the historical Jesus lived almost a century before the Christian era. He has also written several pamphlets:Thomas Paine was Junius, 1880:Self Contradictions of the Bible;Is the Bible a Lying Humbug?A Roman Catholic Canard, etc. He has also frequently contributed to theBoston Investigator, the New YorkTruthseeker, and theIronclad AgeofIndianapolis.Burton(Sir Richard Francis), traveller, linguist, and author, b. Barham House, Herts, 19 March, 1821. Intended for the Church, he matriculated at Oxford, but in 1842 entered the East India Company’s service, served on the staff of Sir C. Napier, and soon acquired reputation as an intrepid explorer. In ’51 he returned to England and started for Mecca and Medina, visiting those shrines unsuspected, as a Moslem pilgrim. He was chief of the staff of the Osmanli cavalry in the Crimean war, and has made many remarkable and dangerous expeditions in unknown lands; he discovered and opened the lake regions in Central Africa and explored the highlands of Brazil. He has been consul at Fernando Po, Santos, Damascus, and since 1872 at Trieste, and speaks over thirty languages. His latest work is a new translation ofThe Thousand Nights and a Nightin 10 vols. Being threatened with a prosecution, he intended justifying “literal naturalism” from the Bible. Burton’s knowledge of Arabic is so perfect that when he used to read the tales to Arabs, they would roll on the ground in fits of laughter.Butler(Samuel), poet, b. in Strensham, Worcestershire, Feb. 1612. In early life he came under the influence of Selden. He studied painting, and is said to have painted a head of Cromwell from life. He became clerk to Sir Samuel Luke, one of Cromwell’s Generals, whom he has satirised as Hudibras. This celebrated burlesque poem appeared in 1663 and became famous, but, although the king and court were charmed with its wit, the author was allowed to remain in poverty and obscurity till he died at Covent Garden, London, 25 Sept. 1680. Butler expressed the opinion that“Religion is the interest of churchesThat sell in other worlds in this to purchase.”Buttmann(Philipp Karl), German philologist, b. Frankfort, 5 Dec. 1764. Became librarian of the Royal Library at Berlin. He edited many of the Greek Classics, wrote on theMyth of the Deluge, 1819, and a learned work on Mythology, 1828. Died Berlin, 21 June, 1829.Buzot(François Léonard Nicolas), French Girondin, distinguished as an ardent Republican and a friend and lover of Madame Roland. Born at Evreux, 1 March, 1760; he died from starvation when hiding after the suppression of his party June, 1793.Byelinsky(Vissarion G.) SeeBelinsky.Byron(George Gordon Noel) Lord, b. London, 22 Jan. 1788. He succeeded his grand-uncle William in 1798; was sent to Harrow and Cambridge. In 1807 hepublishedhisHours of Idleness, and awoke one morning to find himself famous. His power was, however, first shown in hisEnglish Bards and Scotch Reviewers, in which he satirised his critics, 1809. He then travelled on the Continent, the result of which was seen in hisChilde Harold’s Pilgrimageand other works. He married 2 Jan. 1815, but a separation took place in the following year. Lord Byron then resided in Italy, where he made the acquaintance of Shelley. In 1823 he devoted his name and fortune to the cause of the Greek revolution, but was seized with fever and died at Missolonghi, 19 April, 1824. His drama ofCain: a Mystery, 1822, is his most serious utterance, and it shows a profound contempt for religious dogma. This feeling is also exhibited in his magnificent burlesque poem,The Vision of Judgment, which places him at the head of English satirists. In his letters to the Rev. Francis Hodgson, 1811, he distinctly says: “I do not believe in any revealed religion.... I will have nothing to do with your immortality; we are miserable enough in this life, without the absurdity of speculating upon another.... The basis of your religion is injustice; the Son of God, the pure, the immaculate, the innocent, is sacrificed for the guilty,” etc.Cabanis(Pierre Jean George), called by Lange “the father of the materialistic physiology,” b. Conac, 5 June, 1757. Became pupil of Condillac and friend of Mirabeau, whom he attended in his last illness, of which he published an account1791. He was also intimate with Turgot, Condorcet, Holbach, Diderot, and other distinguished Freethinkers, and was elected member of the Institute and of the Council of Five Hundred in the Revolution. His works are mostly medical, the chief beingDes Rapports du Physique et du Morale de l’Homme, in which he contends that thoughts are a secretion of the brain. Died Rueil, near Paris, 5 May, 1808.Cæsalpinus(Andreas), Italian philosopher of the Renaissance, b. Arezzo, Tuscany, 1519. He became Professor of Botany at Pisa, and Linnæus admits his obligations to his work,De Plantis, 1583. He also wrote works on metals and medicine, and showed acquaintance with the circulation of the blood. In a work entitledDemonum Investigatio, he contends that “possession” by devils is amenable to medical treatment. HisQuæstionum Peripateticarum, in five books, Geneva, 1568, was condemned as teaching a Pantheistic doctrine similar to that of Spinoza. Bishop Parker denounced him. Died 23 Feb. 1603.Cæsar(Caius Julius), the “foremost man of all this world,” equally renowned as soldier, statesman, orator, and writer, b. 12 July, 100B.C., of noble family. His life, the particulars of which are well known, was an extraordinary display of versatility, energy, courage, and magnanimity. He justified the well-known line of Pope, “Cæsar the world’s great master and his own.” His military talents elevated him to the post of dictator, but this served to raise against him a band of aristocratic conspirators, by whom he was assassinated, 15 March, 44B.C.HisCommentariesare a model of insight and clear expression. Sallust relates that he questioned the existence of a future state in the presence of the Roman senate. Froude says: “His own writings contain nothing to indicate that he himself had any religious belief at all. He saw no evidence that the gods practically interfered in human affairs.... He held to the facts of this life and to his own convictions; and as he found no reason for supposing that there was a life beyond the grave he did not pretend to expect it.”Cahuac(John), bookseller, revised an edition of Palmer’sPrinciples of Nature, 1819. For this he was prosecuted at the instance of the “Vice Society,” but the matter was compromised. He was also prosecuted for selling theRepublican, 1820.Calderino(Domizio), a learned writer of the Renaissance, b. in 1445, in the territory of Verona, and lived at Rome, where he was professor of literature, in 1477. He edited and commented upon many of the Latin poets. Bayle says he was without religion. Died in 1478.Calenzio(Eliseo), an Italian writer, b. in the kingdom of Naples about 1440. He was preceptor to Prince Frederic, the son of Ferdinand, the King of Naples. He died in 1503, leaving behind a number of satires, fables and epigrams, some of which are directed against the Church.Call(Wathen Mark Wilks), English author, b. 7 June, 1817. Educated at Cambridge, entered the ministry in 1843, but resigned his curacy about 1856 on account of his change of opinions, which he recounts in his preface toReverberations, 1876. Mr. Call is of the Positivist school, and has contributed largely to theFortnightlyandWestminster Reviews.Callet(Pierre Auguste), French politician, b. St. Etienne, 27 Oct. 1812; became editor of theGazetteof France till 1840. In 1848 he was nominated Republican representative. At thecoup d’étatof 2 Dec. 1851, he took refuge in Belgium. He returned to France, but was imprisoned for writing against the Empire. In 1871, Callet was again elected representative for the department of the Loire. His chief Freethought work isL’Enfer, an attack upon the Christian doctrine of hell, 1861.Camisani(Gregorio), Italian writer, b. at Venice, 1810. A Professor of Languages in Milan. He has translated theUpasof Captain R. H. Dyas and other works.Campanella(Tommaso), Italian philosopher, b. Stilo, Calabria, 5 Sept. 1568. He entered the Dominican order, but was too much attracted by the works of Telesio to please his superiors. In 1590 hisPhilosophia Sensibus Demonstratiowas printed at Naples. Being prosecuted, he fled to Rome, and thence to Florence, Venice, and Padua. At Bologna some of his MS. fell into the hands of the Inquisition, and he was arrested. He ably defended himself and was acquitted. Returning to Calabria in 1599, he was arrested on charges of heresy and conspiracy against the Spanish Government of Naples, and having appealed to Rome, was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment in the prison of the Holy Office. Hewas put to the torture seven times, his torments on one occasion extending over forty hours, but he refused to confess. He was dragged from one prison to another for twenty-sevenyears, during which he wrote some sonnets, a history of the Spanish monarchy, and several philosophical works. On 15 May, 1626, he was released by the intervention of Pope Urban VIII. He was obliged to fly from Rome to France, where he met Gassendi. He also visited Descartes in Holland. Julian Hibbert remarked that hisAtheismus Triumphatus—Atheism Subdued, 1631, would be better entitledAtheismus Triumphans—Atheism Triumphant—as the author puts his strongest arguments on the heterodox side. In hisCity of the Sun, Campanella follows Plato and More in depicting an ideal republic and a time when a new era of earthly felicity should begin. Hallam says “The strength of Campanella’s genius lay in his imagination.” His “Sonnets” have been translated by J. A. Symonds. Died Paris, 21 May, 1639.Campbell(Alexander), Socialist of Glasgow, b. about the beginning of the century. He early became a Socialist, and was manager at the experiment at Orbiston under Abram Combe, of whom he wrote a memoir. Upon the death of Combe, 1827, he became a Socialist missionary in England. He took an active part in the co-operative movement, and in the agitation for an unstamped press, for which he was tried and imprisoned at Edinburgh, 1833–4. About 1849 he returned to Glasgow and wrote on theSentinel. In 1867 he was presented with a testimonial and purse of 90 sovereigns by admirers of his exertions in the cause of progress. Died about 1873.Campion(William), a shoemaker, who became one of R. Carlile’s shopmen; tried 8 June, 1824, for selling Paine’sAge of Reason. After a spirited defence he was found guilty and sentenced to three years’ imprisonment. In prison he edited, in conjunction with J. Clarke, E. Hassell, and T. R. Perry, theNewgate Monthly Magazine, to which he contributed some thoughtful papers, from Sept. 1824, to Aug. 1826, when he was removed to the Compter.Canestrini(Giovanni), Italian naturalist, b. Rerò, 1835. He studied at Vienna, and in ’60 was nominated Professor of Natural History at Geneva. Signor Canestrini contributed totheAnnuario Filosofico del Libero Pensiero, and is known for his popularisation of the works of Darwin, which he has translated into Italian. He has written upon theOrigin of Man, which has gone through two editions, Milan, ’66–’70, and on theTheory of Evolution, Turin, ’77. He was appointed Professor of Zoology, Anatomy and Comparative Physiology at Padua, where he has published a Memoir of Charles Darwin, ’82.Cardano(Girolamo), better known asJerome Cardan, Italian mathematician, and physician, b. Pavia, 24 Sept. 1501. He studied medicine, but was excluded from the Milan College of Physicians on account of illegitimate birth. He and his young wife were at one time compelled to take refuge in the workhouse. It is not strange that his first work was an exposure of the fallacies of the faculty. A fortunate cure brought him into notice and he journeyed to Scotland as the medical adviser of the Archbishop of St. Andrews, 1551. In 1563 he was arrested at Bologna for heresy, but was released, although deprived of his professorship. He died at Rome, 20 Sept. 1576, having, it is said, starved himself to verify his own prediction of his death. Despite some superstition, Cardano did much to forward science, especially by his work on Algebra, and in his worksDe Subtilitate RerumandDe Varietate Rerum, amid much that is fanciful, perceived the universality of natural law and the progressive evolution of life. Scaliger accused him of Atheism. Pünjer says “Cardanus deserves to be named along with Telesius as one of the principal founders of Natural Philosophy.”Carducci(Giosuè), Italian poet and Professor of Italian Literature at the University of Bologna, b. Pietrasantra, in the province of Lucca, 27 July, 1836. As early as ’49 he cried,Abasso tutti i re! viva la republica—Down with all kings! Long live the republic! Sprung into fame by hisHymn to Satan, ’69, by which he intended the spirit of resistance. He has written many poems and satires in which he exhibits himself an ardent Freethinker and Republican. At the end of ’57 he wrote his famous verse “Il secoletto vil che cristianeggia”—“This vile christianising century.” In ’60 he became professor of Greek in Bologna University, being suspended for a short while in ’67 for an address to Mazzini. In ’76 he was elected as republicandeputy to the Italian Parliament for Lugo di Romagna.Carlile(Eliza Sharples), second wife of Richard Carlile, came from Lancashire during the imprisonment of Carlile and Taylor, 1831, delivered discourses at the Rotunda, and started a journal, theIsis, which lasted from 11 Feb. to 15 Dec. 1832. TheIsiswas dedicated to the young women of England “until superstition is extinct,” and contained Frances Wright’s discourses, in addition to those by Mrs. Carlile, who survived till ’61. Mr. Bradlaugh lodged with Mrs. Carlile at the Warner Place Institute, in 1849. She had three children, Hypatia, Theophila and Julian, of whom the second is still living.Carlile(Jane), first wife of R. Carlile, who carried on his business during his imprisonment, was proceeded against, and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, 1821. She had three children, Richard, Alfred, and Thomas Paine Carlile, the last of whom edited theRegenerator, a Chartist paper published at Manchester, 1839.Carlile(Richard), foremost among the brave upholders of an English free press, b. Ashburton, Devon, 8 Dec. 1790. He was apprenticed to a tin-plate worker, and followed that business till he was twenty-six, when, having read the works of Paine, he began selling works like Wooler’sBlack Dwarf, which Government endeavored to suppress. Sherwin offered him the dangerous post of publisher of theRepublican, which he accepted. He then published Southey’sWat Tyler, reprinted the political works of Paine and the parodies for which Hone was tried, but which cost Carlile eighteen weeks’ imprisonment. In 1818 he published Paine’s Theological Works. The prosecution instituted induced him to go on printing similar works, such as Palmer’sPrinciples of Nature,Watson Refuted,Jehovah Unveiled, etc. By Oct. 1819, he had six indictments to answer, on two of which he was tried from 12 to 16 October. He read the whole of theAge of Reasonin his defence, in order to have it in the report of the trial. He was found guilty and sentenced (16 Nov.) to fifteen hundred pounds fine and three years’ imprisonment in Dorchester Gaol. During his imprisonment his business was kept on by a succession of shopmen. Refusing to find securities not to publish, he was kept in prison till 18Nov. 1835, when he was liberated unconditionally. During his imprisonment he edited theRepublican, which extended to fourteen volumes. He also edited theDeist, theMoralist, theLion(four volumes), thePrompter(for No. 3 of which he again suffered thirty-two months’ imprisonment), and theGauntlet. Amongst his writings areAn Address to Men of Science,The Gospel according to R. Carlile,What is God?Every Woman’s Book, etc. He publishedDoubts of Infidels,Janus on Sion,Sepher Toldoth Jeshu, D’Holbach’sGood Sense, Volney’sRuins, and many other Freethought works. He died 10 Feb. 1843, bequeathing his body to Dr. Lawrence for scientific purposes.Carlyle(Thomas), one of the most gifted and original writers of the century, b. 4 Dec. 1795, at Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, where his father, a man of intellect and piety, held a small farm. Showing early ability he was intended for the Kirk, and educated at the University of Edinburgh. He, however, became a tutor, and occupied his leisure in translating from the German. He married Jane Welsh 17 Oct. 1826, and wrote in theLondon MagazineandEdinburgh Reviewmany masterly critical articles, notably on Voltaire, Diderot, Burns, and German literature. In 1833–4 hisSartor Resartusappeared inFraser’s Magazine. In ’34 he removed to London and began writing theFrench Revolution, the MS. of the first vol. of which he confided to Mill, with whom it was accidentally burnt. He re-wrote the work without complaint, and it was published in ’37. He then delivered a course of lectures on “German Literature” and on “Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History,” in which he treats Mahomet as the prophet “we are freest to speak of.” HisPast and Presentwas published in ’43. In ’45 appearedOliver Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches. In ’50 he publishedLatter-Day Pamphlets, which contains his most distinctive political and social doctrines, and in the following year hisLife of John Sterling, in which his heresy clearly appears. His largest work is hisHistory of the Life and Times of Frederick the Great, in 10 vols. He was elected rector of Edinburgh University in ’65. Died 5 Feb. 1881. Mr. Froude, in hisBiography of Carlyle, says, “We have seen him confessing to Irving that he did not believe as his friend did in the Christian religion.” ... “the special miraculous occurrences of sacred history were not credible to him.”Carneades, sceptical philosopher, b. Cyrene about B.C. 213. He went early to Athens, and attended the lectures of the Stoics, learning logic from Diogenes. In the year 155, he was chosen with other deputies to go to Rome to deprecate a fine which had been placed on the Athenians. During his stay at Rome he attracted great attention by his philosophical orations. Carneades attacked the very idea of a God at once infinite and an individual. He denied providence and design. Many of his arguments are preserved in Cicero’sAcademicsandDe Natura Deorum. Carneades left no written works; his views seem to have been systematised by his follower Clitomachus. He diedB.C.129. Carneades is described as a man of unwearied industry. His ethics were of elevated character.Carneri(Bartholomäus von), German writer, b. Trieste, 3 Nov. 1821. Educated at Vienna. In 1870 he sat in the Austrian Parliament with the Liberals. Author of an able work onMorality and Darwinism, Vienna, 1871. Has also writtenDer Mensch als Selbstweck, “Humanity as its own proper object,” 1877;Grundlegung der Ethik, Foundation of Morals, 1881; and Ethical Essays on Evolution and Happiness, Stuttgart, 1886.Carra(Jean Louis), French man of letters and Republican, b. 1743 at Pont de Veyle. He travelled in Germany, Italy, Turkey, Russia, and Moldavia, where he became secretary to the hospodar. On returning to France he became employed in the King’s library and wrote aHistory of Moldaviaand anEssay on Aerial Navigation. He warmly espoused the revolution and was one of the most ardent orators of the Jacobin club. In the National Assembly he voted for the death of Louis XVI., but was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. His Freethought sentiments are evident from hisSystem of Reason, 1773; hisSpirit of Morality and Philosophy, 1777;New Principles of Physic, 1782–3, and other works.Carrel(Jean Baptiste Nicolas Armand), called by Saint Beuve “the Junius of the French press,” b. Rouen, 8 May, 1800. He became a soldier, but, being a Republican, fought on behalf of the Spanish revolution. Being taken prisoner, he was condemned to death, but escaped through some informality. He became secretary to Thierry, edited the works of P. L. Courier, and established theNationin conjunction with Thiersand Mignet. J. S. Mill writes of him in terms of high praise. The leading journalist of his time, his slashing articles led to several duels, and in an encounter with Emile de Girardin (22 July, 1836) he was fatally wounded. On his death-bed, says M. Littré, he said “Point de prêtres, point d’église”—no priests nor church. Died 24 July, 1836. He wrote aHistory of the Counter-Revolution in England, with an eye to events in his own country.Carus(Julius Viktor), German zoologist, b. Leipsic, 25 Aug. 1825. Has been keeper of anatomical museum at Oxford, and has translated Darwin’s works and the philosophy of G. H. Lewes.Carus(Karl Gustav), German physiologist and Pantheist, b. Leipsic, 3 Jan. 1789. He taughtcomparativeanatomy at the university of that town, and published a standard introduction to that subject. He also wrotePsyche, a history of the development of the human soul, 1846, andNature and Idea, 1861. Died at Dresden, 28 July, 1869.Castelar y Ripoll(Emilio), Spanish statesman, b. Cadiz, 8 Sept. 1832. He began as a journalist, and became known by his novelErnesto, 1855. As professor of history and philosophy, he delivered lectures on “Civilisation during the first three centuries of Christendom.”La Formula del Progressocontains a sketch of democratic principles. On the outbreak of the revolution of ’68 he advocated a Federal Republic in a magnificent oration. The Crown was however offered to Amadeus of Savoy. “Glass, with care,” was Castelar’s verdict on the newdynasty, and in Feb. ’73 Castelar drew up a Republican Constitution; and for a year was Dictator of Spain. Upon his retirement to France he wrote a sketchyHistory of the Republican Movement in Europe. In ’76 he returned to Spain and took part in the Cortes, where he has continued to advocate Republican views. HisOld Rome and New Italy, andLife of Lord Byronhave been translated into English.Castelli(David), Italian writer, b. Livorno, 30 Dec. 1836. Since 1873 he has held the chair of Hebrew in the Institute of Superior Studies at Florence. He has translated the book of Ecclesiastes with notes, and written rationalistic works onTalmudic Legends, 1869;The Messiah According to the Hebrews,’74; theBible Prophets, ’82; andThe History of the Israelites, 1887.Castilhon(Jean Louis), French man of letters, b. at Toulouse in 1720. He wrote in numerous publications, and edited theJournal of Jurisprudence. His history of dogmas and philosophical opinions had some celebrity, and he shows himself a Freethinker in hisEssay on Ancient and Modern Errors and Superstitions, Amsterdam, 1765; hisPhilosophical Almanack, 1767; and hisHistory of Philosophical Opinions, 1769. Died 1793.Cattell(Christopher Charles), writer in English Secular journals, author ofSearch for the First Man;Against Christianity;The Religion of this Life, etc.Caumont(Georges), French writer of genius, b. about 1845. Suffering from consumption, he wroteJudgment of a Dying Man upon Life, and humorous and familiarConversations of a Sick Person with the Divinity. Died at Madeira, 1875.Cavalcante(Guido), noble Italian poet and philosopher, b. Florence, 1230. A friend of Dante, and a leader of the Ghibbelin party. He married a daughter of Farinata delgi Uberti. Bayle says, “it is said his speculation has as their aim to provethereis no God. Dante places his father in the hell of Epicureans, who denied the immortality of the soul.” Guido died in 1300. An edition of his poems was published in 1813.Cavallotti(Felice Carlo Emanuel), Italian poet and journalist, b. Milan, 6 Nov. 1842, celebrated for his patriotic poems; is a pronounced Atheist. He was elected member of the Italian parliament in 1873.Cayla(Jean Mamert), French man of letters and politician b. Vigan (Lot) 1812. Became in ’37 editor of theEmancipatorof Toulouse, a city of which he wrote the history. At Paris he wrote to theSiècle, theRépublique Françaiseand other journals, and publishedEuropean Celebritiesand numerous anti-clerical brochures, such asThe Clerical Conspiracy, ’61;The Devil, his Grandeur and Decay, ’64;Hell Demolished, ’65;Suppression of Religious Orders, ’70; andThe History of the Mass,’74. He died 2 May, 1877.Cazelles(Emile), French translator of Bentham’sInfluence ofNatural Religion, Paris, 1875. Has also translated Mill’sSubjection of Womenand hisAutobiographyandEssays on Religion.Cecco d’Ascoli,i.e.,Stabili(Francesco degli), Italian poet, b. Ascoli, 1257. He taught astrology and philosophy at Bologna. In 1324 he was arrested by the Inquisition for having spoken against the faith, and was condemned to fine and penitence. He was again accused at Florence, and was publicly burnt as an heretic 16 Sept. 1327. His best known work is entitledAcerba, a sort of encyclopædia in rhyme.Cellarius(Martin), Anabaptist, who deserves mention as the first avowed Protestant Anti-trinitarian. He studied Oriental languages with Reuchlin and Melancthon, but having discussed with Anabaptists acknowledged himself converted, 1522, and afterwards gave up the deity of Christ. He was imprisoned, and on his release went to Switzerland, where he died 11 Oct. 1564.Celsus, a Pagan philosopher, who lived in the second century. He was a friend of Lucian, who dedicated to him his treatise on the False Prophet. He wrote an attack on Christianity, calledThe True Word. The work was destroyed by the early Christians. The passages given by his opponent, Origen, suffice to show that he was a man of high attainments, well acquainted with the religion he attacked, and that his power of logic and irony was most damaging to the Christian faith.Cerutti(GiuseppeAntonio Gioachino), poet, converted Jesuit, b. Turin, 13 June, 1738. He became a Jesuit, and wrote a defence of the Society. He afterwards became a friend of Mirabeau,adopted the principles of 1789, wrote in defence of the Revolution, and wrote and published aPhilosophical Breviary, or history of Judaism, Christianity, and Deism, which he attributed to Frederick of Prussia. His opinions may also be gathered from his poem,Les Jardins de Betz, 1792. Died Paris, 3 Feb. 1792.Chaho(J. Augustin), Basque man of letters, b. Tardets, Basses-Pyrénées,10 Oct. 1811. His principal works are aPhilosophy of Comparative Religion, and a Basque dictionary. At Bayonne he edited the Ariel. In 1852 this was suppressed and he was exiled. Died 23 Oct. 1858.Chaloner(Thomas), M.P., Regicide, b. Steeple Claydon, Bucks, 1595. Educated at Oxford, he became member for Richmond(Yorks), 1645. Was a witness against Archbishop Laud, and one of King Charles’s Judges. In 1651 he was made Councillor of State. Wood says he “was as far from being a Puritan as the east is from the west,” and that he “was of the natural religion.” He wrote a pretendedTrue and Exact Relation of the Finding of Moses His Tomb, 1657, being a satire directed against the Presbyterians. Upon the Restoration he fled to the Low Countries, and died at Middelburg, Zeeland, in 1661.Chambers(Ephraim), originator of the Cyclopædia of Arts and Sciences, b. Kendal about 1680. The first edition of his work appeared in 1728, and procured him admission to the Royal Society. A French translation gave rise to Diderot and D’Alembert’sEncyclopédie. Chambers also edited theLiterary Magazine, 1836, etc. His infidel opinions were well known, and the Cyclopædia was placed upon theIndex, but he was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Died 15 May, 1740.Chamfort(Sébastien Roch Nicolas), French man of letters, b. in Auvergne, near Clermont, 1741. He knew no parent but his mother, a peasant girl, to supply whose wants he often denied himself necessaries. At Paris he gained a prize from the Academy for his eulogy on Molière. About 1776 he published a Dramatic Dictionary and wrote several plays. In 1781 he obtained a seat in the Academy, being patronised by Mme. Helvetius. He became a friend of Mirabeau, who called himune tête électrique. In 1790 he commenced a work calledPictures of the Revolution. In the following year he became secretary of the Jacobin Club and National Librarian. Arrested by Robespierre, he desperately, but vainly, endeavored to commit suicide. He died 13 April, 1794, leaving behind numerous works and a collection ofMaxims, Thoughts, Characters, and Anecdotes, which show profound genius and knowledge of human nature.Chapman(John), M.R.C.S., b. 1839. Has written largely in theWestminster Review, of which he is proprietor.Chappellsmith(Margaret), néeReynolds, b. Aldgate, 22 Feb. 1806. Early in life she read the writings of Cobbett. In ’36 she began writing political articles in theDispatch, and afterwards became a Socialist and Freethought lecturess. She married John Chappellsmith in ’39, and in ’42 she beganbusinessas a bookseller. In ’37 she expressed a preference for the development theory before that of creation. In ’50 they emigrated to the United States, where Mrs. Chappellsmith contributed many articles to theBoston Investigator.Charles(Rudolf). SeeGiessenburg.Charma(Antoine), French philosopher, b. 15 Jan. 1801. In ’30 he was nominated to the Chair of Philosophy at Caen. He was denounced for his impiety by the Count de Montalembert in the Chamber of peers, and an endeavor was made to unseat him. He wrote many philosophical works, and an account of Didron’sHistoire de Dieu. Died 5 Aug. 1869.Charron(Pierre), French priest and sceptic, b. Paris, 1513. He was an intimate friend of Montaigne. His principal work is aTreatise on Wisdom, 1601, which was censured as irreligious by the Jesuits. Franck says “the scepticism of Charron inclines visibly to ‘sensualisme’ and even to materialism.” Died Paris, 16 Nov. 1603.Chassebœuf de Volney(Constantin François). SeeVolney.Chastelet duorChatelet Lomont(Gabrielle Emiliele Tonnelier de Breteuil), Marquise, Frenchsavante, b. Paris, 17 Dec 1706. She was learned in mathematics and other sciences, and in Latin, English and Italian. In 1740 she published a work on physical philosophy entitledInstitutions de Physique. She afterwards made a good French translation of Newton’sPrincipia. She lived some years with Voltaire at Cirey between 1735 and 1747, and addressed to himDoubts on Revealed Religions, published in 1792. She also wrote aTreatise on Happiness, which was praised by Condorcet.Chastellux(François Jean de), Marquis. A soldier, traveller and writer, b. Paris 1734. WroteOn Public Happiness(2 vols., Amst. 1776), a work Voltaire esteemed highly. He contributed to theEncyclopédie; one article on “Happiness,” being suppressed by the censor because it did not mention God. Died Paris, 28 Oct. 1788.Chatterton(Thomas), the marvellous boy poet, b. Bristol, 20 Nov, 1752. His poems, which he pretended were written by one Thomas Rowley in the fourteenth century and discoveredby him in an old chest in Redcliffe Church, attracted much attention. In 1769 he visited London in hopes of rising by his talents, but after a bitter experience of writing for the magazines, destroyed himself in a fit of despair 25 Aug. 1770. Several of his poems betray deistic opinions.Chaucer(Geoffrey), the morning star of English poetry and first English Humanist, b. London about 1340. In 1357 he was attached to the household of Lionel, third son of Edward III. He accompanied the expedition to France 1359–60, was captured by the French, and ransomed by the king. He was patronised by John of Gaunt, and some foreign missions were entrusted to him, one of them being to Italy, where he met Petrarch. All his writings show the influence of the Renaissance, and in hisCanterbury Pilgrimshe boldly attacks the vices of the ecclesiastics. Died 25 Oct. 1400, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.Chaumette(Pierre Gaspard), afterwards Anaxagoras, French revolutionary, b. Nevers, 24 May, 1763. The son of a shoemaker, he was in turn cabin boy, steersman, and attorney’s clerk. In early youth he received lessons in botany from Rousseau. He embraced the revolution with ardor, was the first to assume the tri-color cockade, became popular orator at the club of the Cordeliers, and was associated with Proudhomme in the journalLes Revolutions de Paris. Nominated member of the Commune 10 Aug. 1792, he took the name of Anaxagoras to show his little regard for his baptismal saints. He was elected Procureur Syndic, in which capacity he displayed great activity. He abolished the rod in schools, suppressed lotteries, instituted workshops for fallen women, established the first lying-in-hospital, had books sent to the hospitals, separated the insane from the sick, founded the Conservatory of Music, opened the public libraries every day (under theancien régimethey were only open two hours per week), replaced books of superstition by works of morality and reason, put a graduated tax on the rich to provide for the burial of the poor, and was the principal mover in the feasts of Reason and closing of the churches. He was accused by Robespierre of conspiring with Cloots “to efface all idea of the Deity,” and was guillotined 13 April, 1794.Chaussard(Pierre Jean Baptiste), French man of letters, b. Paris, 8 Oct. 1766. At the Revolution he took the name of Publicola, and published patriotic odes,Esprit de Mirabeau, and other works. He was preacher to the Theophilanthropists, and became professor ofbelles lettresat Orleans. Died 9 Jan. 1823.Chemin-Dupontes(Jean Baptiste), b. 1761. One of the founders of French Theophilanthropy; published many writings, the best known of which is entitledWhat is Theophilanthropy?Chenier(Marie André de), French poet, b. Constantinople, 29 Oct. 1762. His mother, a Greek, inspired him with a love for ancient Greek literature. Sent to college at Paris, he soon manifested his genius by writing eclogues and elegies of antique simplicity and sensibility. In 1787 he came to England as Secretary of Legation. He took part in the legal defence of Louis XVI., eulogised Charlotte Corday, and gave further offence by some letters in theJournal de Paris. He was committed to prison, and here met his ideal in the Comtesse de Coigny. Confined in the same prison, to her he addressed the touching verses, The Young Captive (La jeune Captive). He was executed 25 July, 1794, leaving behind, among other poems, an imitation of Lucretius, entitledHermes, which warrants the affirmation of de Chênedolle, that “AndréChénierétaitathée avec délices.”Chenier(Marie Joseph de), French poet and miscellaneous writer, brother of the preceding, b. Constantinople, 28 Aug. 1764. He served two years in the army, and then applied himself to literature. His first successful drama, “Charles IX.,” was produced in 1789, and was followed by others. He wrote many patriotic songs, and was made member of the Convention. He was a Voltairean, and in hisNouveaux Saints(1801) satirised those who returned to the old faith. He wrote many poems and an account of French literature. Died Paris, 10 Jan. 1811.ChernuishevskyorTchernycheiosky(Nikolai Gerasimovich), Russian Nihilist, b. Saratof, 1829. Educated at the University of St. Petersburg, translated Mill’sPolitical Economy, and wrote onSuperstition and the Principles of Logic, ’59. Hisbold romance,What is to be Done?was published ’63. In the following year he was sentenced to the Siberian mines, where, after heartrending cruelties, he has become insane.Chesneau Du Marsais(César). SeeDumarsais.Chevalier(Joseph Philippe), French chemist, b. Saint Pol,21 March, 1806, is the author of an able book on “The Soul from the standpoint of Reason and Science,” Paris, ’61. He died at Amiens in 1865.Chies y Gomez(Ramon), Spanish Freethinker, b. Medina de Pomar, Burgos, 13 Oct. 1845. His father, a distinguished Republican, educated him without religion. In ’65 Chies went to Madrid, and followed a course of law and philosophy at the University, and soon after wrote for a Madrid paperLa Discusion. He took an active part in the Revolution of ’65, and at the proclamation of the Republic, ’73, became civil governor of Valencia. In ’81 he founded a newspaperEl Voto Nacional, and since ’83 has editedLas Dominicales del Libre Pensamiento, which he also founded. Ramon Chies is one of the foremost Freethought champions in Spain and lectures as well as writes.Child(Lydia Maria) néeFrancis, American authoress, b. Medford, Mass., 11 Feb. 1802. She early commenced writing, publishingHobomok, a Tale of Early Times, in ’21. From ’25 she kept a private school in Watertown until ’28, when she married David Lee Child, a Boston lawyer. She, with him, edited theAnti-Slavery Standard, ’41, etc., and by her numerous writings did much to form the opinion which ultimately prevailed. She was, however, long subjected to public odium, her heterodoxy being well known. Her principal work isThe Progress of Religious Ideas, 3 vols.; ’55. Died Wayland, Mass., 20 Oct. 1880. She was highly eulogised by Wendell Phillips.Chilton(William), of Bristol, was born in 1815. In early life he was a bricklayer, but in ’41 he was concerned with Charles Southwell in starting theOracle of Reason, which he set up in type, and of which he became one of the editors. He contributed some thoughtful articles on the Theory of Development to theLibrary of Reason, and wrote in theMovementand theReasoner. Died at Bristol, 28 May, 1855.Chubb(Thomas), English Deist, b. East Harnham, nearSalisbury, 29 Sept. 1679, was one of the first to show Rationalism among the common people. Beginning by contending for theSupremacy of the Father, he gradually relinquished supernatural religion, and considered that Jesus Christ was of the religion of Thomas Chubb. Died 8 Feb. 1747, leaving behind two vols. which he callsA Farewell to his Readers, from which it appears that he rejected both revelation and special providence.Church(Henry Tyrell), lecturer and writer, edited Tallis’sShakespeare, wroteWoman and her Failings, 1858, and contributed to theInvestigatorwhen edited by Mr. Bradlaugh. Died 19 July, 1859.Clapiers(Luc de). SeeVauvenargues.Claretie(Jules Armand Arsène), French writer, b. Limoges, 3 Dec. 1840. A prolific writer, of whose works we only citeFree Speech, ’68; his biographies of contemporary celebrities; and his workCamille Desmoulins, ’75.Clarke(John), brought up in the Methodist connection, changed his opinion by studying the Bible, and became one of Carlile’s shopmen. He was tried 10 June, 1824, for selling a blasphemous libel in number 17, vol. ix., ofThe Republican, and after a spirited defence, in which he read many of the worst passages in the Bible, was sentenced to three years’ imprisonment, and to find securities for good behavior during life. He wrote while in prison,A Critical Review of the Life, Character, and Miracles of Jesus, a work showing with some bitterness much bold criticism and Biblical knowledge. It first appeared in theNewgate Magazineand was afterwards published in book form, 1825 and ’39.Clarke(Marcus), Australian writer, b. Kensington, 1847. Went to Victoria, ’63; joined the staff ofMelbourne Argus. In ’76 was made assistant librarian of the Public Library. He has compiled a history of Australia, and writtenThe Peripatetic Philosopher(a series of clever sketches),His Natural Life(a powerful novel), and some poems. An able Freethought paper, “Civilisation without Delusion,” in theVictoria Review, Nov. ’79, was replied to by Bishop Moorhouse. The reply, with Clarke’s answer, which was suppressed, was published in ’80. Died 1884.Claude-Constant, author of a Freethinkers’ Catechism published at Paris in 1875.Clavel(Adolphe), French Positivist and physician, b. Grenoble, 1815. He has written on the Principles of 1789, on those of the nineteenth century, on Positive Morality, and some educational works.Clavel(F. T. B.), French author of aPicturesque History of Freemasonry, and also aPicturesque History of Religions, 1844, in which Christianity takes a subordinate place.Clayton(Robert), successively Bishop of Killala, Cork, and Clogher, b. Dublin, 1695. By his benevolence attracted the friendship of Samuel Clarke, and adopted Arianism, which he maintained in several publications. In 1756 he proposed, in the Irish House of Lords, the omission of the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds from the Liturgy, and stated that he then felt more relieved in his mind than for twenty years before. A legal prosecution was instituted, but he died, it is said, from nervous agitation (26 Feb. 1758) before the matter was decided.Cleave(John), bookseller, and one of the pioneers of a cheap political press. Started theLondon Satirist, andCleave’s Penny Gazette of Variety, Oct. 14, 1837, to Jan. 20, ’44. He published many Chartist and Socialistic works, and an abridgment of Howitt’sHistory of Priestcraft. In May, ’40, he was sentenced to four months’ imprisonment for selling Haslam’sLetters to the Clergy.Clemenceau(Georges Benjamin Eugene), French politician, b. Moulleron-en-Pareds, 28 Sept. 1841. Educated at Nantes and Paris, he took his doctor’s degree in ’65. His activity as Republican ensured him a taste of gaol. He visited the United States and acted as correspondent on theTemps. He returned at the time of the war and was elected deputy to the Assembly. In Jan. 1880 he foundedLa Justice, having as collaborateurs M. C. Pelletan, Prof. Acollas and Dr. C. Letourneau. As one of the chiefs of the Radical party he was largely instrumental in getting M. Carnot elected President.Clemetshaw(C.), French writer, using the nameCilwa. B. 14 Sept. 1864 of English parents; has contributed to many journals, was delegate to the International Congress, London, of ’87, and is editor ofLe Danton.Clemens(Samuel Langhorne), American humorist, better known as “Mark Twain,” b. Florida, Missouri, 30 Nov. 1835. In ’55 he served as Mississippi pilot, and takes his pen name from the phrase used in sounding. InInnocents Abroad, or the New Pilgrim’s Progress, ’69, by which he made his name, there is much jesting with “sacred” subjects. Mr. Clemens is an Agnostic.Clifford(Martin), English Rationalist. Was Master of the Charterhouse, 1671, and published anonymously a treatise ofHuman Reason, London, ’74, which was reprinted in the following year with the author’s name. A short while after its publication Laney, Bishop of Ely, was dining in Charterhouse and remarked, not knowing the author, “’twas no matter if all the copies were burnt and the author with them, because it made every man’s private fancy judge of religion.” Clifford died 10 Dec. 1677. In theNouvelle Biographie GénéraleClifford is amusingly described as an “English theologian of the order des Chartreux,” who, it is added, was “prior of his order.”Clifford(William Kingdon), mathematician, philosopher, and moralist, of rare originality and boldness, b. Exeter 4 May, 1845. At the age of fifteen he was sent to King’s College, London, where he showed an early genius for mathematics, publishing theAnalogues of Pascal’s Theoremat the age of eighteen. Entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in ’63. In ’67 he was second wrangler. Elected fellow of his college, he remained at Cambridge till 1870, when he accompanied the eclipse expedition to theMediterranean. The next year he was appointed Professor of mathematics at London University, a post he held till his death. He was chosen F.R.S. ’74. Married Miss Lucy Lane in April, ’75. In the following year symptoms of consumption appeared, and he visited Algeria and Spain. He resumed work, but in ’79 took a voyage to Madeira, where he died 3 March. Not long before his death appeared the first volume of his great mathematical work,Elements of Dynamic. Since his death have been publishedThe Common Sense of the Exact Sciences, andLectures and Essays, in two volumes, edited by Leslie Stephen and Mr. F. Pollock. These volumes include his most striking Freethought lectures and contributions to theFortnightlyand other reviews. Heintended to form them into a volume onThe Creed of Science. Clifford was an outspoken Atheist, and he wrote of Christianity as a religion which wrecked one civilisation and very nearly wrecked another.ClootsorClootz(Johann Baptist, afterwards Anacharsis) Baron du Val de Grâce, Prussian enthusiast, b. near Cleves, 24 June, 1755, was a nephew of Cornelius de Pauw. In 1780 he published theThe Certainty of the Proofs of Mohammedanism, under the pseudonym of Ali-gier-ber, an anagram of Bergier, whoseCertainty of the Proofs of Christianityhe parodies. He travelled widely, but became a resident of Paris and a warm partisan of the Revolution, to which he devoted his large fortune. He wrote a reply to Burke, and continually wrote and spoke in favor of a Universal Republic. On 19 June, 1790, he, at the head of men of all countries, asked a place at the feast of Federation, and henceforward was styled “orator of the human race.” He was, with Paine, Priestley, Washington and Klopstock, made a French citizen, and in 1792 was elected to the Convention by two departments. He debaptised himself, taking the name Anacharsis, was a prime mover in the Anti-Catholic party, and induced Bishop Gobel to resign. He declared there was no other God but Nature. Incurring the enmity of Robespierre, he and Paine were arrested as foreigners. After two and a half months’ imprisonment at St. Lazare, he was brought to the scaffold with the Hébertistes, 24 March, 1794. He died calmly, uttering materialist sentiments to the last.Clough(Arthur Hugh), poet, b. Liverpool, 1 Jan. 1819. He was educated at Rugby, under Dr. Arnold, and at Oxford, where he showed himself of the Broad School. Leslie Stephen says, “He never became bitter against the Church of his childhood, but he came to regard its dogmas as imperfect and untenable.” In ’48 he visited Paris, and the same year produced hisBothie of Toper-na-Fuosich: a Long-Vacation Pastoral. Between ’49 and ’52 he was professor of English literature in London University. In ’52 he visited the United States, where he gained the friendship of Emerson and Longfellow, and revised the Dryden translation ofPlutarch’s Lives. Died at Florence, 13 Nov. 1861. His Remains are published in two volumes, and include an essay on Religious Tradition andsome notable poems. He is the Thyrsis of Matthew Arnold’s exquisite Monody.Cnuzius(Matthias). SeeKnutzen.Coke(Henry), author ofCreeds of the Day, or collated opinions of reputable thinkers, in 2 vols, London, 1883.Cole(Peter), a tanner of Ipswich, was burnt for blasphemy in the castle ditch, Norwich, 1587. A Dr. Beamond preached to him before the mayor, sheriffs, and aldermen, “but he would not recant.” SeeHamont.Colenso(John William), b. 24 Jan. 1814. Was educated at St. John’s, Cambridge, and became a master at Harrow. After acquiring fame by his valuableTreatise on Algebra, ’49, he became first Bishop of Natal, ’54. Besides other works, he publishedThe Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined, 1862–79, which made a great stir, and was condemned by both Houses of Convocation and its author declared deposed. The Privy Council, March ’65, declared this deposition “null and void in law.” Colenso pleaded the cause of the natives at the time of the Zulu War. He died 20 June, 1883.Colins(Jean Guillaume César Alexandre Hippolyte) Baron de, Belgian Socialist and founder of “Collectivism,” b. Brussels, 24 Dec. 1783. Author of nineteen volumes on Social Science. He denied alike Monotheism and Pantheism, but taught the natural immortality of the soul. Died at Paris, 12 Nov. 1859. A number of disciples propagate his opinions in thePhilosophie de l’Avenir.Collins(Anthony), English Deist, b. Heston, Middlesex, 21 June, 1676. He studied at Cambridge and afterwards at the Temple, and became Justice of the Peace and Treasurer of the County of Essex. He was an intimate friend of Locke, who highly esteemed him and made him his executor. He wrote anEssay on Reason, 1707;Priestcraft in Perfection, 1710; aVindication of the Divine Attributes, and aDiscourse on Freethinking, 1713. This last occasioned a great outcry, as it argued that all belief must be based on free inquiry, and that the use of reason would involve the abandonment of supernatural revelation. In 1719 he publishedAn Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty, a brief, pithy defence of necessitarianism, and in 1729A Discourse on Libertyand Necessity. In 1724 appeared hisDiscourse on the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion, and this was followed byThe Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered, 1726. He was a skilful disputant, and wrote with great ability. He is also credited withA Discourse Concerning Ridicule and Irony in Writing. Died at London, 13 Dec. 1729. Collins, says Mr. Leslie Stephen, “appears to have been an amiable and upright man, and to have made all readers welcome to the use of a free library.” Professor Fraser calls him “a remarkable man,” praises his “love of truth and moral courage,” and allows that in answering Dr. Samuel Clarke on the question of liberty and necessity he “states the arguments against human freedom with a logical force unsurpassed by any necessitarian.” A similar testimony to Collins as a thinker and dialectician is borne by Professor Huxley.Colman(Lucy N.), American reformer, b. 26 July, 1817, has spent most of her life advocating the abolition of slavery, women’s rights, and Freethought. She has lectured widely, written Reminisences in theLife of a Reformer of Fifty Years, and contributed to theTruthseekerandBoston Investigator.Colotes, of Lampsacus, a hearer and disciple of Epicurus, with whom he was a favorite. He wrote a work in favor of his master’s teachings. He held it was unworthy of a philosopher to use fables.Combe(Abram), one of a noted Scotch family of seventeen, b. Edinburgh, 15 Jan. 1785. He traded as a tanner, but, becoming acquainted with Robert Owen, founded a community at Orbiston upon the principle of Owen’s New Lanark, devoting nearly the whole of his large fortune to the scheme. But his health gave way and he died 11 Aug. 1827. He wroteMetaphysical Sketches of the Old and New Systemsand other works advocating Owenism.Combe(Andrew), physician, brother of the above, b. Edinburgh, 27 Oct. 1797; studied there and in Paris; aided his brother George in founding the Phrenological Society; wrote popular works on thePrinciples of Physiologyand theManagement of Infancy. Died near Edinburgh, 9 Aug. 1847.Combe(George), phrenologist and educationalist, b. Edinburgh, 21 Oct. 1788. He was educated for the law. Became acquainted with Spurzheim, and publishedEssays on Phrenology,1819, and founded thePhrenological Journal. In ’28 he published theConstitution of Man, which excited great controversy especially for removing the chimeras of special providence and efficacy of prayer. In ’33 he married a daughter of Mrs. Siddons. He visited the United States and lectured on Moral Philosophy and Secular Education. His last work wasThe Relations between Science and Religion, ’57, in which he continued to uphold Secular Theism. He also published many lectures and essays. Among his friends were Miss Evans (George Eliot), who spent a fortnight with him in ’52. He did more than any man of his time, save Robert Owen, for the cause of Secular education. Died at Moor Park, Surrey, 14 Aug. 1858.Combes(Paul), French writer, b. Paris, 13 June, 1856. Has written onDarwinism, ’83, and other works popularising science.Commazzi(Gian-Battista), Count author ofPolitica e religione trovate insieme nella persona di Giesù Cristo, Nicopoli [Vienna] 4 vols., 1706–7, in which he makes Jesus to be a political impostor. It was rigorously confiscated at Rome and Vienna.Comparetti(Domenico), Italian philologist, b. Rome in 1835. Signor Comparetti is Professor at the Institute of Superior Studies, Rome, and has written many works on the classic writers, in which he evinces his Pagan partialities.Comte(Isidore Auguste Marie François Xavier), French philosopher, mathematician and reformer, b. at Montpelier, 12 Jan. 1798. Educated at Paris in the Polytechnic School, where he distinguished himself by his mathematical talent. In 1817 he made the acquaintance of St. Simon, agreeing with him as to the necessity of a Social renovation based upon a mental revolution. On the death of St. Simon (’25) Comte devoted himself to the elaboration of an original system of scientific thought, which, in the opinion of some able judges, entitles him to be called the Bacon of the nineteenth century. Mill speaks of him as the superior of Descartes and Leibniz. In ’25 he married, but the union proved unhappy. In the following year he lectured, but broke down under an attack of brain fever, which occasioned his detention in an asylum. He speedily recovered, and in ’28 resumed his lectures, which were attended by men like Humboldt, Ducrotay, Broussais, Carnot, etc. In ’30 he put forward the first volumes of hisCourse of Positive Philosophy, which in ’42 was completed by the publication of the sixth volume. A condensed English version of this work was made by Harriet Martineau, ’53. In ’45 Comte formed a passionate Platonic attachement to Mme. Clotilde de Vaux, who died in the following year, having profoundely influenced Comte’s life. In consequence of his opinions, he lost his professorship, and was supported by his disciples—Mill, Molesworth and Grote, in England, assisting. Among other works, Comte publishedA General View of Positivism, ’48, translated by Dr. Bridges, ’65;A System of Positive Polity, ’51, translated by Drs. Bridges, Beesley, F. Harrison, etc., ’75–79; andA Positive Catechism, ’54, translated by Dr. Congreve, ’58. He also wrote on Positive Logic, which he intended to follow with Positive Morality and Positive Industrialism. Comte was a profound and suggestive thinker. He resolutely sets aside all theology and metaphysics, coordinates the sciences and substitutes the service of man for the worship of God. Mr. J. Cotter Morison says “He belonged to that small class of rare minds, whose errors are often more valuable and stimulating than other men’s truths.” He died of cancer in the stomach at Paris, 5 Sept. 1857.Condillac(EtienneBonnot de), French philosopher, b. Grenoble, about 1715. His life was very retired, but his works show much acuteness. They are in 23 vols., the principal beingA Treatise on the Sensations, 1764;A Treatise on Animals, andAn Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge. In the first-named he shows that all mental life is gradually built up out of simple sensations. Died 3 Aug. 1780.Condorcet(Marie Jean Antoine NicolasCaritat, Marquis de), French philosopher and politician, b. Ribemont, Picardy, 17 Sept. 1743. Dedicated to the Virgin by a pious mother, he was kept in girl’s clothes until the age of 11. Sent to a Jesuit’s school, he soon gave up religion. At sixteen he maintained a mathematical thesis in the presence of Alembert. In the next year he dedicated to Turgot aProfession of Faith. After some mathematical works, he was made member of the Academy, of which he was appointed perpetual secretary, 1773. In 1776 he published his atheisticLetters of a Theologian. He also wrote biographies of Turgot and Voltaire, and in favor ofAmerican independence and against negro slavery. In 1791 he represented Paris in the National Assembly, of which he became Secretary. It was on his motion that, in the following year, all orders of nobility were abolished. Voting against the death of the king and siding with the Gironde drew on him the vengeance of the extreme party. He took shelter with Madame Vernet, but fearing to bring into trouble her and his wife, at whose instigation he wrote his fineSketch of the Progress of the Human Mindwhile in hiding, he left, but, being arrested, died of exhaustion or by poison self-administered, at Bourg la Reine, 27 March, 1794.Condorcet(Sophie de GrouchyCaritat, Marquise de), wife of above, and sister of General Grouchy and of Mme. Cabanis, b. 1765. She married Condorcet 1786, and was considered one of the most beautiful women of her time. She shared her husband’s sentiments and opinions and, while he was proscribed, supported herself by portrait painting. She was arrested, and only came out of prison after the fall of Robespierre. She translated Adam Smith’sTheory of the Moral Sentiments, which she accompanied with eight letters on Sympathy, addressed to Cabanis. She died 8 Sept. 1822. Her only daughter married Gen. Arthur O’Connor.Confucius(Kung Kew) or Kung-foo-tsze, the philosopher Kung, a Chinese sage, b. in the State of Loo, now part of Shantung, aboutB.C.551. He was distinguished by filial piety and learning. In his nineteenth year he married, and three years after began as a teacher, rejecting none who came to him. He travelled through many states. When past middle age he was appointed chief minister of Loo, but finding the Duke desired the renown of his name without adopting his counsel, he retired, and devoted his old age to editing the sacred classics of China. He died aboutB.C.478. His teaching, chiefly found in theLun-Yu, or Confucian Analects, was of a practical moral character, and did not include any religious dogmas.Congreve(Richard), English Positivist, born in 1819. Educated at Rugby under T. Arnold, and Oxford 1840, M.A. 1843; was fellow of Wadham College 1844–54. In ’55 he published his edition ofAristotle Politics. He became a follower of Comte and influenced many to embrace Positivism. TranslatedComte’sCatechism of Positive Philosophy, 1858, and has written many brochures. Dr. Congreve is considered the head of the strict or English Comtists, and has long conducted a small “Church of Humanity.”Connor(Bernard), a physician, b. Co. Kerry, of Catholic family, 1666. He travelled widely, and was made court physician to John Sobieski, King of Poland. He wrote a work entitledEvangelium Medici(1697), in which he attempts to account for the Christian miracles on natural principles. For this he was accused of Atheism. He died in London 27 Oct. 1698.Constant de Rebecque(Henri Benjamin), Swiss writer, b. Lausanne, 25 Oct. 1767, and educated at Oxford, Erlangen and Edinburgh. In 1795 he entered Paris as aprotégéof Mme. de Stael, and in 1799 became a member of the Tribunal. He opposed Buonaparte and wrote onRoman Polytheismand an important work onReligion Considered in its Source, its Forms and its Developments(6 vols.; 1824–32). Died 8 Dec. 1830. Constant professed Protestantism, but was at heart a sceptic, and has been called a second Voltaire. A son was executor to Auguste Comte.Conta(Basil), Roumanian philosopher, b. Neamtza 27 Nov. 1845. Studied in Italy and Belgium, and became professor in the University of Jassy, Moldavia. In ’77 he publishedinBrussels, in French, a theory of fatalism, which created some stir by its boldness of thought.Conway(Moncure Daniel), author, b. in Fredericksburg, Stafford co. Virginia, 17 March, 1832. He entered the Methodist ministry ’50, but changing his convictions through the influence of Emerson and Hicksite Quakers, entered the divinity school at Cambridge, where he graduated in ’54 and became pastor of a Unitarian church until dismissed for his anti-slavery discourses. In ’57 he preached inCincinnatiand there publishedThe Natural History of the Devil, and other pamphlets. In ’63 Mr. Conway came to England and was minister of South Place from the close of ’63 until his return to the States in ’84. Mr. Conway is a frequent contributor to the press. He has also publishedThe Earthward Pilgrimage, 1870, a theory reversing Bunyan’sPilgrim’s Progress; collectedaSacred Anthologyfrom the various sacred books of the world 1873,which he used in his pulpit; has written onHuman Sacrifices, 1876, andIdols and Ideals, 1877. His principal work isDemonology and Devil Lore, 1878, containing much information on mythology. He also issued his sermons under the title ofLessons for the Day, two vols., 1883, and has published a monograph on theWandering Jew, a biography of Emerson, and is at present engaged on a life of Thomas Paine.Cook(Kenningale Robert), LL.D., b. in Lancashire 26 Sept. 1845, son of the vicar of Stallbridge. When a boy he used to puzzle his mother by such questions as, “If God was omnipotent could he make what had happened not have happened.” He was intended for the Church, but declined to subscribe the articles. Graduated at Dublin in ’66, and took LL.D. in ’75. In ’77 he became editor of the DublinUniversity Magazine, in which appeared some studies of the lineage of Christian doctrine and traditions afterwards published under the title ofThe Fathers of Jesus. Dr. Cook wrote several volumes of choice poems. Died July, 1886.

That all the books of MosesWere nothing but supposes.

That all the books of Moses

Were nothing but supposes.

He had to resign a position at court. In later life he wroteDe Fide et Officiis Christianorum(on Christian Faith and Duties), in which he regards historical religions as based on the religion of nature, and rejects original sin and the “magical” theory of sacraments; andDe Statu Mortuorum et Resurgentium, on the State of the Dead and Resurrected, in which he opposed the doctrine of eternal punishment and shadowed forth a scheme of Deism. These books he kept to himself to avoid a prosecution for heresy, but had a few copies printed for private friends. He died in the Charterhouse 27 Sept. 1715. A tract entitledHell Torments not Eternalwas published in 1739.

Burnett(James), Lord Monboddo, a learned Scotch writer and judge, was b. Monboddo, Oct. 1714. He adopted the law as his profession, became a celebrated advocate, and was made a judge in 1767. His work on theOrigin and Progress of Language(published anonymously 1773–92), excited much derision by his studying man as one of the animals and collecting facts about savage tribes to throw light on civilisation. He first maintained that the orang-outang was allied to the human species. He also wrote onAncient Metaphysics. He was a keen debater and discussed with Hume, Adam Smith, Robertson, and Lord Kames. Died in Edinburgh, 26 May, 1799.

Burnouf(Emile Louis), French writer, b. Valonges, 25 Aug. 1821. He became professor of ancient literature to the faculty of Nancy. Author of many works, including a translation of selections from theNovum Organumof Bacon, the Bhagvat-Gita, an Introduction to the Vedas, a history of Greek Literature, Studies in Japanese, and articles in theRevue des deux Mondes. His heresy is pronounced in his work on theScience of Religions, 1878, in hisContemporary Catholicism, andLife and Thought, 1886.

Burnouf(Eugène), French Orientalist, cousin of the preceding; b. Paris, 12 Aug. 1801. He opened up to the Western world the Pali language, and with it the treasures of Buddhism, whose essentially Atheistic character he maintained. To him also we are largely indebted for a knowledge of Zend and of the Avesta of the Zoroastrians. He translated numerous Oriental works and wrote a valuableIntroduction to the History of Indian Buddhism. Died at Paris, 28 May, 1852.

Burns(Robert), Scotland’s greatest poet, b. near Ayr, 25 Jan. 1759. His father was a small farmer, of enlightened views. The life and works of Burns are known throughout the world. His Freethought is evident from such productions as the “Holy Fair,” “The Kirk’s Alarm,” and “Holy Willie’s Prayer,” and many passages in private letters to his most familiarmalefriends. Died at Dumfries, 21 July, 1796.

Burr(William Henry), American author, b. 1819, Gloversville, N.Y., graduated at Union College, Schenectady, became a shorthand reporter to the Senate. In 1869 he retired and devoted himself to literary research. He is the anonymousauthor ofRevelations of Antichrist, a learned book which exposes the obscurity of the origin of Christianity, and seeks to show that the historical Jesus lived almost a century before the Christian era. He has also written several pamphlets:Thomas Paine was Junius, 1880:Self Contradictions of the Bible;Is the Bible a Lying Humbug?A Roman Catholic Canard, etc. He has also frequently contributed to theBoston Investigator, the New YorkTruthseeker, and theIronclad AgeofIndianapolis.

Burton(Sir Richard Francis), traveller, linguist, and author, b. Barham House, Herts, 19 March, 1821. Intended for the Church, he matriculated at Oxford, but in 1842 entered the East India Company’s service, served on the staff of Sir C. Napier, and soon acquired reputation as an intrepid explorer. In ’51 he returned to England and started for Mecca and Medina, visiting those shrines unsuspected, as a Moslem pilgrim. He was chief of the staff of the Osmanli cavalry in the Crimean war, and has made many remarkable and dangerous expeditions in unknown lands; he discovered and opened the lake regions in Central Africa and explored the highlands of Brazil. He has been consul at Fernando Po, Santos, Damascus, and since 1872 at Trieste, and speaks over thirty languages. His latest work is a new translation ofThe Thousand Nights and a Nightin 10 vols. Being threatened with a prosecution, he intended justifying “literal naturalism” from the Bible. Burton’s knowledge of Arabic is so perfect that when he used to read the tales to Arabs, they would roll on the ground in fits of laughter.

Butler(Samuel), poet, b. in Strensham, Worcestershire, Feb. 1612. In early life he came under the influence of Selden. He studied painting, and is said to have painted a head of Cromwell from life. He became clerk to Sir Samuel Luke, one of Cromwell’s Generals, whom he has satirised as Hudibras. This celebrated burlesque poem appeared in 1663 and became famous, but, although the king and court were charmed with its wit, the author was allowed to remain in poverty and obscurity till he died at Covent Garden, London, 25 Sept. 1680. Butler expressed the opinion that

“Religion is the interest of churchesThat sell in other worlds in this to purchase.”

“Religion is the interest of churches

That sell in other worlds in this to purchase.”

Buttmann(Philipp Karl), German philologist, b. Frankfort, 5 Dec. 1764. Became librarian of the Royal Library at Berlin. He edited many of the Greek Classics, wrote on theMyth of the Deluge, 1819, and a learned work on Mythology, 1828. Died Berlin, 21 June, 1829.

Buzot(François Léonard Nicolas), French Girondin, distinguished as an ardent Republican and a friend and lover of Madame Roland. Born at Evreux, 1 March, 1760; he died from starvation when hiding after the suppression of his party June, 1793.

Byelinsky(Vissarion G.) SeeBelinsky.

Byron(George Gordon Noel) Lord, b. London, 22 Jan. 1788. He succeeded his grand-uncle William in 1798; was sent to Harrow and Cambridge. In 1807 hepublishedhisHours of Idleness, and awoke one morning to find himself famous. His power was, however, first shown in hisEnglish Bards and Scotch Reviewers, in which he satirised his critics, 1809. He then travelled on the Continent, the result of which was seen in hisChilde Harold’s Pilgrimageand other works. He married 2 Jan. 1815, but a separation took place in the following year. Lord Byron then resided in Italy, where he made the acquaintance of Shelley. In 1823 he devoted his name and fortune to the cause of the Greek revolution, but was seized with fever and died at Missolonghi, 19 April, 1824. His drama ofCain: a Mystery, 1822, is his most serious utterance, and it shows a profound contempt for religious dogma. This feeling is also exhibited in his magnificent burlesque poem,The Vision of Judgment, which places him at the head of English satirists. In his letters to the Rev. Francis Hodgson, 1811, he distinctly says: “I do not believe in any revealed religion.... I will have nothing to do with your immortality; we are miserable enough in this life, without the absurdity of speculating upon another.... The basis of your religion is injustice; the Son of God, the pure, the immaculate, the innocent, is sacrificed for the guilty,” etc.

Cabanis(Pierre Jean George), called by Lange “the father of the materialistic physiology,” b. Conac, 5 June, 1757. Became pupil of Condillac and friend of Mirabeau, whom he attended in his last illness, of which he published an account1791. He was also intimate with Turgot, Condorcet, Holbach, Diderot, and other distinguished Freethinkers, and was elected member of the Institute and of the Council of Five Hundred in the Revolution. His works are mostly medical, the chief beingDes Rapports du Physique et du Morale de l’Homme, in which he contends that thoughts are a secretion of the brain. Died Rueil, near Paris, 5 May, 1808.

Cæsalpinus(Andreas), Italian philosopher of the Renaissance, b. Arezzo, Tuscany, 1519. He became Professor of Botany at Pisa, and Linnæus admits his obligations to his work,De Plantis, 1583. He also wrote works on metals and medicine, and showed acquaintance with the circulation of the blood. In a work entitledDemonum Investigatio, he contends that “possession” by devils is amenable to medical treatment. HisQuæstionum Peripateticarum, in five books, Geneva, 1568, was condemned as teaching a Pantheistic doctrine similar to that of Spinoza. Bishop Parker denounced him. Died 23 Feb. 1603.

Cæsar(Caius Julius), the “foremost man of all this world,” equally renowned as soldier, statesman, orator, and writer, b. 12 July, 100B.C., of noble family. His life, the particulars of which are well known, was an extraordinary display of versatility, energy, courage, and magnanimity. He justified the well-known line of Pope, “Cæsar the world’s great master and his own.” His military talents elevated him to the post of dictator, but this served to raise against him a band of aristocratic conspirators, by whom he was assassinated, 15 March, 44B.C.HisCommentariesare a model of insight and clear expression. Sallust relates that he questioned the existence of a future state in the presence of the Roman senate. Froude says: “His own writings contain nothing to indicate that he himself had any religious belief at all. He saw no evidence that the gods practically interfered in human affairs.... He held to the facts of this life and to his own convictions; and as he found no reason for supposing that there was a life beyond the grave he did not pretend to expect it.”

Cahuac(John), bookseller, revised an edition of Palmer’sPrinciples of Nature, 1819. For this he was prosecuted at the instance of the “Vice Society,” but the matter was compromised. He was also prosecuted for selling theRepublican, 1820.

Calderino(Domizio), a learned writer of the Renaissance, b. in 1445, in the territory of Verona, and lived at Rome, where he was professor of literature, in 1477. He edited and commented upon many of the Latin poets. Bayle says he was without religion. Died in 1478.

Calenzio(Eliseo), an Italian writer, b. in the kingdom of Naples about 1440. He was preceptor to Prince Frederic, the son of Ferdinand, the King of Naples. He died in 1503, leaving behind a number of satires, fables and epigrams, some of which are directed against the Church.

Call(Wathen Mark Wilks), English author, b. 7 June, 1817. Educated at Cambridge, entered the ministry in 1843, but resigned his curacy about 1856 on account of his change of opinions, which he recounts in his preface toReverberations, 1876. Mr. Call is of the Positivist school, and has contributed largely to theFortnightlyandWestminster Reviews.

Callet(Pierre Auguste), French politician, b. St. Etienne, 27 Oct. 1812; became editor of theGazetteof France till 1840. In 1848 he was nominated Republican representative. At thecoup d’étatof 2 Dec. 1851, he took refuge in Belgium. He returned to France, but was imprisoned for writing against the Empire. In 1871, Callet was again elected representative for the department of the Loire. His chief Freethought work isL’Enfer, an attack upon the Christian doctrine of hell, 1861.

Camisani(Gregorio), Italian writer, b. at Venice, 1810. A Professor of Languages in Milan. He has translated theUpasof Captain R. H. Dyas and other works.

Campanella(Tommaso), Italian philosopher, b. Stilo, Calabria, 5 Sept. 1568. He entered the Dominican order, but was too much attracted by the works of Telesio to please his superiors. In 1590 hisPhilosophia Sensibus Demonstratiowas printed at Naples. Being prosecuted, he fled to Rome, and thence to Florence, Venice, and Padua. At Bologna some of his MS. fell into the hands of the Inquisition, and he was arrested. He ably defended himself and was acquitted. Returning to Calabria in 1599, he was arrested on charges of heresy and conspiracy against the Spanish Government of Naples, and having appealed to Rome, was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment in the prison of the Holy Office. Hewas put to the torture seven times, his torments on one occasion extending over forty hours, but he refused to confess. He was dragged from one prison to another for twenty-sevenyears, during which he wrote some sonnets, a history of the Spanish monarchy, and several philosophical works. On 15 May, 1626, he was released by the intervention of Pope Urban VIII. He was obliged to fly from Rome to France, where he met Gassendi. He also visited Descartes in Holland. Julian Hibbert remarked that hisAtheismus Triumphatus—Atheism Subdued, 1631, would be better entitledAtheismus Triumphans—Atheism Triumphant—as the author puts his strongest arguments on the heterodox side. In hisCity of the Sun, Campanella follows Plato and More in depicting an ideal republic and a time when a new era of earthly felicity should begin. Hallam says “The strength of Campanella’s genius lay in his imagination.” His “Sonnets” have been translated by J. A. Symonds. Died Paris, 21 May, 1639.

Campbell(Alexander), Socialist of Glasgow, b. about the beginning of the century. He early became a Socialist, and was manager at the experiment at Orbiston under Abram Combe, of whom he wrote a memoir. Upon the death of Combe, 1827, he became a Socialist missionary in England. He took an active part in the co-operative movement, and in the agitation for an unstamped press, for which he was tried and imprisoned at Edinburgh, 1833–4. About 1849 he returned to Glasgow and wrote on theSentinel. In 1867 he was presented with a testimonial and purse of 90 sovereigns by admirers of his exertions in the cause of progress. Died about 1873.

Campion(William), a shoemaker, who became one of R. Carlile’s shopmen; tried 8 June, 1824, for selling Paine’sAge of Reason. After a spirited defence he was found guilty and sentenced to three years’ imprisonment. In prison he edited, in conjunction with J. Clarke, E. Hassell, and T. R. Perry, theNewgate Monthly Magazine, to which he contributed some thoughtful papers, from Sept. 1824, to Aug. 1826, when he was removed to the Compter.

Canestrini(Giovanni), Italian naturalist, b. Rerò, 1835. He studied at Vienna, and in ’60 was nominated Professor of Natural History at Geneva. Signor Canestrini contributed totheAnnuario Filosofico del Libero Pensiero, and is known for his popularisation of the works of Darwin, which he has translated into Italian. He has written upon theOrigin of Man, which has gone through two editions, Milan, ’66–’70, and on theTheory of Evolution, Turin, ’77. He was appointed Professor of Zoology, Anatomy and Comparative Physiology at Padua, where he has published a Memoir of Charles Darwin, ’82.

Cardano(Girolamo), better known asJerome Cardan, Italian mathematician, and physician, b. Pavia, 24 Sept. 1501. He studied medicine, but was excluded from the Milan College of Physicians on account of illegitimate birth. He and his young wife were at one time compelled to take refuge in the workhouse. It is not strange that his first work was an exposure of the fallacies of the faculty. A fortunate cure brought him into notice and he journeyed to Scotland as the medical adviser of the Archbishop of St. Andrews, 1551. In 1563 he was arrested at Bologna for heresy, but was released, although deprived of his professorship. He died at Rome, 20 Sept. 1576, having, it is said, starved himself to verify his own prediction of his death. Despite some superstition, Cardano did much to forward science, especially by his work on Algebra, and in his worksDe Subtilitate RerumandDe Varietate Rerum, amid much that is fanciful, perceived the universality of natural law and the progressive evolution of life. Scaliger accused him of Atheism. Pünjer says “Cardanus deserves to be named along with Telesius as one of the principal founders of Natural Philosophy.”

Carducci(Giosuè), Italian poet and Professor of Italian Literature at the University of Bologna, b. Pietrasantra, in the province of Lucca, 27 July, 1836. As early as ’49 he cried,Abasso tutti i re! viva la republica—Down with all kings! Long live the republic! Sprung into fame by hisHymn to Satan, ’69, by which he intended the spirit of resistance. He has written many poems and satires in which he exhibits himself an ardent Freethinker and Republican. At the end of ’57 he wrote his famous verse “Il secoletto vil che cristianeggia”—“This vile christianising century.” In ’60 he became professor of Greek in Bologna University, being suspended for a short while in ’67 for an address to Mazzini. In ’76 he was elected as republicandeputy to the Italian Parliament for Lugo di Romagna.

Carlile(Eliza Sharples), second wife of Richard Carlile, came from Lancashire during the imprisonment of Carlile and Taylor, 1831, delivered discourses at the Rotunda, and started a journal, theIsis, which lasted from 11 Feb. to 15 Dec. 1832. TheIsiswas dedicated to the young women of England “until superstition is extinct,” and contained Frances Wright’s discourses, in addition to those by Mrs. Carlile, who survived till ’61. Mr. Bradlaugh lodged with Mrs. Carlile at the Warner Place Institute, in 1849. She had three children, Hypatia, Theophila and Julian, of whom the second is still living.

Carlile(Jane), first wife of R. Carlile, who carried on his business during his imprisonment, was proceeded against, and sentenced to two years’ imprisonment, 1821. She had three children, Richard, Alfred, and Thomas Paine Carlile, the last of whom edited theRegenerator, a Chartist paper published at Manchester, 1839.

Carlile(Richard), foremost among the brave upholders of an English free press, b. Ashburton, Devon, 8 Dec. 1790. He was apprenticed to a tin-plate worker, and followed that business till he was twenty-six, when, having read the works of Paine, he began selling works like Wooler’sBlack Dwarf, which Government endeavored to suppress. Sherwin offered him the dangerous post of publisher of theRepublican, which he accepted. He then published Southey’sWat Tyler, reprinted the political works of Paine and the parodies for which Hone was tried, but which cost Carlile eighteen weeks’ imprisonment. In 1818 he published Paine’s Theological Works. The prosecution instituted induced him to go on printing similar works, such as Palmer’sPrinciples of Nature,Watson Refuted,Jehovah Unveiled, etc. By Oct. 1819, he had six indictments to answer, on two of which he was tried from 12 to 16 October. He read the whole of theAge of Reasonin his defence, in order to have it in the report of the trial. He was found guilty and sentenced (16 Nov.) to fifteen hundred pounds fine and three years’ imprisonment in Dorchester Gaol. During his imprisonment his business was kept on by a succession of shopmen. Refusing to find securities not to publish, he was kept in prison till 18Nov. 1835, when he was liberated unconditionally. During his imprisonment he edited theRepublican, which extended to fourteen volumes. He also edited theDeist, theMoralist, theLion(four volumes), thePrompter(for No. 3 of which he again suffered thirty-two months’ imprisonment), and theGauntlet. Amongst his writings areAn Address to Men of Science,The Gospel according to R. Carlile,What is God?Every Woman’s Book, etc. He publishedDoubts of Infidels,Janus on Sion,Sepher Toldoth Jeshu, D’Holbach’sGood Sense, Volney’sRuins, and many other Freethought works. He died 10 Feb. 1843, bequeathing his body to Dr. Lawrence for scientific purposes.

Carlyle(Thomas), one of the most gifted and original writers of the century, b. 4 Dec. 1795, at Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, where his father, a man of intellect and piety, held a small farm. Showing early ability he was intended for the Kirk, and educated at the University of Edinburgh. He, however, became a tutor, and occupied his leisure in translating from the German. He married Jane Welsh 17 Oct. 1826, and wrote in theLondon MagazineandEdinburgh Reviewmany masterly critical articles, notably on Voltaire, Diderot, Burns, and German literature. In 1833–4 hisSartor Resartusappeared inFraser’s Magazine. In ’34 he removed to London and began writing theFrench Revolution, the MS. of the first vol. of which he confided to Mill, with whom it was accidentally burnt. He re-wrote the work without complaint, and it was published in ’37. He then delivered a course of lectures on “German Literature” and on “Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History,” in which he treats Mahomet as the prophet “we are freest to speak of.” HisPast and Presentwas published in ’43. In ’45 appearedOliver Cromwell’s Letters and Speeches. In ’50 he publishedLatter-Day Pamphlets, which contains his most distinctive political and social doctrines, and in the following year hisLife of John Sterling, in which his heresy clearly appears. His largest work is hisHistory of the Life and Times of Frederick the Great, in 10 vols. He was elected rector of Edinburgh University in ’65. Died 5 Feb. 1881. Mr. Froude, in hisBiography of Carlyle, says, “We have seen him confessing to Irving that he did not believe as his friend did in the Christian religion.” ... “the special miraculous occurrences of sacred history were not credible to him.”

Carneades, sceptical philosopher, b. Cyrene about B.C. 213. He went early to Athens, and attended the lectures of the Stoics, learning logic from Diogenes. In the year 155, he was chosen with other deputies to go to Rome to deprecate a fine which had been placed on the Athenians. During his stay at Rome he attracted great attention by his philosophical orations. Carneades attacked the very idea of a God at once infinite and an individual. He denied providence and design. Many of his arguments are preserved in Cicero’sAcademicsandDe Natura Deorum. Carneades left no written works; his views seem to have been systematised by his follower Clitomachus. He diedB.C.129. Carneades is described as a man of unwearied industry. His ethics were of elevated character.

Carneri(Bartholomäus von), German writer, b. Trieste, 3 Nov. 1821. Educated at Vienna. In 1870 he sat in the Austrian Parliament with the Liberals. Author of an able work onMorality and Darwinism, Vienna, 1871. Has also writtenDer Mensch als Selbstweck, “Humanity as its own proper object,” 1877;Grundlegung der Ethik, Foundation of Morals, 1881; and Ethical Essays on Evolution and Happiness, Stuttgart, 1886.

Carra(Jean Louis), French man of letters and Republican, b. 1743 at Pont de Veyle. He travelled in Germany, Italy, Turkey, Russia, and Moldavia, where he became secretary to the hospodar. On returning to France he became employed in the King’s library and wrote aHistory of Moldaviaand anEssay on Aerial Navigation. He warmly espoused the revolution and was one of the most ardent orators of the Jacobin club. In the National Assembly he voted for the death of Louis XVI., but was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. His Freethought sentiments are evident from hisSystem of Reason, 1773; hisSpirit of Morality and Philosophy, 1777;New Principles of Physic, 1782–3, and other works.

Carrel(Jean Baptiste Nicolas Armand), called by Saint Beuve “the Junius of the French press,” b. Rouen, 8 May, 1800. He became a soldier, but, being a Republican, fought on behalf of the Spanish revolution. Being taken prisoner, he was condemned to death, but escaped through some informality. He became secretary to Thierry, edited the works of P. L. Courier, and established theNationin conjunction with Thiersand Mignet. J. S. Mill writes of him in terms of high praise. The leading journalist of his time, his slashing articles led to several duels, and in an encounter with Emile de Girardin (22 July, 1836) he was fatally wounded. On his death-bed, says M. Littré, he said “Point de prêtres, point d’église”—no priests nor church. Died 24 July, 1836. He wrote aHistory of the Counter-Revolution in England, with an eye to events in his own country.

Carus(Julius Viktor), German zoologist, b. Leipsic, 25 Aug. 1825. Has been keeper of anatomical museum at Oxford, and has translated Darwin’s works and the philosophy of G. H. Lewes.

Carus(Karl Gustav), German physiologist and Pantheist, b. Leipsic, 3 Jan. 1789. He taughtcomparativeanatomy at the university of that town, and published a standard introduction to that subject. He also wrotePsyche, a history of the development of the human soul, 1846, andNature and Idea, 1861. Died at Dresden, 28 July, 1869.

Castelar y Ripoll(Emilio), Spanish statesman, b. Cadiz, 8 Sept. 1832. He began as a journalist, and became known by his novelErnesto, 1855. As professor of history and philosophy, he delivered lectures on “Civilisation during the first three centuries of Christendom.”La Formula del Progressocontains a sketch of democratic principles. On the outbreak of the revolution of ’68 he advocated a Federal Republic in a magnificent oration. The Crown was however offered to Amadeus of Savoy. “Glass, with care,” was Castelar’s verdict on the newdynasty, and in Feb. ’73 Castelar drew up a Republican Constitution; and for a year was Dictator of Spain. Upon his retirement to France he wrote a sketchyHistory of the Republican Movement in Europe. In ’76 he returned to Spain and took part in the Cortes, where he has continued to advocate Republican views. HisOld Rome and New Italy, andLife of Lord Byronhave been translated into English.

Castelli(David), Italian writer, b. Livorno, 30 Dec. 1836. Since 1873 he has held the chair of Hebrew in the Institute of Superior Studies at Florence. He has translated the book of Ecclesiastes with notes, and written rationalistic works onTalmudic Legends, 1869;The Messiah According to the Hebrews,’74; theBible Prophets, ’82; andThe History of the Israelites, 1887.

Castilhon(Jean Louis), French man of letters, b. at Toulouse in 1720. He wrote in numerous publications, and edited theJournal of Jurisprudence. His history of dogmas and philosophical opinions had some celebrity, and he shows himself a Freethinker in hisEssay on Ancient and Modern Errors and Superstitions, Amsterdam, 1765; hisPhilosophical Almanack, 1767; and hisHistory of Philosophical Opinions, 1769. Died 1793.

Cattell(Christopher Charles), writer in English Secular journals, author ofSearch for the First Man;Against Christianity;The Religion of this Life, etc.

Caumont(Georges), French writer of genius, b. about 1845. Suffering from consumption, he wroteJudgment of a Dying Man upon Life, and humorous and familiarConversations of a Sick Person with the Divinity. Died at Madeira, 1875.

Cavalcante(Guido), noble Italian poet and philosopher, b. Florence, 1230. A friend of Dante, and a leader of the Ghibbelin party. He married a daughter of Farinata delgi Uberti. Bayle says, “it is said his speculation has as their aim to provethereis no God. Dante places his father in the hell of Epicureans, who denied the immortality of the soul.” Guido died in 1300. An edition of his poems was published in 1813.

Cavallotti(Felice Carlo Emanuel), Italian poet and journalist, b. Milan, 6 Nov. 1842, celebrated for his patriotic poems; is a pronounced Atheist. He was elected member of the Italian parliament in 1873.

Cayla(Jean Mamert), French man of letters and politician b. Vigan (Lot) 1812. Became in ’37 editor of theEmancipatorof Toulouse, a city of which he wrote the history. At Paris he wrote to theSiècle, theRépublique Françaiseand other journals, and publishedEuropean Celebritiesand numerous anti-clerical brochures, such asThe Clerical Conspiracy, ’61;The Devil, his Grandeur and Decay, ’64;Hell Demolished, ’65;Suppression of Religious Orders, ’70; andThe History of the Mass,’74. He died 2 May, 1877.

Cazelles(Emile), French translator of Bentham’sInfluence ofNatural Religion, Paris, 1875. Has also translated Mill’sSubjection of Womenand hisAutobiographyandEssays on Religion.

Cecco d’Ascoli,i.e.,Stabili(Francesco degli), Italian poet, b. Ascoli, 1257. He taught astrology and philosophy at Bologna. In 1324 he was arrested by the Inquisition for having spoken against the faith, and was condemned to fine and penitence. He was again accused at Florence, and was publicly burnt as an heretic 16 Sept. 1327. His best known work is entitledAcerba, a sort of encyclopædia in rhyme.

Cellarius(Martin), Anabaptist, who deserves mention as the first avowed Protestant Anti-trinitarian. He studied Oriental languages with Reuchlin and Melancthon, but having discussed with Anabaptists acknowledged himself converted, 1522, and afterwards gave up the deity of Christ. He was imprisoned, and on his release went to Switzerland, where he died 11 Oct. 1564.

Celsus, a Pagan philosopher, who lived in the second century. He was a friend of Lucian, who dedicated to him his treatise on the False Prophet. He wrote an attack on Christianity, calledThe True Word. The work was destroyed by the early Christians. The passages given by his opponent, Origen, suffice to show that he was a man of high attainments, well acquainted with the religion he attacked, and that his power of logic and irony was most damaging to the Christian faith.

Cerutti(GiuseppeAntonio Gioachino), poet, converted Jesuit, b. Turin, 13 June, 1738. He became a Jesuit, and wrote a defence of the Society. He afterwards became a friend of Mirabeau,adopted the principles of 1789, wrote in defence of the Revolution, and wrote and published aPhilosophical Breviary, or history of Judaism, Christianity, and Deism, which he attributed to Frederick of Prussia. His opinions may also be gathered from his poem,Les Jardins de Betz, 1792. Died Paris, 3 Feb. 1792.

Chaho(J. Augustin), Basque man of letters, b. Tardets, Basses-Pyrénées,10 Oct. 1811. His principal works are aPhilosophy of Comparative Religion, and a Basque dictionary. At Bayonne he edited the Ariel. In 1852 this was suppressed and he was exiled. Died 23 Oct. 1858.

Chaloner(Thomas), M.P., Regicide, b. Steeple Claydon, Bucks, 1595. Educated at Oxford, he became member for Richmond(Yorks), 1645. Was a witness against Archbishop Laud, and one of King Charles’s Judges. In 1651 he was made Councillor of State. Wood says he “was as far from being a Puritan as the east is from the west,” and that he “was of the natural religion.” He wrote a pretendedTrue and Exact Relation of the Finding of Moses His Tomb, 1657, being a satire directed against the Presbyterians. Upon the Restoration he fled to the Low Countries, and died at Middelburg, Zeeland, in 1661.

Chambers(Ephraim), originator of the Cyclopædia of Arts and Sciences, b. Kendal about 1680. The first edition of his work appeared in 1728, and procured him admission to the Royal Society. A French translation gave rise to Diderot and D’Alembert’sEncyclopédie. Chambers also edited theLiterary Magazine, 1836, etc. His infidel opinions were well known, and the Cyclopædia was placed upon theIndex, but he was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Died 15 May, 1740.

Chamfort(Sébastien Roch Nicolas), French man of letters, b. in Auvergne, near Clermont, 1741. He knew no parent but his mother, a peasant girl, to supply whose wants he often denied himself necessaries. At Paris he gained a prize from the Academy for his eulogy on Molière. About 1776 he published a Dramatic Dictionary and wrote several plays. In 1781 he obtained a seat in the Academy, being patronised by Mme. Helvetius. He became a friend of Mirabeau, who called himune tête électrique. In 1790 he commenced a work calledPictures of the Revolution. In the following year he became secretary of the Jacobin Club and National Librarian. Arrested by Robespierre, he desperately, but vainly, endeavored to commit suicide. He died 13 April, 1794, leaving behind numerous works and a collection ofMaxims, Thoughts, Characters, and Anecdotes, which show profound genius and knowledge of human nature.

Chapman(John), M.R.C.S., b. 1839. Has written largely in theWestminster Review, of which he is proprietor.

Chappellsmith(Margaret), néeReynolds, b. Aldgate, 22 Feb. 1806. Early in life she read the writings of Cobbett. In ’36 she began writing political articles in theDispatch, and afterwards became a Socialist and Freethought lecturess. She married John Chappellsmith in ’39, and in ’42 she beganbusinessas a bookseller. In ’37 she expressed a preference for the development theory before that of creation. In ’50 they emigrated to the United States, where Mrs. Chappellsmith contributed many articles to theBoston Investigator.

Charles(Rudolf). SeeGiessenburg.

Charma(Antoine), French philosopher, b. 15 Jan. 1801. In ’30 he was nominated to the Chair of Philosophy at Caen. He was denounced for his impiety by the Count de Montalembert in the Chamber of peers, and an endeavor was made to unseat him. He wrote many philosophical works, and an account of Didron’sHistoire de Dieu. Died 5 Aug. 1869.

Charron(Pierre), French priest and sceptic, b. Paris, 1513. He was an intimate friend of Montaigne. His principal work is aTreatise on Wisdom, 1601, which was censured as irreligious by the Jesuits. Franck says “the scepticism of Charron inclines visibly to ‘sensualisme’ and even to materialism.” Died Paris, 16 Nov. 1603.

Chassebœuf de Volney(Constantin François). SeeVolney.

Chastelet duorChatelet Lomont(Gabrielle Emiliele Tonnelier de Breteuil), Marquise, Frenchsavante, b. Paris, 17 Dec 1706. She was learned in mathematics and other sciences, and in Latin, English and Italian. In 1740 she published a work on physical philosophy entitledInstitutions de Physique. She afterwards made a good French translation of Newton’sPrincipia. She lived some years with Voltaire at Cirey between 1735 and 1747, and addressed to himDoubts on Revealed Religions, published in 1792. She also wrote aTreatise on Happiness, which was praised by Condorcet.

Chastellux(François Jean de), Marquis. A soldier, traveller and writer, b. Paris 1734. WroteOn Public Happiness(2 vols., Amst. 1776), a work Voltaire esteemed highly. He contributed to theEncyclopédie; one article on “Happiness,” being suppressed by the censor because it did not mention God. Died Paris, 28 Oct. 1788.

Chatterton(Thomas), the marvellous boy poet, b. Bristol, 20 Nov, 1752. His poems, which he pretended were written by one Thomas Rowley in the fourteenth century and discoveredby him in an old chest in Redcliffe Church, attracted much attention. In 1769 he visited London in hopes of rising by his talents, but after a bitter experience of writing for the magazines, destroyed himself in a fit of despair 25 Aug. 1770. Several of his poems betray deistic opinions.

Chaucer(Geoffrey), the morning star of English poetry and first English Humanist, b. London about 1340. In 1357 he was attached to the household of Lionel, third son of Edward III. He accompanied the expedition to France 1359–60, was captured by the French, and ransomed by the king. He was patronised by John of Gaunt, and some foreign missions were entrusted to him, one of them being to Italy, where he met Petrarch. All his writings show the influence of the Renaissance, and in hisCanterbury Pilgrimshe boldly attacks the vices of the ecclesiastics. Died 25 Oct. 1400, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

Chaumette(Pierre Gaspard), afterwards Anaxagoras, French revolutionary, b. Nevers, 24 May, 1763. The son of a shoemaker, he was in turn cabin boy, steersman, and attorney’s clerk. In early youth he received lessons in botany from Rousseau. He embraced the revolution with ardor, was the first to assume the tri-color cockade, became popular orator at the club of the Cordeliers, and was associated with Proudhomme in the journalLes Revolutions de Paris. Nominated member of the Commune 10 Aug. 1792, he took the name of Anaxagoras to show his little regard for his baptismal saints. He was elected Procureur Syndic, in which capacity he displayed great activity. He abolished the rod in schools, suppressed lotteries, instituted workshops for fallen women, established the first lying-in-hospital, had books sent to the hospitals, separated the insane from the sick, founded the Conservatory of Music, opened the public libraries every day (under theancien régimethey were only open two hours per week), replaced books of superstition by works of morality and reason, put a graduated tax on the rich to provide for the burial of the poor, and was the principal mover in the feasts of Reason and closing of the churches. He was accused by Robespierre of conspiring with Cloots “to efface all idea of the Deity,” and was guillotined 13 April, 1794.

Chaussard(Pierre Jean Baptiste), French man of letters, b. Paris, 8 Oct. 1766. At the Revolution he took the name of Publicola, and published patriotic odes,Esprit de Mirabeau, and other works. He was preacher to the Theophilanthropists, and became professor ofbelles lettresat Orleans. Died 9 Jan. 1823.

Chemin-Dupontes(Jean Baptiste), b. 1761. One of the founders of French Theophilanthropy; published many writings, the best known of which is entitledWhat is Theophilanthropy?

Chenier(Marie André de), French poet, b. Constantinople, 29 Oct. 1762. His mother, a Greek, inspired him with a love for ancient Greek literature. Sent to college at Paris, he soon manifested his genius by writing eclogues and elegies of antique simplicity and sensibility. In 1787 he came to England as Secretary of Legation. He took part in the legal defence of Louis XVI., eulogised Charlotte Corday, and gave further offence by some letters in theJournal de Paris. He was committed to prison, and here met his ideal in the Comtesse de Coigny. Confined in the same prison, to her he addressed the touching verses, The Young Captive (La jeune Captive). He was executed 25 July, 1794, leaving behind, among other poems, an imitation of Lucretius, entitledHermes, which warrants the affirmation of de Chênedolle, that “AndréChénierétaitathée avec délices.”

Chenier(Marie Joseph de), French poet and miscellaneous writer, brother of the preceding, b. Constantinople, 28 Aug. 1764. He served two years in the army, and then applied himself to literature. His first successful drama, “Charles IX.,” was produced in 1789, and was followed by others. He wrote many patriotic songs, and was made member of the Convention. He was a Voltairean, and in hisNouveaux Saints(1801) satirised those who returned to the old faith. He wrote many poems and an account of French literature. Died Paris, 10 Jan. 1811.

ChernuishevskyorTchernycheiosky(Nikolai Gerasimovich), Russian Nihilist, b. Saratof, 1829. Educated at the University of St. Petersburg, translated Mill’sPolitical Economy, and wrote onSuperstition and the Principles of Logic, ’59. Hisbold romance,What is to be Done?was published ’63. In the following year he was sentenced to the Siberian mines, where, after heartrending cruelties, he has become insane.

Chesneau Du Marsais(César). SeeDumarsais.

Chevalier(Joseph Philippe), French chemist, b. Saint Pol,21 March, 1806, is the author of an able book on “The Soul from the standpoint of Reason and Science,” Paris, ’61. He died at Amiens in 1865.

Chies y Gomez(Ramon), Spanish Freethinker, b. Medina de Pomar, Burgos, 13 Oct. 1845. His father, a distinguished Republican, educated him without religion. In ’65 Chies went to Madrid, and followed a course of law and philosophy at the University, and soon after wrote for a Madrid paperLa Discusion. He took an active part in the Revolution of ’65, and at the proclamation of the Republic, ’73, became civil governor of Valencia. In ’81 he founded a newspaperEl Voto Nacional, and since ’83 has editedLas Dominicales del Libre Pensamiento, which he also founded. Ramon Chies is one of the foremost Freethought champions in Spain and lectures as well as writes.

Child(Lydia Maria) néeFrancis, American authoress, b. Medford, Mass., 11 Feb. 1802. She early commenced writing, publishingHobomok, a Tale of Early Times, in ’21. From ’25 she kept a private school in Watertown until ’28, when she married David Lee Child, a Boston lawyer. She, with him, edited theAnti-Slavery Standard, ’41, etc., and by her numerous writings did much to form the opinion which ultimately prevailed. She was, however, long subjected to public odium, her heterodoxy being well known. Her principal work isThe Progress of Religious Ideas, 3 vols.; ’55. Died Wayland, Mass., 20 Oct. 1880. She was highly eulogised by Wendell Phillips.

Chilton(William), of Bristol, was born in 1815. In early life he was a bricklayer, but in ’41 he was concerned with Charles Southwell in starting theOracle of Reason, which he set up in type, and of which he became one of the editors. He contributed some thoughtful articles on the Theory of Development to theLibrary of Reason, and wrote in theMovementand theReasoner. Died at Bristol, 28 May, 1855.

Chubb(Thomas), English Deist, b. East Harnham, nearSalisbury, 29 Sept. 1679, was one of the first to show Rationalism among the common people. Beginning by contending for theSupremacy of the Father, he gradually relinquished supernatural religion, and considered that Jesus Christ was of the religion of Thomas Chubb. Died 8 Feb. 1747, leaving behind two vols. which he callsA Farewell to his Readers, from which it appears that he rejected both revelation and special providence.

Church(Henry Tyrell), lecturer and writer, edited Tallis’sShakespeare, wroteWoman and her Failings, 1858, and contributed to theInvestigatorwhen edited by Mr. Bradlaugh. Died 19 July, 1859.

Clapiers(Luc de). SeeVauvenargues.

Claretie(Jules Armand Arsène), French writer, b. Limoges, 3 Dec. 1840. A prolific writer, of whose works we only citeFree Speech, ’68; his biographies of contemporary celebrities; and his workCamille Desmoulins, ’75.

Clarke(John), brought up in the Methodist connection, changed his opinion by studying the Bible, and became one of Carlile’s shopmen. He was tried 10 June, 1824, for selling a blasphemous libel in number 17, vol. ix., ofThe Republican, and after a spirited defence, in which he read many of the worst passages in the Bible, was sentenced to three years’ imprisonment, and to find securities for good behavior during life. He wrote while in prison,A Critical Review of the Life, Character, and Miracles of Jesus, a work showing with some bitterness much bold criticism and Biblical knowledge. It first appeared in theNewgate Magazineand was afterwards published in book form, 1825 and ’39.

Clarke(Marcus), Australian writer, b. Kensington, 1847. Went to Victoria, ’63; joined the staff ofMelbourne Argus. In ’76 was made assistant librarian of the Public Library. He has compiled a history of Australia, and writtenThe Peripatetic Philosopher(a series of clever sketches),His Natural Life(a powerful novel), and some poems. An able Freethought paper, “Civilisation without Delusion,” in theVictoria Review, Nov. ’79, was replied to by Bishop Moorhouse. The reply, with Clarke’s answer, which was suppressed, was published in ’80. Died 1884.

Claude-Constant, author of a Freethinkers’ Catechism published at Paris in 1875.

Clavel(Adolphe), French Positivist and physician, b. Grenoble, 1815. He has written on the Principles of 1789, on those of the nineteenth century, on Positive Morality, and some educational works.

Clavel(F. T. B.), French author of aPicturesque History of Freemasonry, and also aPicturesque History of Religions, 1844, in which Christianity takes a subordinate place.

Clayton(Robert), successively Bishop of Killala, Cork, and Clogher, b. Dublin, 1695. By his benevolence attracted the friendship of Samuel Clarke, and adopted Arianism, which he maintained in several publications. In 1756 he proposed, in the Irish House of Lords, the omission of the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds from the Liturgy, and stated that he then felt more relieved in his mind than for twenty years before. A legal prosecution was instituted, but he died, it is said, from nervous agitation (26 Feb. 1758) before the matter was decided.

Cleave(John), bookseller, and one of the pioneers of a cheap political press. Started theLondon Satirist, andCleave’s Penny Gazette of Variety, Oct. 14, 1837, to Jan. 20, ’44. He published many Chartist and Socialistic works, and an abridgment of Howitt’sHistory of Priestcraft. In May, ’40, he was sentenced to four months’ imprisonment for selling Haslam’sLetters to the Clergy.

Clemenceau(Georges Benjamin Eugene), French politician, b. Moulleron-en-Pareds, 28 Sept. 1841. Educated at Nantes and Paris, he took his doctor’s degree in ’65. His activity as Republican ensured him a taste of gaol. He visited the United States and acted as correspondent on theTemps. He returned at the time of the war and was elected deputy to the Assembly. In Jan. 1880 he foundedLa Justice, having as collaborateurs M. C. Pelletan, Prof. Acollas and Dr. C. Letourneau. As one of the chiefs of the Radical party he was largely instrumental in getting M. Carnot elected President.

Clemetshaw(C.), French writer, using the nameCilwa. B. 14 Sept. 1864 of English parents; has contributed to many journals, was delegate to the International Congress, London, of ’87, and is editor ofLe Danton.

Clemens(Samuel Langhorne), American humorist, better known as “Mark Twain,” b. Florida, Missouri, 30 Nov. 1835. In ’55 he served as Mississippi pilot, and takes his pen name from the phrase used in sounding. InInnocents Abroad, or the New Pilgrim’s Progress, ’69, by which he made his name, there is much jesting with “sacred” subjects. Mr. Clemens is an Agnostic.

Clifford(Martin), English Rationalist. Was Master of the Charterhouse, 1671, and published anonymously a treatise ofHuman Reason, London, ’74, which was reprinted in the following year with the author’s name. A short while after its publication Laney, Bishop of Ely, was dining in Charterhouse and remarked, not knowing the author, “’twas no matter if all the copies were burnt and the author with them, because it made every man’s private fancy judge of religion.” Clifford died 10 Dec. 1677. In theNouvelle Biographie GénéraleClifford is amusingly described as an “English theologian of the order des Chartreux,” who, it is added, was “prior of his order.”

Clifford(William Kingdon), mathematician, philosopher, and moralist, of rare originality and boldness, b. Exeter 4 May, 1845. At the age of fifteen he was sent to King’s College, London, where he showed an early genius for mathematics, publishing theAnalogues of Pascal’s Theoremat the age of eighteen. Entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in ’63. In ’67 he was second wrangler. Elected fellow of his college, he remained at Cambridge till 1870, when he accompanied the eclipse expedition to theMediterranean. The next year he was appointed Professor of mathematics at London University, a post he held till his death. He was chosen F.R.S. ’74. Married Miss Lucy Lane in April, ’75. In the following year symptoms of consumption appeared, and he visited Algeria and Spain. He resumed work, but in ’79 took a voyage to Madeira, where he died 3 March. Not long before his death appeared the first volume of his great mathematical work,Elements of Dynamic. Since his death have been publishedThe Common Sense of the Exact Sciences, andLectures and Essays, in two volumes, edited by Leslie Stephen and Mr. F. Pollock. These volumes include his most striking Freethought lectures and contributions to theFortnightlyand other reviews. Heintended to form them into a volume onThe Creed of Science. Clifford was an outspoken Atheist, and he wrote of Christianity as a religion which wrecked one civilisation and very nearly wrecked another.

ClootsorClootz(Johann Baptist, afterwards Anacharsis) Baron du Val de Grâce, Prussian enthusiast, b. near Cleves, 24 June, 1755, was a nephew of Cornelius de Pauw. In 1780 he published theThe Certainty of the Proofs of Mohammedanism, under the pseudonym of Ali-gier-ber, an anagram of Bergier, whoseCertainty of the Proofs of Christianityhe parodies. He travelled widely, but became a resident of Paris and a warm partisan of the Revolution, to which he devoted his large fortune. He wrote a reply to Burke, and continually wrote and spoke in favor of a Universal Republic. On 19 June, 1790, he, at the head of men of all countries, asked a place at the feast of Federation, and henceforward was styled “orator of the human race.” He was, with Paine, Priestley, Washington and Klopstock, made a French citizen, and in 1792 was elected to the Convention by two departments. He debaptised himself, taking the name Anacharsis, was a prime mover in the Anti-Catholic party, and induced Bishop Gobel to resign. He declared there was no other God but Nature. Incurring the enmity of Robespierre, he and Paine were arrested as foreigners. After two and a half months’ imprisonment at St. Lazare, he was brought to the scaffold with the Hébertistes, 24 March, 1794. He died calmly, uttering materialist sentiments to the last.

Clough(Arthur Hugh), poet, b. Liverpool, 1 Jan. 1819. He was educated at Rugby, under Dr. Arnold, and at Oxford, where he showed himself of the Broad School. Leslie Stephen says, “He never became bitter against the Church of his childhood, but he came to regard its dogmas as imperfect and untenable.” In ’48 he visited Paris, and the same year produced hisBothie of Toper-na-Fuosich: a Long-Vacation Pastoral. Between ’49 and ’52 he was professor of English literature in London University. In ’52 he visited the United States, where he gained the friendship of Emerson and Longfellow, and revised the Dryden translation ofPlutarch’s Lives. Died at Florence, 13 Nov. 1861. His Remains are published in two volumes, and include an essay on Religious Tradition andsome notable poems. He is the Thyrsis of Matthew Arnold’s exquisite Monody.

Cnuzius(Matthias). SeeKnutzen.

Coke(Henry), author ofCreeds of the Day, or collated opinions of reputable thinkers, in 2 vols, London, 1883.

Cole(Peter), a tanner of Ipswich, was burnt for blasphemy in the castle ditch, Norwich, 1587. A Dr. Beamond preached to him before the mayor, sheriffs, and aldermen, “but he would not recant.” SeeHamont.

Colenso(John William), b. 24 Jan. 1814. Was educated at St. John’s, Cambridge, and became a master at Harrow. After acquiring fame by his valuableTreatise on Algebra, ’49, he became first Bishop of Natal, ’54. Besides other works, he publishedThe Pentateuch and Book of Joshua Critically Examined, 1862–79, which made a great stir, and was condemned by both Houses of Convocation and its author declared deposed. The Privy Council, March ’65, declared this deposition “null and void in law.” Colenso pleaded the cause of the natives at the time of the Zulu War. He died 20 June, 1883.

Colins(Jean Guillaume César Alexandre Hippolyte) Baron de, Belgian Socialist and founder of “Collectivism,” b. Brussels, 24 Dec. 1783. Author of nineteen volumes on Social Science. He denied alike Monotheism and Pantheism, but taught the natural immortality of the soul. Died at Paris, 12 Nov. 1859. A number of disciples propagate his opinions in thePhilosophie de l’Avenir.

Collins(Anthony), English Deist, b. Heston, Middlesex, 21 June, 1676. He studied at Cambridge and afterwards at the Temple, and became Justice of the Peace and Treasurer of the County of Essex. He was an intimate friend of Locke, who highly esteemed him and made him his executor. He wrote anEssay on Reason, 1707;Priestcraft in Perfection, 1710; aVindication of the Divine Attributes, and aDiscourse on Freethinking, 1713. This last occasioned a great outcry, as it argued that all belief must be based on free inquiry, and that the use of reason would involve the abandonment of supernatural revelation. In 1719 he publishedAn Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty, a brief, pithy defence of necessitarianism, and in 1729A Discourse on Libertyand Necessity. In 1724 appeared hisDiscourse on the Grounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion, and this was followed byThe Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered, 1726. He was a skilful disputant, and wrote with great ability. He is also credited withA Discourse Concerning Ridicule and Irony in Writing. Died at London, 13 Dec. 1729. Collins, says Mr. Leslie Stephen, “appears to have been an amiable and upright man, and to have made all readers welcome to the use of a free library.” Professor Fraser calls him “a remarkable man,” praises his “love of truth and moral courage,” and allows that in answering Dr. Samuel Clarke on the question of liberty and necessity he “states the arguments against human freedom with a logical force unsurpassed by any necessitarian.” A similar testimony to Collins as a thinker and dialectician is borne by Professor Huxley.

Colman(Lucy N.), American reformer, b. 26 July, 1817, has spent most of her life advocating the abolition of slavery, women’s rights, and Freethought. She has lectured widely, written Reminisences in theLife of a Reformer of Fifty Years, and contributed to theTruthseekerandBoston Investigator.

Colotes, of Lampsacus, a hearer and disciple of Epicurus, with whom he was a favorite. He wrote a work in favor of his master’s teachings. He held it was unworthy of a philosopher to use fables.

Combe(Abram), one of a noted Scotch family of seventeen, b. Edinburgh, 15 Jan. 1785. He traded as a tanner, but, becoming acquainted with Robert Owen, founded a community at Orbiston upon the principle of Owen’s New Lanark, devoting nearly the whole of his large fortune to the scheme. But his health gave way and he died 11 Aug. 1827. He wroteMetaphysical Sketches of the Old and New Systemsand other works advocating Owenism.

Combe(Andrew), physician, brother of the above, b. Edinburgh, 27 Oct. 1797; studied there and in Paris; aided his brother George in founding the Phrenological Society; wrote popular works on thePrinciples of Physiologyand theManagement of Infancy. Died near Edinburgh, 9 Aug. 1847.

Combe(George), phrenologist and educationalist, b. Edinburgh, 21 Oct. 1788. He was educated for the law. Became acquainted with Spurzheim, and publishedEssays on Phrenology,1819, and founded thePhrenological Journal. In ’28 he published theConstitution of Man, which excited great controversy especially for removing the chimeras of special providence and efficacy of prayer. In ’33 he married a daughter of Mrs. Siddons. He visited the United States and lectured on Moral Philosophy and Secular Education. His last work wasThe Relations between Science and Religion, ’57, in which he continued to uphold Secular Theism. He also published many lectures and essays. Among his friends were Miss Evans (George Eliot), who spent a fortnight with him in ’52. He did more than any man of his time, save Robert Owen, for the cause of Secular education. Died at Moor Park, Surrey, 14 Aug. 1858.

Combes(Paul), French writer, b. Paris, 13 June, 1856. Has written onDarwinism, ’83, and other works popularising science.

Commazzi(Gian-Battista), Count author ofPolitica e religione trovate insieme nella persona di Giesù Cristo, Nicopoli [Vienna] 4 vols., 1706–7, in which he makes Jesus to be a political impostor. It was rigorously confiscated at Rome and Vienna.

Comparetti(Domenico), Italian philologist, b. Rome in 1835. Signor Comparetti is Professor at the Institute of Superior Studies, Rome, and has written many works on the classic writers, in which he evinces his Pagan partialities.

Comte(Isidore Auguste Marie François Xavier), French philosopher, mathematician and reformer, b. at Montpelier, 12 Jan. 1798. Educated at Paris in the Polytechnic School, where he distinguished himself by his mathematical talent. In 1817 he made the acquaintance of St. Simon, agreeing with him as to the necessity of a Social renovation based upon a mental revolution. On the death of St. Simon (’25) Comte devoted himself to the elaboration of an original system of scientific thought, which, in the opinion of some able judges, entitles him to be called the Bacon of the nineteenth century. Mill speaks of him as the superior of Descartes and Leibniz. In ’25 he married, but the union proved unhappy. In the following year he lectured, but broke down under an attack of brain fever, which occasioned his detention in an asylum. He speedily recovered, and in ’28 resumed his lectures, which were attended by men like Humboldt, Ducrotay, Broussais, Carnot, etc. In ’30 he put forward the first volumes of hisCourse of Positive Philosophy, which in ’42 was completed by the publication of the sixth volume. A condensed English version of this work was made by Harriet Martineau, ’53. In ’45 Comte formed a passionate Platonic attachement to Mme. Clotilde de Vaux, who died in the following year, having profoundely influenced Comte’s life. In consequence of his opinions, he lost his professorship, and was supported by his disciples—Mill, Molesworth and Grote, in England, assisting. Among other works, Comte publishedA General View of Positivism, ’48, translated by Dr. Bridges, ’65;A System of Positive Polity, ’51, translated by Drs. Bridges, Beesley, F. Harrison, etc., ’75–79; andA Positive Catechism, ’54, translated by Dr. Congreve, ’58. He also wrote on Positive Logic, which he intended to follow with Positive Morality and Positive Industrialism. Comte was a profound and suggestive thinker. He resolutely sets aside all theology and metaphysics, coordinates the sciences and substitutes the service of man for the worship of God. Mr. J. Cotter Morison says “He belonged to that small class of rare minds, whose errors are often more valuable and stimulating than other men’s truths.” He died of cancer in the stomach at Paris, 5 Sept. 1857.

Condillac(EtienneBonnot de), French philosopher, b. Grenoble, about 1715. His life was very retired, but his works show much acuteness. They are in 23 vols., the principal beingA Treatise on the Sensations, 1764;A Treatise on Animals, andAn Essay on the Origin of Human Knowledge. In the first-named he shows that all mental life is gradually built up out of simple sensations. Died 3 Aug. 1780.

Condorcet(Marie Jean Antoine NicolasCaritat, Marquis de), French philosopher and politician, b. Ribemont, Picardy, 17 Sept. 1743. Dedicated to the Virgin by a pious mother, he was kept in girl’s clothes until the age of 11. Sent to a Jesuit’s school, he soon gave up religion. At sixteen he maintained a mathematical thesis in the presence of Alembert. In the next year he dedicated to Turgot aProfession of Faith. After some mathematical works, he was made member of the Academy, of which he was appointed perpetual secretary, 1773. In 1776 he published his atheisticLetters of a Theologian. He also wrote biographies of Turgot and Voltaire, and in favor ofAmerican independence and against negro slavery. In 1791 he represented Paris in the National Assembly, of which he became Secretary. It was on his motion that, in the following year, all orders of nobility were abolished. Voting against the death of the king and siding with the Gironde drew on him the vengeance of the extreme party. He took shelter with Madame Vernet, but fearing to bring into trouble her and his wife, at whose instigation he wrote his fineSketch of the Progress of the Human Mindwhile in hiding, he left, but, being arrested, died of exhaustion or by poison self-administered, at Bourg la Reine, 27 March, 1794.

Condorcet(Sophie de GrouchyCaritat, Marquise de), wife of above, and sister of General Grouchy and of Mme. Cabanis, b. 1765. She married Condorcet 1786, and was considered one of the most beautiful women of her time. She shared her husband’s sentiments and opinions and, while he was proscribed, supported herself by portrait painting. She was arrested, and only came out of prison after the fall of Robespierre. She translated Adam Smith’sTheory of the Moral Sentiments, which she accompanied with eight letters on Sympathy, addressed to Cabanis. She died 8 Sept. 1822. Her only daughter married Gen. Arthur O’Connor.

Confucius(Kung Kew) or Kung-foo-tsze, the philosopher Kung, a Chinese sage, b. in the State of Loo, now part of Shantung, aboutB.C.551. He was distinguished by filial piety and learning. In his nineteenth year he married, and three years after began as a teacher, rejecting none who came to him. He travelled through many states. When past middle age he was appointed chief minister of Loo, but finding the Duke desired the renown of his name without adopting his counsel, he retired, and devoted his old age to editing the sacred classics of China. He died aboutB.C.478. His teaching, chiefly found in theLun-Yu, or Confucian Analects, was of a practical moral character, and did not include any religious dogmas.

Congreve(Richard), English Positivist, born in 1819. Educated at Rugby under T. Arnold, and Oxford 1840, M.A. 1843; was fellow of Wadham College 1844–54. In ’55 he published his edition ofAristotle Politics. He became a follower of Comte and influenced many to embrace Positivism. TranslatedComte’sCatechism of Positive Philosophy, 1858, and has written many brochures. Dr. Congreve is considered the head of the strict or English Comtists, and has long conducted a small “Church of Humanity.”

Connor(Bernard), a physician, b. Co. Kerry, of Catholic family, 1666. He travelled widely, and was made court physician to John Sobieski, King of Poland. He wrote a work entitledEvangelium Medici(1697), in which he attempts to account for the Christian miracles on natural principles. For this he was accused of Atheism. He died in London 27 Oct. 1698.

Constant de Rebecque(Henri Benjamin), Swiss writer, b. Lausanne, 25 Oct. 1767, and educated at Oxford, Erlangen and Edinburgh. In 1795 he entered Paris as aprotégéof Mme. de Stael, and in 1799 became a member of the Tribunal. He opposed Buonaparte and wrote onRoman Polytheismand an important work onReligion Considered in its Source, its Forms and its Developments(6 vols.; 1824–32). Died 8 Dec. 1830. Constant professed Protestantism, but was at heart a sceptic, and has been called a second Voltaire. A son was executor to Auguste Comte.

Conta(Basil), Roumanian philosopher, b. Neamtza 27 Nov. 1845. Studied in Italy and Belgium, and became professor in the University of Jassy, Moldavia. In ’77 he publishedinBrussels, in French, a theory of fatalism, which created some stir by its boldness of thought.

Conway(Moncure Daniel), author, b. in Fredericksburg, Stafford co. Virginia, 17 March, 1832. He entered the Methodist ministry ’50, but changing his convictions through the influence of Emerson and Hicksite Quakers, entered the divinity school at Cambridge, where he graduated in ’54 and became pastor of a Unitarian church until dismissed for his anti-slavery discourses. In ’57 he preached inCincinnatiand there publishedThe Natural History of the Devil, and other pamphlets. In ’63 Mr. Conway came to England and was minister of South Place from the close of ’63 until his return to the States in ’84. Mr. Conway is a frequent contributor to the press. He has also publishedThe Earthward Pilgrimage, 1870, a theory reversing Bunyan’sPilgrim’s Progress; collectedaSacred Anthologyfrom the various sacred books of the world 1873,which he used in his pulpit; has written onHuman Sacrifices, 1876, andIdols and Ideals, 1877. His principal work isDemonology and Devil Lore, 1878, containing much information on mythology. He also issued his sermons under the title ofLessons for the Day, two vols., 1883, and has published a monograph on theWandering Jew, a biography of Emerson, and is at present engaged on a life of Thomas Paine.

Cook(Kenningale Robert), LL.D., b. in Lancashire 26 Sept. 1845, son of the vicar of Stallbridge. When a boy he used to puzzle his mother by such questions as, “If God was omnipotent could he make what had happened not have happened.” He was intended for the Church, but declined to subscribe the articles. Graduated at Dublin in ’66, and took LL.D. in ’75. In ’77 he became editor of the DublinUniversity Magazine, in which appeared some studies of the lineage of Christian doctrine and traditions afterwards published under the title ofThe Fathers of Jesus. Dr. Cook wrote several volumes of choice poems. Died July, 1886.

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