The British commanders tolerated, or at least did not restrain, gross licentiousness in their army. The inhabitants of the state which they boasted was restored to the bosom of the parent country, were treated not as reclaimed friends, but as conquered enemies. The soldiers were guilty of every species of rapine, and with little discrimination between those who had opposed or supported the measures of Britain. The abuse was not limited to the plundering of property. Every indignity was offered to the persons of the inhabitants, not excepting those outrages to the female sex which are felt by ingenuous minds with the keenest anguish, and excite noble spirits to desperate resistance. These aggravated abuses roused the people of New Jersey to repel that army to which they had voluntarily submitted, in the expectation of protection and security. At the dawn of success upon the American arms, they rose in small bands to oppose their invaders. They scoured the country, cut off every soldier who straggled from his corps, and in many instances repelled the foraging parties of the enemy. Early in this year also the Americans were gratified by the arrival of a vessel from France at Portsmouth, in New Hampshire, with upwards of eleven thousand stand of arms, and a thousand barrels of powder; and about the same time ten thousand stand of arms arrived in another part of the United States.This supply was, however, in some measure counterbalanced. In the month of March the British sent out two detachments to destroy the American stores at Peekskill, on the North river, and at Danbury, in Connecticut. Both succeeded in their attempt; and although the stores destroyed did not equal in quantity the report on which the expeditions were planned, yet their loss was sensibly felt by the Americans in the active season of the campaign.Sir William Howe, having in vain attempted to entice or provoke general Washington to an engagement, had, in June, retired with his army from the Jerseys to Staten island. After keeping the American general in long and perplexing suspense concerning his intended operations, he at length sailed from Sandy Hook with about sixteen thousand men, entered Chesapeake bay, and on the24thof August arrived at the head of Elk river. Generals Grant and Knyphausen having joined him on the8thof September with the troops under their command, the whole army movedonward in two columns toward Philadelphia, the possession of which was now evidently the object of the British commander. Washington, who regulated his movements by those of the enemy, had by this time, with the whole American army excepting the light infantry, which remained on the lines, taken a position behind Red Clay creek, on the road leading directly from the enemy’s camp to Philadelphia. The British rapidly advanced until they were within two miles of the Americans; while Washington crossed the Brandywine, and took post on a height behind that river.At daybreak on the morning of the11thit was ascertained that Sir William Howe in person had crossed the Brandywine at the forks, and was rapidly marching down the north side of the river to attack the American army. The commander-in-chief now ordered general Sullivan to form the right wing to oppose the column of Sir William. General Wayne was directed to remain at Chadd’s ford with the left wing, to dispute the passage of the river with Knyphausen. General Green, with his division, was posted as a reserve in the centre between Sullivan and Wayne, to reinforce either, as circumstances might require. General Sullivan marched up the river, until he found favorable ground on which to form his men; his left was near the Brandywine, and both flanks were covered with thick wood. At half-past four o’clock, when his line was scarcely formed, the British, under lord Cornwallis, commenced a spirited attack. The action was for some time severe; but the American right, which was not properly in order when the assault began, at length gave way, and exposed the flank of the troops that maintained their ground to a destructive fire, and continuing to break from the right, the whole line finally gave way. As soon as the firing began, general Washington, with general Green’s division, hastened towards the scene of action, but before his arrival Sullivan was routed, and the commander-in-chief could only check the pursuit of the enemy, and cover the retreat of the beaten troops. During these transactions general Knyphausen assaulted the works erected for the defence of Chadd’s ford, and soon carried them. General Wayne, by this time learning the fate of the other divisions, drew off his troops. General Washington retreated with his whole force that night to Chester. The American loss in this battle was about three hundred killed and six hundred wounded. Four hundred were made prisoners, but these chiefly of the wounded.Perceiving that the enemy were moving into the Lancaster road, towards the city, general Washington took possession of ground near the Warren tavern, on the left of the British, and twenty-three miles from Philadelphia. The protection of his stores at Reading was one object of this movement. The next morning he was informed of the approach of the British army. He immediately put his troops in motion to engage the enemy. The advance of the two hostile armies met and began to skirmish, when a violent storm came on, which prevented a general engagement, and rendered the retreat of the Americans absolutely necessary. The inferiority of the muskets in the hands of the American soldiery, which had been verified in every action, was strikingly illustrated in this retreat. The gun-locks being badly made, and the cartridge-boxes imperfectly constructed, this storm rendered most of the arms unfit for use; and all the ammunition was damaged. The army was in consequence extremely exposed, and their danger became the greater, as many of the soldiers were destitute of bayonets.Fortunately the tempest, which produced such serious mischief to the Americans, prevented the pursuit of the British. Washington still continued to make every effort to save the capital; but Sir William Howe, having secured the command of the Schuylkill, on the23dof September, crossed it with his whole army; on the26thhe advanced to Germantown; and on the succeeding day lord Cornwallis, at the head of a strong detachment, entered Philadelphia in triumph.The American army, reinforced to eight thousand continental troops and three thousand militia, took a position at Shippack creek, on the east side of the Schuylkill, about twenty miles from Philadelphia, and sixteen from Germantown. At the latter place was posted the main body of the British army. The first object of Sir William Howe was to subdue the defences, and remove the impediments of the Delaware, that a communication might be opened with the British shipping. General Washington made every effort to prevent the execution of his enemy’s design, in the hope of forcing general Howe out of Philadelphia, by preventing supplies of provisions from reaching him. Of the attainment of this important object he had no doubt, could the passage of the Delaware be rendered impracticable. For this purpose works had been erected on a bank of mud and sand in the river, near the confluence of the Schuylkill, and about seven miles below Philadelphia. The place, from these works, was denominated Fort island, and the works themselves fort Mifflin. On a neck of land on the opposite shore of New Jersey, called Red Bank, a fort was constructed and mounted with heavy artillery, and called fort Mercer. Fort island and Red Bank were distant from each other half a mile. In the channel of the Delaware, which ran between them, two ranges of chevaux-de-frise were sunk. These consisted of large pieces of timber, strongly framed together, and pointed with iron, and they completely obstructed the passage of ships. These works were covered by several galleys, floating batteries, and armed ships.Sir William Howe having detached a considerable force from Germantown to operate against the works on the Delaware, general Washington thought this a favorable opportunity to attack the British army in their cantonments. The line of the British encampment crossed the village of Germantown at right angles, near its centre, and its flanks were strongly covered. The army, having moved from its ground about seven in the afternoon of the3dof October, began an attack about sunrise the next morning. The advance of the column, led by Sullivan, and accompanied by the commander-in-chief, encountered and drove in a picket, which presently gave way; and his main body, soon following, engaged the light infantry and other troops encamped near the picket, and forced them from their ground. Though closely pursued, lieutenant-colonel Musgrove, with six companies, took post in a strong stone house, which lay in the way of the Americans, and severely galled them by a fire of musketry from the doors and windows. General Washington immediately ordered a brigade to surround the house; but colonel Musgrove refused to surrender.Four pieces of cannon were brought against him, but he sustained the fire of them until major-general Gray, with the third brigade, and brigadier-general Agnew, with the fourth, came to his assistance, and attacked the Americans with great spirit. In the mean time general Green arrival with his column, and attacked the right wing of the British. Colonel Matthews routed a party of the British opposed to him; but being envelopedin a most extraordinary fog, he lost sight of the brigade to which he belonged, and was taken prisoner with his whole regiment. At length a part of the right wing of the British attacked the Americans on the opposite side of the town; and the embarrassments among the American troops, occasioned by the darkness, gave the English time to recover from their consternation. Sullivan’s division had penetrated far into Germantown; but the main body of the American army now commenced a retreat, and all efforts to rally it proved ineffectual. In this battle the loss of the Americans in killed, wounded, and prisoners, was not less than twelve hundred men, while that of the British did not exceed half that number. The American army encamped again on Shippack creek, but soon after advanced to White Marsh, while the royal army removed from Germantown to Philadelphia.The works in the Delaware now engaged the attention of the British and American generals. Lord Howe, by continued exertion, having overcome the obstructions which the Americans had placed in the river at Billingsport, a joint attack by sea and land was planned against Red Bank and Fort island. The Augusta, a sixty-four gun ship, the Merlin frigate, and several small armed vessels, moved up the Delaware to assault the works on Fort or Mud island. Count Donop crossed into New Jersey with twelve hundred Germans, and in the evening of the22dappeared before fort Mercer, on Red Bank. His assault was highly spirited, and the defence intrepid and obstinate. Colonel Green, the commandant, whose garrison did not exceed five hundred men, was unable adequately to map the outworks; but he galled the Germans in their advance, and on their near approach he quitted them, and retired within the inner intrenchments. They pressed forward with undaunted bravery, and the Americans poured upon them a deadly fire. Count Donop was himself mortally wounded at the head of his gallant corps; the second in command soon after fell, and the third immediately drew off his forces. The assailants had four hundred men killed and wounded, while the garrison, fighting under cover, had only thirty. In the mean time, fort Mifflin was attacked by the shipping, and by batteries erected on the Pennsylvania shore. Incessant volleys of bombs and cannon-balls were discharged upon it. But at ebb tide the Augusta and Merlin grounded, and were burnt. The garrison supported this tremendous fire without material injury. The resistance of the forts on the Delaware far exceeding the expectations of the British commanders, they adopted measures to overcome it without the hazard of a second assault. They erected batteries upon Providence island, within five hundred yards of the American fort. They also brought up their shipping, gun-boats,&c., and from the10thto the16thof November, battered the American works. By this time the defences were entirely beaten down, every piece of cannon was dismounted, and one of the ships approached so near fort Mifflin as to throw hand-grenades from her tops into it, which killed the men upon the platform. The brave garrison received orders to quit the post. Red Bank being no longer useful, its garrison and stores were also withdrawn on the approach of lord Cornwallis with five thousand men to invest it.While these inauspicious operations were carried on in the south, the northern portion of the country was a theatre of events that more than counterbalanced them. A principal object of the British in the campaignof this year, was to open a free communication between New York and Canada. The British ministry were sanguine in their hopes, that, by effecting this object, New England, which they considered as the soul of the confederacy, might be severed from the neighboring states, and compelled to submission. In prosecution of this design, an army of British and German troops, amounting to upwards of seven thousand men, exclusive of artillery, was put under the command of lieutenant-general Burgoyne, an enterprising and able officer. The plan of operations consisted of two parts. General Burgoyne with the main body was to advance by way of lake Champlain, and force his way to Albany, or, at least, so far as to effect a junction with the royal army from New York; and lieutenant-colonelSt.Leger, with about two hundred British, a regiment of New York loyalists, raised and commanded by Sir John Johnson, and a large body of Indians, was to ascend theSt.Lawrence to lake Ontario, and from that quarter to penetrate toward Albany by the way of the Mohawk river.General Burgoyne arrived at Quebec in May. In the latter end of June he advanced with his army to Crown Point, and from thence proceeded to invest Ticonderoga, which was soon abandoned by the Americans, under generalSt.Clair, who, after a distressing march, joined general Schuyler at fort Edward, on the river Hudson. General Burgoyne, having with incredible labor and fatigue conducted his army through the wilderness from Skenesborough, reached fort Edward on the30thof July. As he approached that place, general Schuyler, whose forces, even since the junction ofSt.Clair, did not exceed four thousand four hundred men, retired over the Hudson to Saratoga. Early in AugustSt.Leger invested fort Schuyler, and at first obtained some advantages over the Americans;but, bystratagem,120the Indians were induced to desert him,and finding himself abandoned by seven or eight hundred of these importantauxiliaries,121he decamped in great confusion, and returned to Montreal, leaving his tents, with most of his artillery and stores, in the field. WhileSt.Leger was thus unsuccessful at fort Schuyler,a detachment under colonel Baum, despatched to seize a large depot in New Hampshire grants, was also defeated by a body of militia under generalStark.122Meanwhile,general Burgoyne, having collected about thirty days’ provision, and thrown a bridge of boats over the Hudson, crossed that river on the13thand14thof September, and encamped on the heights and plains of Saratoga. General Gates, who had recently taken the chief command of the northern department of the American army, advanced toward the British, and encamped three miles above Stillwater.On the night of the17th, Burgoyne encamped within four miles of the American army; and about noon on the19thadvanced in full force against it. The right wing was commanded by general Burgoyne, and covered by general Frazer and colonel Breyman with the grenadiers and light infantry, who were posted along some high grounds on the right. The front and flanks were covered by Indians, provincials, and Canadians. The left wing and artillery were commanded by major-generals Phillips and Reidesel, who proceeded along the great road. Colonel Morgan, who was detached to observe their motions, and to harass them as they advanced, soon fell in with their pickets in front of their right wing, attacked them sharply, and drove them in. A strong corps was brought up to support them, and, after a severe encounter, Morgan was compelled to give way; but a regiment was ordered to assist him, and the action became more general. The commanders on both sides supported and reinforced their respective parties; and about four o’clock, Arnold, with nine continental regiments and Morgan’s corps, was completely engaged with the whole right wing of the British army. The engagement began at three o’clock in the afternoon, and continued till after sunset, when the Americans thought proper to retire, and leave the British masters of the field of battle. The loss on each side was nearly equal, six hundred being killed and wounded on the part of the British, and the same number on the side of the Americans. No advantages resulted to the British troops from this encounter; while the conduct of the Americans fully convinced every one ‘that they were able to sustain an attack in open plains with the intrepidity, the spirit, and the coolness of veterans. For four hours they maintained a contest hand to hand; and when they retired, it was not because they were conquered, but because the approach of night made a retreat to their camp absolutely necessary.’Both armies lay some time in sight of each other, each fortifying its camp in the strongest manner possible. Meanwhile, the difficulties of the British general were daily increasing; his auxiliary Indians deserted him soon after the battle of Stillwater; and his army, reduced to little more than five thousand men, was limited to half the usual allowance of provisions; the stock of forage also was entirely exhausted, and his horses were perishing in great numbers; the American army had become so augmented as to render him diffident of making good his retreat; and, to aggravate his distress, no intelligence had yet been received of the approach of general Clinton, or of any diversion in his favor from New York. In this exigency, general Burgoyne resolved to examine the possibility of dislodging the Americans from their posts on the left, by which means he would be enabled to retreat to the lakes. For this purpose he drew out fifteen hundred men, which he headed himself, attended by generals Phillips, Reidesel, and Frazer. This detachment had scarcely formed, within less than half a mile of the American intrenchments, when a furious attack was made, which, though bravely resisted, was decidedly to the advantage of the assailants. General Burgoyne now became convinced that it was impossible to conduct any further offensive operations, and endeavored to make good his retreat to fort George.Artificers were accordingly despatched, under a strong escort, to repair the bridges, and open the roads, but they were compelled to make a precipitate retreat. The situation of general Burgoyne becoming every hour more hazardous, he resolved to attempt a retreat by night to fort Edward; but even this retrograde movement was rendered impracticable. While the army was preparing to march, intelligence was received that the Americans had already possessed themselves of the fort, and that they were well provided with artillery. No avenue to escape now appeared. Incessant toil and continual engagements had worn down the British army; its provisions were nearly exhausted, and there were no means of procuring a supply; while the American army, which was daily increasing, was already much greater than the British in point of numbers, and almost encircled them. In this extremity, the British general called a council of war; and it was unanimously resolved to enter into a convention with general Gates. Preliminaries were soon settled, and the royal army, to the number of five thousand seven hundred and fifty, surrendered prisoners of war.The capture of an entire army was justly viewed as an event that must essentially affect the contest between Great Britain and America; and while it excited the highest joy among the Americans, it could not but have a most auspicious influence on their affairs in the cabinet and in the field. The thanks of congress were voted to general Gates and his army; and a medal of gold, in commemoration of this splendid achievement, was ordered to be struck, to be presented to him by the president, in the name of the United States.Surrender at Saratoga.General Burgoyne’s surrender is certainly, in a considerable degree, to be attributed to the want of co-operation both on the part of general Carleton, in Canada, and of Sir Henry Clinton, at New York. The latter, indeed, performed a service, which, if effected a little earlier, might possibly have relieved Burgoyne. With nearly three thousand men, convoyed by some ships of war under commodore Hotham, he conducted an expedition upHudson’s river, in October, against the forts Montgomery and Clinton. When arrived within a mile of the place of destination, the troops separated into two columns; the one, consisting of nine hundred men, under lieutenant Campbell, was destined for the attack on fort Montgomery; the other, under the immediate command of Sir Henry Clinton, was to storm the stronger post of fort Clinton. The garrison, when summoned, having refused to surrender, the assault was made on both forts at the same instant. These fortresses, which were separated from each other by a creek only, were commanded by governor Clinton, a brave and intelligent officer, who made a gallant resistance from four in the afternoon, when the attack began, until dark; but, the post having been designed principally to prevent the passing of ships, the works on the land side were incomplete and untenable, and the assailants entered them with fixed bayonets. Most of the garrison, however, effected their escape, undercover of the thick smoke and darkness.Having noticed the most important features of the military operations of the year 1777, it will be proper, before entering on those of the following years, to afford the reader some information on two very important points—the progress made by the Americans in their foreign relations, and the steps which had been taken to consolidate the general government. In both cases it will be necessary, in order to give a clear and comprehensive view of the subject, slightly to deviate from strict chronological order.The contest between Great Britain and her colonies had not long commenced, before congress directed their attention to the possibility of attaining foreign assistance. Towards the close of the year 1775, a committee was appointed to hold secret correspondence with the friends of America,both in Europe and other parts of theworld.123Early in the year 1776, the committee, seeing little prospect of an accommodation, and well aware that France would be disposed to make great sacrifices to reduce the powerof Great Britain by the separation of her North American colonies,sent Silas Deane, as a commercial and political agent, to the Frenchcourt.124Mr.Deane arrived in Paris about the1stof July, and was indefatigable in pursuing the objects of his mission; and throughDr.Dubourg, a friend to America, was in a few days introduced to Vergennes. His arrival at Paris was immediately known in London, and lord Stormont was sent express to Paris to watch his movements.Mr.Deane stated to the French minister the objects of his mission, agreeably to his instructions, and in his first conference he touched upon the subject of forming treaties with the Americans in case of their declaring themselves independent. The American agent was favorably received by the French minister, and was asked many questions in relation to American affairs. Vergennes informedMr.Deane, that though the French court estimated highly the importance of American commerce, yet, considering the good understanding between the courts of Versailles and London, they could not openly encourage the shipping of warlike stores; but no obstructions of any kind, he said, would be given. On the subject of independence, he observed that was an event in the womb of time, and it would be highly improper for him to say any thing on that point until it had actually taken place. This first conference with the French minister ended much to the satisfaction of the American agent.As soon as the question of independence was decided in the affirmative, congress took the subject of foreign affairs into their own hands; and, on the11thof June,appointed a committee to prepare a plan of treaties with foreignpowers.125In the month of September, congress appointedDr.Franklin,Mr.Deane, andMr.Jefferson, commissioners to proceed toFrance.126Dr.Franklin andMr.Lee arrived at Paris in December, and the objects of their mission were soon made known to the French court. The court was not yet prepared to acknowledge the independence of the United States, to form treaties with them, or openly to espouse the cause of the Americans; to prove, however, his good wishes towards the United States, the king ordered two millions of livres to be paid to them by quarterly payments, which should be augmented as the state of his finances would permit. The most profound secrecy, in relation to this donation, was enjoined.The course of policy France intended to pursue, in the contest between Great Britain and her colonies, was now obvious; and with her views of the subject, was perhaps, as it regarded herself at least, a very natural as well as wise course, as she evidently entertained serious doubts whether the states would be able to form a lasting union among themselves, or to persevere in maintaining their independence.Although the court were thus undecided, the cause of the United States was extremely popular in France, both among the people and the army, and many French officers sought an opportunity of engaging in their service. Among these the young marquis de la Fayette was most conspicuous for his rank, and most distinguished for his ardor and enthusiasm. At an early period he communicated to the American agents his wish to join the republican armies. At first they encouraged his zeal, but learning the disasters which preceded the victory at Trenton, they, with honorable frankness, communicated the information to him, and added, that they were so destitute of funds, that they could not even provide for his passage across the ocean. ‘If your country,’ replied the gallant youth, ‘is indeed reduced to this extremity, it is at this moment that my departure to join her armies will render her the most essential service.’ He immediately hired a vessel to convey him to America, where he arrived in the spring of 1777. He was received with cordial affection by the people, became the bosom friend of Washington, solicited permission to serve without pay, and was appointed major-general in the army.The disastrous state of American affairs at the close of the year 1776, induced congress to attend more seriously to the subject of securing foreign aid; and a new committee was appointed. Some of the members of this committee were disposed to make great sacrifices to obtain the aid of France,and were almost prepared to offer her the same monopoly of American commerce as had been enjoyed by GreatBritain.127On the30thof December, congress came to the resolution of sending commissioners to the courts of Vienna, Madrid, and Berlin,and to the grand duke ofTuscany.128These commissioners were instructed to assure the courts, to which they were sent, that the Americans were determined to maintain their independence, notwithstanding the suggestions of the British to the contrary.The success of the arms of the United States by the capture of the army of general Burgoyne, gave a new aspect to their affairs in France, and indeed throughout Europe. The American commissioners at Paris now stood on commanding ground. The French court, aware of the views of the British ministry in relation to the colonies, no longer hesitated about accepting the propositions of the American envoys. M. Gerard informed the American commissioners, on the16thof December, ‘that after a long and mature deliberation upon their propositions, his majesty had determined to recognise the independence of, and to enter into a treaty of commerce and alliance with, the United States of America; and that he would not only acknowledge their independence, but actually support it with all the means in his power; that perhaps he was about to engage himself in an expensive war upon this account, but that he did not expect to be reimbursed by them; in fine, the Americans were not to think that he had entered into this resolution solely with a view of serving them, since, independently of his real attachment to them and their cause, it was evidently the interest of France to diminish the power of England, by severing her colonies from her.’ On the6thof February, 1778, a treaty of commerce was signed by Franklin, Deane, and Lee, on the part of the United States, and by M. Gerard on the part of France, together with a treaty of defensive alliance, in case war should be the consequence of this commercial connection. The essential and direct end of this alliance was, ‘to maintain the liberty, sovereignty, and independence, absolute and unlimited, of the United States, as well in matters of government as of commerce.’Before leaving this subject, it is necessary to state, that as, previous to the recognition of independence by the court of France, it was imperative that the intercourse with the American agents should be conducted indirectly and with the utmost secrecy, the French government rendered their secret assistance through the agency of M. Beaumarchais, who appears to have been more desirous of serving himself than the Americans. The mode in which he converted the gratuitous aid of the French court into articles of charge in his accounts with the congress, and especially his retaining in his hands a million of livres out of the subsidy granted by the French king, are circumstances too extraordinary to be entirely passed over; but our limits compel us to refer the reader for the details to that very able work, Pitkin’s Civil and Political History, and to the volumes of Diplomatic Correspondence already alluded to.During the first stages of the revolution, the universal enthusiasm of the people, directed to one common object, in some measure supplied the place of a general legislative and executive power. The congress had hitherto possessed no powers but such as were conferred by the instructions given by the state legislatures to their respective delegates; but on the11thof June, 1776, the day following that in which the resolution in favor of independence had been adopted, congress determined to appoint a committee to prepare and digest the form of a confederation. This committee, on the12thof July following, reported a plan of confederacy, consisting of twenty articles, and on the22dof the same month it was discussed in committee of the whole house, and was under consideration until the20thof August, when an amended draft was reported. The difficulty in agreeing upon the details of the system, as well as the gloomy aspect of American affairs at this period, prevented congress from resumingthis subject until April, 1777, when they resolved that two days in each week should be employed upon it, ‘until it shall be wholly discussed.’ The amended draft was considered and debated accordingly until the26thof June, when it was again postponed to the2dof October, and was not finally adopted by congress until the15thof November. The outlines of the system were, that the thirteen states formed a confederacy, under the style and name of ‘the United States of America;’ by which they entered ‘into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their defence, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other against all force offered to or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever.’ This plan of union was to be proposed to the legislatures of all the states, and, if approved, they were advised to authorize their delegates in congress to ratify the same; this being done, it was to be conclusive. The plan was considered by the legislatures of the several states in the winter of 1777–8, and by some was adopted without amendments, by others various amendments were proposed.The effect produced on the British cabinet, and on the nation at large, by the intelligence of the surrender of general Burgoyne and his army, can scarcely be described. The most brilliant success had been anticipated; the most ignominious result had occurred. The pride of the nation was humbled, and those who had disapproved of the war poured upon the ministry a torrent of invective; while the embarrassments of the ministry were increased by the intelligence of the course which the hereditary enemy and rival of Great Britain had resolved to pursue. Under these circumstances it was determined in the cabinet to grant to America all that she had demanded in the beginning of the contest. An act was passed, declaring that parliament would not, in future, impose any tax upon the colonies; and commissioners were sent over, authorized to proclaim a repeal of all the offensive statutes, and to treat with the constituted authorities of America. The commissioners, arriving at Philadelphia in the spring, communicated to congress the terms offered by Great Britain,which were, however, unanimouslyrejected.129The arms of congress had been successful on the Hudson; but many difficulties arose in the execution of the convention of Saratoga. It had been stipulated that general Burgoyne’s army should embark at Boston forEurope: but, at the time of signing the convention, the British general seems not to have been aware that it is difficult for ships to reach the port of Boston during the winter; and that, owing to this cause, the embarkation of his troops might be delayed till the ensuing spring. On being apprized of this circumstance, general Burgoyne immediately applied to the American commander-in-chief, desiring him to change the port of embarkation, and to appoint Newport, in Rhode Island, or some other place on the sound, instead of Boston; and, in case this request should not be complied with, soliciting, on account of his health and private business, that the indulgence might be granted to himself and suite. General Washington, not thinking himself authorized to decide on such an application, transmitted it to congress, which took no notice of the matter further than to pass a resolution, ‘That general Washington be directed to inform general Burgoyne, that congress will not receive or consider any proposition for indulgence, or altering the terms of the convention of Saratoga, unless immediately addressed to their own body.’ The application was accordingly made to congress, who readily complied with the request in so far as it respected himself personally, but refused the indulgence to his troops, and ultimately forbade their embarkation.Congress watched with a jealous eye every movement of the convention army, and soon gave public indications of that jealousy. Early in November, they ordered general Heath, who commanded in Boston, ‘to take the name, rank, former place of abode, and description of every person comprehended in the convention of Saratoga, in order that, if afterwards found in arms against the United States, they might be punished according to the law of nations.’ General Burgoyne showed some reluctance to the execution of this order; and his reluctance was imputed to no honorable motives.The British army in Philadelphia spent the winter in gayety and revelry, injuring at once their own respectability and the cause which they were employed to support. They disgusted the sober inhabitants by their irregularities, and provoked them by their insolence; so that many who had hailed their arrival with cordial gratulations, felt a lively satisfaction when the hour of their departure came.General Washington quitted White Marsh, crossed the Schuylkill at Sweed’s ford, and, on the19thof December, took a strong position at Valley Forge, about twenty-six miles from Philadelphia. Had he retired during the winter to the shelter of a large town, he must have gone to a great distance from the British army, and left an extensive tract of country open to their foraging parties; or had he cantoned his men in the adjacent villages, his army might have been beaten in detail and gradually destroyed. But at Valley Forge he was sufficiently near Philadelphia to check the foraging parties of the enemy, and his army was so much concentrated as to secure it from any sudden and desultory attack.At Valley Forge the American commander-in-chief lodged his army in huts formed of logs, with the interstices filled with mud, which constituted very acceptable habitations to men long unaccustomed to the conveniences of life. But, though sheltered from the storm by their rude dwellings, the sufferings of the army from want of provisions and clothing were incredible. The winter was severe, and many of the men were without stockings or shoes, and almost naked. The non-importation associations renderedcloth scarce at the commencement of hostilities; the war rendered importation difficult; and the consumption exceeded the produce of the home manufacture. Hence the army was left in a destitute and deplorable condition; and the line of march, from White Marsh to Valley Forge, over rough and frozen roads, might have been traced by the blood from the bare and mangled feet of the soldiers. Under the shelter of the huts their sufferings were at first considerably alleviated; but in a short time the miseries of want, amounting almost to famine, were added to those of nakedness. In these trying circumstances numbers of the troops, especially they who had been born in Europe, eluded the vigilance of the guards, and deserted to the enemy in Philadelphia, carrying their arms along with them. Many loyalists also joined general Howe; so that the strength of his army was sensibly increased.Encampment at Valley Forge.Many representations on the wants and hardships of the army had been submitted to congress, which had authorized the commander-in-chief to seize provisions for his army wherever he could find them, within seventy miles of head-quarters, paying for them with money, or giving certificates, for the redemption of which the faith of the United States was pledged. This odious power general Washington was extremely backward to exercise; but at Valley Forge his necessities were so pressing that he was constrained to have recourse to it; and, notwithstanding all his precautions, the manner in which his orders were executed did not always soften the rigor of this harsh measure. Men with arms in their hands, and supported by authority, are seldom delicate in supplying their urgent wants.The American commander-in-chief was ill-provided with money, and could make his payments only in paper of very uncertain value; but the supplies carried into Philadelphia were readily paid for by the British troops in gold and silver; and the patriotism of the people was not sufficiently ardent to prevent them from carrying their goods to the best market. It was, however, no easy matter for the country people to carry provisions into Philadelphia without detection and punishment; for the American detachments and patrols, though at a respectful distance, almost encircled the city.While the army lay at Valley Forge, a plot was formed to remove general Washington from the chief command; and in that plot several members of congress, and a very few military officers, were concerned. Insinuations against the military talents of general Washington were industriously circulated; and the public attention was directed towards general Gates, whose success at Saratoga had thrown a brilliant lustre round his name. General Thomas Conway was an active agent in the plot; and many of the inhabitants of Pennsylvania, chagrined by the loss of their capital, and willing to devolve on the general who had twice, with inferior forces, fought the enemy in their defence, the blame of those misfortunes which had arisen from their own pusillanimity and carelessness in not reinforcing the army, readily joined in the clamor. The conduct of general Gates was equivocal, but he solemnly disclaimed all connection with the faction. The officers of general Washington’s army, strongly attached to him, felt the liveliest indignation against those intriguers who wished to remove their favorite leader from his command.By the uniform tenor of his conduct, general Washington had won the affection and esteem of almost all his troops, both officers and privates; and, fortunately for America, there was enough of discernment in congress to resist the dark machinations of the faction, and to continue their brave and upright commander-in-chief at the head of the army. His situation, however, was by no means enviable. His army was much attached to him; but, weakened by disease, and irritated by nakedness and hunger, it was almost on the point of dissolution. In the midst of the difficulties and dangers with which he was surrounded, general Washington displayed a singular degree of steady perseverance, unshaken fortitude, and unwearied activity. Instead of manifesting irritable impatience under the malignant attacks made on his character, he behaved with magnanimity, and earnestly applied to congress, and to the legislative bodies of the several states, for reinforcements to his army, in order that he might be prepared to act with vigor in the ensuing campaign.But to recruit and equip the army was no easy task. The great depreciation of paper money rendered the pay of the soldiers inadequate to their support; and, consequently, it was not likely that voluntary enlistment would be successful, especially since the patriotic ardor of many had begun to cool by the continuance of the war, and all knew that great hardships and dangers were to be encountered by joining the army. The pay even of the officers, in the depreciated paper currency, was wholly unequal to the maintenance of their rank. Some of them who had small patrimonial estates found them melting away, while their lives were unprofitably devoted to the service of their country; and they who had no private fortune could not appear in a manner becoming their station. A commission was a burden; and many considered the acceptance of one as conferring rather than receiving a favor: a state of things highly disadvantageous to the service; for the duties of an office scarcely reckoned worth holding will seldom be zealously and actively discharged. There was reason to apprehend that many of the most meritorious officers would resign their commissions; and that they only who were less qualified for service would remain with the army.Congress, moved by the remonstrances of the commander-in-chief, and by the complaints with which they were assailed from every quarter, deputeda committee of their body to reside in camp during the winter; and, in concert with the general, to examine the state of the army, and report on the measures necessary to be taken for placing it in a more respectable condition. But the reforms in the army were tardily made. Congress were fond of their own speculations, although experience had proved them mischievous; and were slow in rectifying the evils which arose from their own errors. The state legislatures were backward in adopting coercive measures for recruiting the army; and each of them was jealous of bearing more than its share of the war. At length, however, an efficient commissary-general was appointed; the other departments were put on a more desirable footing; and vigorous measures were pursued to prepare for the ensuing campaign.During the winter there was a good deal of correspondence between the generals respecting prisoners of war. Complaints were mutual; and a partial cartel was agreed to.In consequence of the treaties concluded with her revolted colonies, Great Britain declared war against France; and the ministry, presuming that assistance would be sent to the Americans, transmitted orders by the commissioners, that Philadelphia should be evacuated, and the royal troops concentrated at New York. The execution of these orders devolved upon Sir Henry Clinton, who had been appointed commander-in-chief on the resignation of general Howe. On the18thof June the enemy quitted the city, and marched slowly eastward. Washington, leaving his huts in the forest, hung upon the rear of the British army, watching for a favorable opportunity to offer battle. On arriving at Monmouth, in New Jersey, general Lee, who had lately been exchanged, was ordered to take the command of five thousand men, and, early in the morning of the28th, to commence an attack, being assured that he should be supported by the whole army. Lee made dispositions to attack accordingly, but perceiving the main body of the English returning to meet him, he began to retreat. Washington, advancing to render the promised support, saw him retiring, rode forward,and addressed him in language implying disapprobation of hisconduct.130He then directed him to form his men on ground which he pointed out, and there oppose the progress of the enemy. A warm engagement ensued, and Washington, arriving with the main body of his army, compelled the British to fall back.The day had been intensely hot, and the troops were greatlyfatigued,131yet general Washington resolved to renew the engagement; but there were so many impediments to be overcome, that before the attack could be commenced it was nearly dark. It was therefore thought most advisable to postpone further operations until morning,and the troops lay on their arms in the field ofbattle.132General Washington, who had been exceedinglyactive through the day, and entirely regardless of personal danger, reposed himself at night in his cloak, under a tree, in the midst of his soldiers. His intention of renewing the battle was, however, frustrated; the British troops marched away about midnight in such profound silence, that the most advanced posts knew nothing of their departure until morning. The American general, declining all further pursuit of the royal army, detached some light troops to attend its motions, and drew off his soldiers to the borders of the North river. Sir Henry Clinton, after remaining a few days on the high grounds of Middleton, proceeded to Sandy Hook, whence he passed his army over to New York.The British having entered New York, Washington conducted his army to White Plains. Congress returned to Philadelphia; and in July received, with inexpressible joy, a letter from the count D’Estaing, announcing his arrival on the coast of Virginia, with twelve sail of the line and six frigates, with about four thousand troops on board. The count had intended to surprise admiral Howe in the Delaware, but adverse winds detained him on the passage, until the British fleet had sailed for New York. He appeared before that harbor, but on sounding, found that his largest ships could not pass the bar. By the advice of Washington, a combined attack upon the British forces at Newport, in Rhode Island, was resolved on. General Sullivan, who had been appointed to command the troops, called upon the militia of New England to aid him in the enterprise. His army soon amounted to ten thousand men, and, as he was supported by the fleet he felt confident of success. On the9thof August, he took a position on the north end of Rhode Island, and afterwards moved nearer to Newport. Admiral Howe, having received a reinforcement, now appeared before the harbor, and the count instantly put to sea to attack him. A furious storm, however, came on, which damaged and dispersed both fleets. As soon as the weather permitted, each commander sought the port from which he had sailed; but great was the disappointment of the Americans when D’Estaing announced his intention of proceeding to Boston to refit; they earnestly remonstrated, but the count was inflexible. Deserted by the fleet, the army could remain no longer with safety on the island. General Sullivan, therefore, immediately retreated to his first position. He was pursued and attacked by the enemy; but they were gallantly resisted and repulsed with loss. The next day the two armies cannonaded each other, and the succeeding night the American general, deceiving the enemy by a show of resistance to the last, made a skilful retreat to the continent. It was a remarkable escape. The delay of a single day would probably have been fatal to the Americans; for Sir Henry Clinton, who had been impeded by adverse winds, arrived with a reinforcement of four thousand men the very next day, when a retreat, it is presumed, would have been impracticable.At this period of the war hostilities were carried on with more than usual acrimony. In several instances the British troops, and their allies,the American tories and native Indians, exhibited a barbarity deeply to be lamented, wantonly destroying the property and injuring the persons of peaceful unarmed inhabitants. While asleep in a barn at Tappan, colonel Baylor’s troop of light dragoons were surprised by general Grey, who commanded his soldiers to use the bayonet only, and to give the rebels no quarter. Incapable of defence, they sued for mercy; but the most pathetic supplications were heard without awakening compassion; nearly one-half of the troop were killed. To many, repeated thrusts were barbarously given as long as signs of life remained; while some who had nearly a dozen stabs through the body, and were left for dead, afterwards recovered. A few escaped, and forty were saved by the humanity of a British captain, who dared to disobey the orders of his general. With feelings of revenge yet more barbarous, Wyoming, a happy and flourishing settlement, on the eastern branch of the Susquehannah, in Pennsylvania, was attacked by a band of tories and Indians. The conditions of the capitulation were entirely disregarded by the British and savage forces, and after the fort was delivered up, all kinds of barbarities were committed by them. The village of Wilkesbarre, consisting of twenty-three houses, was burnt; men and their wives were separated from each other and carried into captivity; their property was plundered, and the settlement laid waste. The remainder of the inhabitants were driven from the valley, and compelled to proceed on foot sixty miles through the great swamp, almost without food or clothing. A number perished in the journey, principally women and children; some died of their wounds, others wandered from the path in search of food and were lost; and those who survived called the wilderness through which they passed ‘The Shades of Death,’ an appellation which it has since retained. Many other instances might be adduced;but it is better to suffer the record of them toperish.133In the campaign of 1778 little on either side was accomplished. The alliance with France gave birth to expectations which events did not fulfil;but the presence of her fleets on the coast deranged the plans of the British; induced them to relinquish a part of their conquests; and prevented their making any progress in the accomplishment of their designs.The close of this year was distinguished by a change of the theatre of war from the northern to the southern section of the confederacy. The country, weak by its scattered population, the multitude of slaves, and the number of tories, presented a prospect of easy victory. In the end of November, lieutenant-colonel Campbell, with two thousand five hundred men, sailed from New York to the coast of Georgia. Having landed his troops, he marched towards Savannah, the capital; and defeating a small body of Americans whom he met on his route, he immediately took possession of the city. After the fall of the capital, Sunbury surrendered at discretion; and these were the only military posts in Georgia.The campaign of 1779 was opened by general Lincoln, who had been appointed to the command of the American troops in the southern department. In April, leaving South Carolina, he marched into the interior of Georgia; upon which the British army, entering the state he had left, invested Charleston, the capital. Lincoln hastened back to its defence; and on his approach, the British retired to Stono ferry, where an action was fought, and a few days afterwards they continued their retreat to Savannah. The heat of the season suspended farther operations until September; when count D’Estaing, with a fleet carrying six thousand troops, arrived on the coast. The two armies, in concert, laid siege to Savannah. At the expiration of a month, the count, impatient of delay, insisted that the siege should be abandoned, or that a combined assault upon the enemy’s works should immediately be made. General Lincoln determined upon the latter course. Great gallantry was displayed by the French and American troops,but the British repulsed the assailants, killing and wounding nearly a thousandmen,134while on their part the loss was small. The next day the siege was raised, the French returning home, and the Americans to South Carolina.The operations of the British in the more northern parts of America were predatory rather than military. In May, a naval and land force, commanded by Sir George Collier and general Matthews, made a descent on Virginia. On their arrival, they took possession of Portsmouth and of Norfolk; destroyed the houses, vessels, naval stores, and a large magazine of provisions, at Suffolk; made a similar destruction at Kemp’s Landing, Shepherd’s, Gosport, Tanner’s Creek, and other places in the vicinity; and, after setting fire to the houses and other public buildings in the dockyard at Gosport, embarked with their booty for New York. A similar expedition was soon after undertaken from New York against Connecticut, by governor Tryon, with two thousand six hundred land forces, supported by brigadier-general Garth, and accompanied by Sir George Collier with armed vessels to cover the transports. Though checked in their march, they entered New Haven about one in the afternoon, from which time untileight in the evening the town was subjected to almost indiscriminate ravage and plunder. The royal army also plundered and burned the town of Fairfield, and the greatest part of the neighboring village of Green Farms. A few days afterward they laid the town of Norwalk in ashes.Early in the season, colonel Clarke, of Virginia, who was stationed at Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, achieved an enterprise conspicuous for boldness of design, and evincing uncommon hardihood in its execution. With only one hundred and thirty men, he penetrated through the wilderness toSt.Vincent’s, a British post on the Wabash, in the heart of the Indian country. His route lay across deep swamps and morrasses; and in one instance the party waded through water, often as high as the breast, for nearly five miles. After a march of sixteen days, they reached the town, which, having no intimation of their approach, surrendered without resistance; and a short time after, the fort capitulated. This fortunate achievement arrested an expedition which the enemy had projected against the frontiers of Virginia, and detached several tribes of Indians from the British interest.Congress, though its measures toward the Indians were conciliatory, could not secure the western frontiers. The Six Nations had been advised by that body, and had promised, to observe a neutrality in the war; but, excepting the Oneidas, and a few others who were friendly to the Americans, those Indians took a decided part against them. The presents and promises of Sir John Johnson and other British agents, with the desire of plunder, induced them to invade the frontiers; and wherever they went, they carried slaughter and devastation. An expedition was therefore ordered against them, and general Sullivan, to whom the conduct of it was intrusted, marched into their country. The Indians, on hearing of the projected expedition, collected their strength, took possession of proper ground, and fortified it with judgment. General Sullivan attacked them in their works, and they sustained a cannonade of more than two hours; but they then gave way, and, after their trenches were forced, they fled with precipitation. The victorious army, penetrating into the heart of their country, laid it desolate. Their villages, their detached habitations, their corn-fields, their fruit-trees and gardens, were indiscriminately destroyed.The campaign of this year, though barren in important events, was distinguished by one gallant enterprise, which reflected much honor on the American arms. Stony Point, a fortress on the North river, had been taken from the Americans, and strongly fortified by the British. It was at this time garrisoned by about six hundred men, under the command of lieutenant-colonel Johnson. General Washington, having obtained precise information of the condition of the works, the nature of the ground in their vicinity, the strength and arrangements of the garrison, and the disposition of the guards, and having in person reconnoitred the post, resolved to attempt the surprise of it. The execution of the plan was intrusted to general Wayne, and the troops employed on this service were chiefly from New England. At half-past eleven on the night of the15thof July, the columns moved on to the charge at opposite points of the works, the van of each with unloaded muskets and fixed bayonets; and at twenty minutes after twelve both columns rushed forward under a tremendous fire of musketry and grape-shot, entered the works at the point of the bayonet, and, arrivingin the centre of them at nearly the same instant, compelled the garrison to surrender at discretion. A more gallant exploit has seldom been performed, and the humanity of the victors was equal to their valor. Notwithstanding the devastations in Connecticut, and the butchery of Baylor’s troop, the scene of which was near, not an individual suffered after resistance had ceased.
The British commanders tolerated, or at least did not restrain, gross licentiousness in their army. The inhabitants of the state which they boasted was restored to the bosom of the parent country, were treated not as reclaimed friends, but as conquered enemies. The soldiers were guilty of every species of rapine, and with little discrimination between those who had opposed or supported the measures of Britain. The abuse was not limited to the plundering of property. Every indignity was offered to the persons of the inhabitants, not excepting those outrages to the female sex which are felt by ingenuous minds with the keenest anguish, and excite noble spirits to desperate resistance. These aggravated abuses roused the people of New Jersey to repel that army to which they had voluntarily submitted, in the expectation of protection and security. At the dawn of success upon the American arms, they rose in small bands to oppose their invaders. They scoured the country, cut off every soldier who straggled from his corps, and in many instances repelled the foraging parties of the enemy. Early in this year also the Americans were gratified by the arrival of a vessel from France at Portsmouth, in New Hampshire, with upwards of eleven thousand stand of arms, and a thousand barrels of powder; and about the same time ten thousand stand of arms arrived in another part of the United States.
This supply was, however, in some measure counterbalanced. In the month of March the British sent out two detachments to destroy the American stores at Peekskill, on the North river, and at Danbury, in Connecticut. Both succeeded in their attempt; and although the stores destroyed did not equal in quantity the report on which the expeditions were planned, yet their loss was sensibly felt by the Americans in the active season of the campaign.
Sir William Howe, having in vain attempted to entice or provoke general Washington to an engagement, had, in June, retired with his army from the Jerseys to Staten island. After keeping the American general in long and perplexing suspense concerning his intended operations, he at length sailed from Sandy Hook with about sixteen thousand men, entered Chesapeake bay, and on the24thof August arrived at the head of Elk river. Generals Grant and Knyphausen having joined him on the8thof September with the troops under their command, the whole army movedonward in two columns toward Philadelphia, the possession of which was now evidently the object of the British commander. Washington, who regulated his movements by those of the enemy, had by this time, with the whole American army excepting the light infantry, which remained on the lines, taken a position behind Red Clay creek, on the road leading directly from the enemy’s camp to Philadelphia. The British rapidly advanced until they were within two miles of the Americans; while Washington crossed the Brandywine, and took post on a height behind that river.
At daybreak on the morning of the11thit was ascertained that Sir William Howe in person had crossed the Brandywine at the forks, and was rapidly marching down the north side of the river to attack the American army. The commander-in-chief now ordered general Sullivan to form the right wing to oppose the column of Sir William. General Wayne was directed to remain at Chadd’s ford with the left wing, to dispute the passage of the river with Knyphausen. General Green, with his division, was posted as a reserve in the centre between Sullivan and Wayne, to reinforce either, as circumstances might require. General Sullivan marched up the river, until he found favorable ground on which to form his men; his left was near the Brandywine, and both flanks were covered with thick wood. At half-past four o’clock, when his line was scarcely formed, the British, under lord Cornwallis, commenced a spirited attack. The action was for some time severe; but the American right, which was not properly in order when the assault began, at length gave way, and exposed the flank of the troops that maintained their ground to a destructive fire, and continuing to break from the right, the whole line finally gave way. As soon as the firing began, general Washington, with general Green’s division, hastened towards the scene of action, but before his arrival Sullivan was routed, and the commander-in-chief could only check the pursuit of the enemy, and cover the retreat of the beaten troops. During these transactions general Knyphausen assaulted the works erected for the defence of Chadd’s ford, and soon carried them. General Wayne, by this time learning the fate of the other divisions, drew off his troops. General Washington retreated with his whole force that night to Chester. The American loss in this battle was about three hundred killed and six hundred wounded. Four hundred were made prisoners, but these chiefly of the wounded.
Perceiving that the enemy were moving into the Lancaster road, towards the city, general Washington took possession of ground near the Warren tavern, on the left of the British, and twenty-three miles from Philadelphia. The protection of his stores at Reading was one object of this movement. The next morning he was informed of the approach of the British army. He immediately put his troops in motion to engage the enemy. The advance of the two hostile armies met and began to skirmish, when a violent storm came on, which prevented a general engagement, and rendered the retreat of the Americans absolutely necessary. The inferiority of the muskets in the hands of the American soldiery, which had been verified in every action, was strikingly illustrated in this retreat. The gun-locks being badly made, and the cartridge-boxes imperfectly constructed, this storm rendered most of the arms unfit for use; and all the ammunition was damaged. The army was in consequence extremely exposed, and their danger became the greater, as many of the soldiers were destitute of bayonets.Fortunately the tempest, which produced such serious mischief to the Americans, prevented the pursuit of the British. Washington still continued to make every effort to save the capital; but Sir William Howe, having secured the command of the Schuylkill, on the23dof September, crossed it with his whole army; on the26thhe advanced to Germantown; and on the succeeding day lord Cornwallis, at the head of a strong detachment, entered Philadelphia in triumph.
The American army, reinforced to eight thousand continental troops and three thousand militia, took a position at Shippack creek, on the east side of the Schuylkill, about twenty miles from Philadelphia, and sixteen from Germantown. At the latter place was posted the main body of the British army. The first object of Sir William Howe was to subdue the defences, and remove the impediments of the Delaware, that a communication might be opened with the British shipping. General Washington made every effort to prevent the execution of his enemy’s design, in the hope of forcing general Howe out of Philadelphia, by preventing supplies of provisions from reaching him. Of the attainment of this important object he had no doubt, could the passage of the Delaware be rendered impracticable. For this purpose works had been erected on a bank of mud and sand in the river, near the confluence of the Schuylkill, and about seven miles below Philadelphia. The place, from these works, was denominated Fort island, and the works themselves fort Mifflin. On a neck of land on the opposite shore of New Jersey, called Red Bank, a fort was constructed and mounted with heavy artillery, and called fort Mercer. Fort island and Red Bank were distant from each other half a mile. In the channel of the Delaware, which ran between them, two ranges of chevaux-de-frise were sunk. These consisted of large pieces of timber, strongly framed together, and pointed with iron, and they completely obstructed the passage of ships. These works were covered by several galleys, floating batteries, and armed ships.
Sir William Howe having detached a considerable force from Germantown to operate against the works on the Delaware, general Washington thought this a favorable opportunity to attack the British army in their cantonments. The line of the British encampment crossed the village of Germantown at right angles, near its centre, and its flanks were strongly covered. The army, having moved from its ground about seven in the afternoon of the3dof October, began an attack about sunrise the next morning. The advance of the column, led by Sullivan, and accompanied by the commander-in-chief, encountered and drove in a picket, which presently gave way; and his main body, soon following, engaged the light infantry and other troops encamped near the picket, and forced them from their ground. Though closely pursued, lieutenant-colonel Musgrove, with six companies, took post in a strong stone house, which lay in the way of the Americans, and severely galled them by a fire of musketry from the doors and windows. General Washington immediately ordered a brigade to surround the house; but colonel Musgrove refused to surrender.
Four pieces of cannon were brought against him, but he sustained the fire of them until major-general Gray, with the third brigade, and brigadier-general Agnew, with the fourth, came to his assistance, and attacked the Americans with great spirit. In the mean time general Green arrival with his column, and attacked the right wing of the British. Colonel Matthews routed a party of the British opposed to him; but being envelopedin a most extraordinary fog, he lost sight of the brigade to which he belonged, and was taken prisoner with his whole regiment. At length a part of the right wing of the British attacked the Americans on the opposite side of the town; and the embarrassments among the American troops, occasioned by the darkness, gave the English time to recover from their consternation. Sullivan’s division had penetrated far into Germantown; but the main body of the American army now commenced a retreat, and all efforts to rally it proved ineffectual. In this battle the loss of the Americans in killed, wounded, and prisoners, was not less than twelve hundred men, while that of the British did not exceed half that number. The American army encamped again on Shippack creek, but soon after advanced to White Marsh, while the royal army removed from Germantown to Philadelphia.
The works in the Delaware now engaged the attention of the British and American generals. Lord Howe, by continued exertion, having overcome the obstructions which the Americans had placed in the river at Billingsport, a joint attack by sea and land was planned against Red Bank and Fort island. The Augusta, a sixty-four gun ship, the Merlin frigate, and several small armed vessels, moved up the Delaware to assault the works on Fort or Mud island. Count Donop crossed into New Jersey with twelve hundred Germans, and in the evening of the22dappeared before fort Mercer, on Red Bank. His assault was highly spirited, and the defence intrepid and obstinate. Colonel Green, the commandant, whose garrison did not exceed five hundred men, was unable adequately to map the outworks; but he galled the Germans in their advance, and on their near approach he quitted them, and retired within the inner intrenchments. They pressed forward with undaunted bravery, and the Americans poured upon them a deadly fire. Count Donop was himself mortally wounded at the head of his gallant corps; the second in command soon after fell, and the third immediately drew off his forces. The assailants had four hundred men killed and wounded, while the garrison, fighting under cover, had only thirty. In the mean time, fort Mifflin was attacked by the shipping, and by batteries erected on the Pennsylvania shore. Incessant volleys of bombs and cannon-balls were discharged upon it. But at ebb tide the Augusta and Merlin grounded, and were burnt. The garrison supported this tremendous fire without material injury. The resistance of the forts on the Delaware far exceeding the expectations of the British commanders, they adopted measures to overcome it without the hazard of a second assault. They erected batteries upon Providence island, within five hundred yards of the American fort. They also brought up their shipping, gun-boats,&c., and from the10thto the16thof November, battered the American works. By this time the defences were entirely beaten down, every piece of cannon was dismounted, and one of the ships approached so near fort Mifflin as to throw hand-grenades from her tops into it, which killed the men upon the platform. The brave garrison received orders to quit the post. Red Bank being no longer useful, its garrison and stores were also withdrawn on the approach of lord Cornwallis with five thousand men to invest it.
While these inauspicious operations were carried on in the south, the northern portion of the country was a theatre of events that more than counterbalanced them. A principal object of the British in the campaignof this year, was to open a free communication between New York and Canada. The British ministry were sanguine in their hopes, that, by effecting this object, New England, which they considered as the soul of the confederacy, might be severed from the neighboring states, and compelled to submission. In prosecution of this design, an army of British and German troops, amounting to upwards of seven thousand men, exclusive of artillery, was put under the command of lieutenant-general Burgoyne, an enterprising and able officer. The plan of operations consisted of two parts. General Burgoyne with the main body was to advance by way of lake Champlain, and force his way to Albany, or, at least, so far as to effect a junction with the royal army from New York; and lieutenant-colonelSt.Leger, with about two hundred British, a regiment of New York loyalists, raised and commanded by Sir John Johnson, and a large body of Indians, was to ascend theSt.Lawrence to lake Ontario, and from that quarter to penetrate toward Albany by the way of the Mohawk river.
General Burgoyne arrived at Quebec in May. In the latter end of June he advanced with his army to Crown Point, and from thence proceeded to invest Ticonderoga, which was soon abandoned by the Americans, under generalSt.Clair, who, after a distressing march, joined general Schuyler at fort Edward, on the river Hudson. General Burgoyne, having with incredible labor and fatigue conducted his army through the wilderness from Skenesborough, reached fort Edward on the30thof July. As he approached that place, general Schuyler, whose forces, even since the junction ofSt.Clair, did not exceed four thousand four hundred men, retired over the Hudson to Saratoga. Early in AugustSt.Leger invested fort Schuyler, and at first obtained some advantages over the Americans;but, bystratagem,120the Indians were induced to desert him,and finding himself abandoned by seven or eight hundred of these importantauxiliaries,121he decamped in great confusion, and returned to Montreal, leaving his tents, with most of his artillery and stores, in the field. WhileSt.Leger was thus unsuccessful at fort Schuyler,a detachment under colonel Baum, despatched to seize a large depot in New Hampshire grants, was also defeated by a body of militia under generalStark.122Meanwhile,general Burgoyne, having collected about thirty days’ provision, and thrown a bridge of boats over the Hudson, crossed that river on the13thand14thof September, and encamped on the heights and plains of Saratoga. General Gates, who had recently taken the chief command of the northern department of the American army, advanced toward the British, and encamped three miles above Stillwater.
On the night of the17th, Burgoyne encamped within four miles of the American army; and about noon on the19thadvanced in full force against it. The right wing was commanded by general Burgoyne, and covered by general Frazer and colonel Breyman with the grenadiers and light infantry, who were posted along some high grounds on the right. The front and flanks were covered by Indians, provincials, and Canadians. The left wing and artillery were commanded by major-generals Phillips and Reidesel, who proceeded along the great road. Colonel Morgan, who was detached to observe their motions, and to harass them as they advanced, soon fell in with their pickets in front of their right wing, attacked them sharply, and drove them in. A strong corps was brought up to support them, and, after a severe encounter, Morgan was compelled to give way; but a regiment was ordered to assist him, and the action became more general. The commanders on both sides supported and reinforced their respective parties; and about four o’clock, Arnold, with nine continental regiments and Morgan’s corps, was completely engaged with the whole right wing of the British army. The engagement began at three o’clock in the afternoon, and continued till after sunset, when the Americans thought proper to retire, and leave the British masters of the field of battle. The loss on each side was nearly equal, six hundred being killed and wounded on the part of the British, and the same number on the side of the Americans. No advantages resulted to the British troops from this encounter; while the conduct of the Americans fully convinced every one ‘that they were able to sustain an attack in open plains with the intrepidity, the spirit, and the coolness of veterans. For four hours they maintained a contest hand to hand; and when they retired, it was not because they were conquered, but because the approach of night made a retreat to their camp absolutely necessary.’
Both armies lay some time in sight of each other, each fortifying its camp in the strongest manner possible. Meanwhile, the difficulties of the British general were daily increasing; his auxiliary Indians deserted him soon after the battle of Stillwater; and his army, reduced to little more than five thousand men, was limited to half the usual allowance of provisions; the stock of forage also was entirely exhausted, and his horses were perishing in great numbers; the American army had become so augmented as to render him diffident of making good his retreat; and, to aggravate his distress, no intelligence had yet been received of the approach of general Clinton, or of any diversion in his favor from New York. In this exigency, general Burgoyne resolved to examine the possibility of dislodging the Americans from their posts on the left, by which means he would be enabled to retreat to the lakes. For this purpose he drew out fifteen hundred men, which he headed himself, attended by generals Phillips, Reidesel, and Frazer. This detachment had scarcely formed, within less than half a mile of the American intrenchments, when a furious attack was made, which, though bravely resisted, was decidedly to the advantage of the assailants. General Burgoyne now became convinced that it was impossible to conduct any further offensive operations, and endeavored to make good his retreat to fort George.
Artificers were accordingly despatched, under a strong escort, to repair the bridges, and open the roads, but they were compelled to make a precipitate retreat. The situation of general Burgoyne becoming every hour more hazardous, he resolved to attempt a retreat by night to fort Edward; but even this retrograde movement was rendered impracticable. While the army was preparing to march, intelligence was received that the Americans had already possessed themselves of the fort, and that they were well provided with artillery. No avenue to escape now appeared. Incessant toil and continual engagements had worn down the British army; its provisions were nearly exhausted, and there were no means of procuring a supply; while the American army, which was daily increasing, was already much greater than the British in point of numbers, and almost encircled them. In this extremity, the British general called a council of war; and it was unanimously resolved to enter into a convention with general Gates. Preliminaries were soon settled, and the royal army, to the number of five thousand seven hundred and fifty, surrendered prisoners of war.
The capture of an entire army was justly viewed as an event that must essentially affect the contest between Great Britain and America; and while it excited the highest joy among the Americans, it could not but have a most auspicious influence on their affairs in the cabinet and in the field. The thanks of congress were voted to general Gates and his army; and a medal of gold, in commemoration of this splendid achievement, was ordered to be struck, to be presented to him by the president, in the name of the United States.
Surrender at Saratoga.
Surrender at Saratoga.
General Burgoyne’s surrender is certainly, in a considerable degree, to be attributed to the want of co-operation both on the part of general Carleton, in Canada, and of Sir Henry Clinton, at New York. The latter, indeed, performed a service, which, if effected a little earlier, might possibly have relieved Burgoyne. With nearly three thousand men, convoyed by some ships of war under commodore Hotham, he conducted an expedition upHudson’s river, in October, against the forts Montgomery and Clinton. When arrived within a mile of the place of destination, the troops separated into two columns; the one, consisting of nine hundred men, under lieutenant Campbell, was destined for the attack on fort Montgomery; the other, under the immediate command of Sir Henry Clinton, was to storm the stronger post of fort Clinton. The garrison, when summoned, having refused to surrender, the assault was made on both forts at the same instant. These fortresses, which were separated from each other by a creek only, were commanded by governor Clinton, a brave and intelligent officer, who made a gallant resistance from four in the afternoon, when the attack began, until dark; but, the post having been designed principally to prevent the passing of ships, the works on the land side were incomplete and untenable, and the assailants entered them with fixed bayonets. Most of the garrison, however, effected their escape, undercover of the thick smoke and darkness.
Having noticed the most important features of the military operations of the year 1777, it will be proper, before entering on those of the following years, to afford the reader some information on two very important points—the progress made by the Americans in their foreign relations, and the steps which had been taken to consolidate the general government. In both cases it will be necessary, in order to give a clear and comprehensive view of the subject, slightly to deviate from strict chronological order.
The contest between Great Britain and her colonies had not long commenced, before congress directed their attention to the possibility of attaining foreign assistance. Towards the close of the year 1775, a committee was appointed to hold secret correspondence with the friends of America,both in Europe and other parts of theworld.123Early in the year 1776, the committee, seeing little prospect of an accommodation, and well aware that France would be disposed to make great sacrifices to reduce the powerof Great Britain by the separation of her North American colonies,sent Silas Deane, as a commercial and political agent, to the Frenchcourt.124Mr.Deane arrived in Paris about the1stof July, and was indefatigable in pursuing the objects of his mission; and throughDr.Dubourg, a friend to America, was in a few days introduced to Vergennes. His arrival at Paris was immediately known in London, and lord Stormont was sent express to Paris to watch his movements.Mr.Deane stated to the French minister the objects of his mission, agreeably to his instructions, and in his first conference he touched upon the subject of forming treaties with the Americans in case of their declaring themselves independent. The American agent was favorably received by the French minister, and was asked many questions in relation to American affairs. Vergennes informedMr.Deane, that though the French court estimated highly the importance of American commerce, yet, considering the good understanding between the courts of Versailles and London, they could not openly encourage the shipping of warlike stores; but no obstructions of any kind, he said, would be given. On the subject of independence, he observed that was an event in the womb of time, and it would be highly improper for him to say any thing on that point until it had actually taken place. This first conference with the French minister ended much to the satisfaction of the American agent.
As soon as the question of independence was decided in the affirmative, congress took the subject of foreign affairs into their own hands; and, on the11thof June,appointed a committee to prepare a plan of treaties with foreignpowers.125In the month of September, congress appointedDr.Franklin,Mr.Deane, andMr.Jefferson, commissioners to proceed toFrance.126Dr.Franklin andMr.Lee arrived at Paris in December, and the objects of their mission were soon made known to the French court. The court was not yet prepared to acknowledge the independence of the United States, to form treaties with them, or openly to espouse the cause of the Americans; to prove, however, his good wishes towards the United States, the king ordered two millions of livres to be paid to them by quarterly payments, which should be augmented as the state of his finances would permit. The most profound secrecy, in relation to this donation, was enjoined.The course of policy France intended to pursue, in the contest between Great Britain and her colonies, was now obvious; and with her views of the subject, was perhaps, as it regarded herself at least, a very natural as well as wise course, as she evidently entertained serious doubts whether the states would be able to form a lasting union among themselves, or to persevere in maintaining their independence.
Although the court were thus undecided, the cause of the United States was extremely popular in France, both among the people and the army, and many French officers sought an opportunity of engaging in their service. Among these the young marquis de la Fayette was most conspicuous for his rank, and most distinguished for his ardor and enthusiasm. At an early period he communicated to the American agents his wish to join the republican armies. At first they encouraged his zeal, but learning the disasters which preceded the victory at Trenton, they, with honorable frankness, communicated the information to him, and added, that they were so destitute of funds, that they could not even provide for his passage across the ocean. ‘If your country,’ replied the gallant youth, ‘is indeed reduced to this extremity, it is at this moment that my departure to join her armies will render her the most essential service.’ He immediately hired a vessel to convey him to America, where he arrived in the spring of 1777. He was received with cordial affection by the people, became the bosom friend of Washington, solicited permission to serve without pay, and was appointed major-general in the army.
The disastrous state of American affairs at the close of the year 1776, induced congress to attend more seriously to the subject of securing foreign aid; and a new committee was appointed. Some of the members of this committee were disposed to make great sacrifices to obtain the aid of France,and were almost prepared to offer her the same monopoly of American commerce as had been enjoyed by GreatBritain.127On the30thof December, congress came to the resolution of sending commissioners to the courts of Vienna, Madrid, and Berlin,and to the grand duke ofTuscany.128These commissioners were instructed to assure the courts, to which they were sent, that the Americans were determined to maintain their independence, notwithstanding the suggestions of the British to the contrary.
The success of the arms of the United States by the capture of the army of general Burgoyne, gave a new aspect to their affairs in France, and indeed throughout Europe. The American commissioners at Paris now stood on commanding ground. The French court, aware of the views of the British ministry in relation to the colonies, no longer hesitated about accepting the propositions of the American envoys. M. Gerard informed the American commissioners, on the16thof December, ‘that after a long and mature deliberation upon their propositions, his majesty had determined to recognise the independence of, and to enter into a treaty of commerce and alliance with, the United States of America; and that he would not only acknowledge their independence, but actually support it with all the means in his power; that perhaps he was about to engage himself in an expensive war upon this account, but that he did not expect to be reimbursed by them; in fine, the Americans were not to think that he had entered into this resolution solely with a view of serving them, since, independently of his real attachment to them and their cause, it was evidently the interest of France to diminish the power of England, by severing her colonies from her.’ On the6thof February, 1778, a treaty of commerce was signed by Franklin, Deane, and Lee, on the part of the United States, and by M. Gerard on the part of France, together with a treaty of defensive alliance, in case war should be the consequence of this commercial connection. The essential and direct end of this alliance was, ‘to maintain the liberty, sovereignty, and independence, absolute and unlimited, of the United States, as well in matters of government as of commerce.’
Before leaving this subject, it is necessary to state, that as, previous to the recognition of independence by the court of France, it was imperative that the intercourse with the American agents should be conducted indirectly and with the utmost secrecy, the French government rendered their secret assistance through the agency of M. Beaumarchais, who appears to have been more desirous of serving himself than the Americans. The mode in which he converted the gratuitous aid of the French court into articles of charge in his accounts with the congress, and especially his retaining in his hands a million of livres out of the subsidy granted by the French king, are circumstances too extraordinary to be entirely passed over; but our limits compel us to refer the reader for the details to that very able work, Pitkin’s Civil and Political History, and to the volumes of Diplomatic Correspondence already alluded to.
During the first stages of the revolution, the universal enthusiasm of the people, directed to one common object, in some measure supplied the place of a general legislative and executive power. The congress had hitherto possessed no powers but such as were conferred by the instructions given by the state legislatures to their respective delegates; but on the11thof June, 1776, the day following that in which the resolution in favor of independence had been adopted, congress determined to appoint a committee to prepare and digest the form of a confederation. This committee, on the12thof July following, reported a plan of confederacy, consisting of twenty articles, and on the22dof the same month it was discussed in committee of the whole house, and was under consideration until the20thof August, when an amended draft was reported. The difficulty in agreeing upon the details of the system, as well as the gloomy aspect of American affairs at this period, prevented congress from resumingthis subject until April, 1777, when they resolved that two days in each week should be employed upon it, ‘until it shall be wholly discussed.’ The amended draft was considered and debated accordingly until the26thof June, when it was again postponed to the2dof October, and was not finally adopted by congress until the15thof November. The outlines of the system were, that the thirteen states formed a confederacy, under the style and name of ‘the United States of America;’ by which they entered ‘into a firm league of friendship with each other, for their defence, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other against all force offered to or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever.’ This plan of union was to be proposed to the legislatures of all the states, and, if approved, they were advised to authorize their delegates in congress to ratify the same; this being done, it was to be conclusive. The plan was considered by the legislatures of the several states in the winter of 1777–8, and by some was adopted without amendments, by others various amendments were proposed.
The effect produced on the British cabinet, and on the nation at large, by the intelligence of the surrender of general Burgoyne and his army, can scarcely be described. The most brilliant success had been anticipated; the most ignominious result had occurred. The pride of the nation was humbled, and those who had disapproved of the war poured upon the ministry a torrent of invective; while the embarrassments of the ministry were increased by the intelligence of the course which the hereditary enemy and rival of Great Britain had resolved to pursue. Under these circumstances it was determined in the cabinet to grant to America all that she had demanded in the beginning of the contest. An act was passed, declaring that parliament would not, in future, impose any tax upon the colonies; and commissioners were sent over, authorized to proclaim a repeal of all the offensive statutes, and to treat with the constituted authorities of America. The commissioners, arriving at Philadelphia in the spring, communicated to congress the terms offered by Great Britain,which were, however, unanimouslyrejected.129
The arms of congress had been successful on the Hudson; but many difficulties arose in the execution of the convention of Saratoga. It had been stipulated that general Burgoyne’s army should embark at Boston forEurope: but, at the time of signing the convention, the British general seems not to have been aware that it is difficult for ships to reach the port of Boston during the winter; and that, owing to this cause, the embarkation of his troops might be delayed till the ensuing spring. On being apprized of this circumstance, general Burgoyne immediately applied to the American commander-in-chief, desiring him to change the port of embarkation, and to appoint Newport, in Rhode Island, or some other place on the sound, instead of Boston; and, in case this request should not be complied with, soliciting, on account of his health and private business, that the indulgence might be granted to himself and suite. General Washington, not thinking himself authorized to decide on such an application, transmitted it to congress, which took no notice of the matter further than to pass a resolution, ‘That general Washington be directed to inform general Burgoyne, that congress will not receive or consider any proposition for indulgence, or altering the terms of the convention of Saratoga, unless immediately addressed to their own body.’ The application was accordingly made to congress, who readily complied with the request in so far as it respected himself personally, but refused the indulgence to his troops, and ultimately forbade their embarkation.
Congress watched with a jealous eye every movement of the convention army, and soon gave public indications of that jealousy. Early in November, they ordered general Heath, who commanded in Boston, ‘to take the name, rank, former place of abode, and description of every person comprehended in the convention of Saratoga, in order that, if afterwards found in arms against the United States, they might be punished according to the law of nations.’ General Burgoyne showed some reluctance to the execution of this order; and his reluctance was imputed to no honorable motives.
The British army in Philadelphia spent the winter in gayety and revelry, injuring at once their own respectability and the cause which they were employed to support. They disgusted the sober inhabitants by their irregularities, and provoked them by their insolence; so that many who had hailed their arrival with cordial gratulations, felt a lively satisfaction when the hour of their departure came.
General Washington quitted White Marsh, crossed the Schuylkill at Sweed’s ford, and, on the19thof December, took a strong position at Valley Forge, about twenty-six miles from Philadelphia. Had he retired during the winter to the shelter of a large town, he must have gone to a great distance from the British army, and left an extensive tract of country open to their foraging parties; or had he cantoned his men in the adjacent villages, his army might have been beaten in detail and gradually destroyed. But at Valley Forge he was sufficiently near Philadelphia to check the foraging parties of the enemy, and his army was so much concentrated as to secure it from any sudden and desultory attack.
At Valley Forge the American commander-in-chief lodged his army in huts formed of logs, with the interstices filled with mud, which constituted very acceptable habitations to men long unaccustomed to the conveniences of life. But, though sheltered from the storm by their rude dwellings, the sufferings of the army from want of provisions and clothing were incredible. The winter was severe, and many of the men were without stockings or shoes, and almost naked. The non-importation associations renderedcloth scarce at the commencement of hostilities; the war rendered importation difficult; and the consumption exceeded the produce of the home manufacture. Hence the army was left in a destitute and deplorable condition; and the line of march, from White Marsh to Valley Forge, over rough and frozen roads, might have been traced by the blood from the bare and mangled feet of the soldiers. Under the shelter of the huts their sufferings were at first considerably alleviated; but in a short time the miseries of want, amounting almost to famine, were added to those of nakedness. In these trying circumstances numbers of the troops, especially they who had been born in Europe, eluded the vigilance of the guards, and deserted to the enemy in Philadelphia, carrying their arms along with them. Many loyalists also joined general Howe; so that the strength of his army was sensibly increased.
Encampment at Valley Forge.
Encampment at Valley Forge.
Many representations on the wants and hardships of the army had been submitted to congress, which had authorized the commander-in-chief to seize provisions for his army wherever he could find them, within seventy miles of head-quarters, paying for them with money, or giving certificates, for the redemption of which the faith of the United States was pledged. This odious power general Washington was extremely backward to exercise; but at Valley Forge his necessities were so pressing that he was constrained to have recourse to it; and, notwithstanding all his precautions, the manner in which his orders were executed did not always soften the rigor of this harsh measure. Men with arms in their hands, and supported by authority, are seldom delicate in supplying their urgent wants.
The American commander-in-chief was ill-provided with money, and could make his payments only in paper of very uncertain value; but the supplies carried into Philadelphia were readily paid for by the British troops in gold and silver; and the patriotism of the people was not sufficiently ardent to prevent them from carrying their goods to the best market. It was, however, no easy matter for the country people to carry provisions into Philadelphia without detection and punishment; for the American detachments and patrols, though at a respectful distance, almost encircled the city.
While the army lay at Valley Forge, a plot was formed to remove general Washington from the chief command; and in that plot several members of congress, and a very few military officers, were concerned. Insinuations against the military talents of general Washington were industriously circulated; and the public attention was directed towards general Gates, whose success at Saratoga had thrown a brilliant lustre round his name. General Thomas Conway was an active agent in the plot; and many of the inhabitants of Pennsylvania, chagrined by the loss of their capital, and willing to devolve on the general who had twice, with inferior forces, fought the enemy in their defence, the blame of those misfortunes which had arisen from their own pusillanimity and carelessness in not reinforcing the army, readily joined in the clamor. The conduct of general Gates was equivocal, but he solemnly disclaimed all connection with the faction. The officers of general Washington’s army, strongly attached to him, felt the liveliest indignation against those intriguers who wished to remove their favorite leader from his command.
By the uniform tenor of his conduct, general Washington had won the affection and esteem of almost all his troops, both officers and privates; and, fortunately for America, there was enough of discernment in congress to resist the dark machinations of the faction, and to continue their brave and upright commander-in-chief at the head of the army. His situation, however, was by no means enviable. His army was much attached to him; but, weakened by disease, and irritated by nakedness and hunger, it was almost on the point of dissolution. In the midst of the difficulties and dangers with which he was surrounded, general Washington displayed a singular degree of steady perseverance, unshaken fortitude, and unwearied activity. Instead of manifesting irritable impatience under the malignant attacks made on his character, he behaved with magnanimity, and earnestly applied to congress, and to the legislative bodies of the several states, for reinforcements to his army, in order that he might be prepared to act with vigor in the ensuing campaign.
But to recruit and equip the army was no easy task. The great depreciation of paper money rendered the pay of the soldiers inadequate to their support; and, consequently, it was not likely that voluntary enlistment would be successful, especially since the patriotic ardor of many had begun to cool by the continuance of the war, and all knew that great hardships and dangers were to be encountered by joining the army. The pay even of the officers, in the depreciated paper currency, was wholly unequal to the maintenance of their rank. Some of them who had small patrimonial estates found them melting away, while their lives were unprofitably devoted to the service of their country; and they who had no private fortune could not appear in a manner becoming their station. A commission was a burden; and many considered the acceptance of one as conferring rather than receiving a favor: a state of things highly disadvantageous to the service; for the duties of an office scarcely reckoned worth holding will seldom be zealously and actively discharged. There was reason to apprehend that many of the most meritorious officers would resign their commissions; and that they only who were less qualified for service would remain with the army.
Congress, moved by the remonstrances of the commander-in-chief, and by the complaints with which they were assailed from every quarter, deputeda committee of their body to reside in camp during the winter; and, in concert with the general, to examine the state of the army, and report on the measures necessary to be taken for placing it in a more respectable condition. But the reforms in the army were tardily made. Congress were fond of their own speculations, although experience had proved them mischievous; and were slow in rectifying the evils which arose from their own errors. The state legislatures were backward in adopting coercive measures for recruiting the army; and each of them was jealous of bearing more than its share of the war. At length, however, an efficient commissary-general was appointed; the other departments were put on a more desirable footing; and vigorous measures were pursued to prepare for the ensuing campaign.
During the winter there was a good deal of correspondence between the generals respecting prisoners of war. Complaints were mutual; and a partial cartel was agreed to.
In consequence of the treaties concluded with her revolted colonies, Great Britain declared war against France; and the ministry, presuming that assistance would be sent to the Americans, transmitted orders by the commissioners, that Philadelphia should be evacuated, and the royal troops concentrated at New York. The execution of these orders devolved upon Sir Henry Clinton, who had been appointed commander-in-chief on the resignation of general Howe. On the18thof June the enemy quitted the city, and marched slowly eastward. Washington, leaving his huts in the forest, hung upon the rear of the British army, watching for a favorable opportunity to offer battle. On arriving at Monmouth, in New Jersey, general Lee, who had lately been exchanged, was ordered to take the command of five thousand men, and, early in the morning of the28th, to commence an attack, being assured that he should be supported by the whole army. Lee made dispositions to attack accordingly, but perceiving the main body of the English returning to meet him, he began to retreat. Washington, advancing to render the promised support, saw him retiring, rode forward,and addressed him in language implying disapprobation of hisconduct.130He then directed him to form his men on ground which he pointed out, and there oppose the progress of the enemy. A warm engagement ensued, and Washington, arriving with the main body of his army, compelled the British to fall back.
The day had been intensely hot, and the troops were greatlyfatigued,131yet general Washington resolved to renew the engagement; but there were so many impediments to be overcome, that before the attack could be commenced it was nearly dark. It was therefore thought most advisable to postpone further operations until morning,and the troops lay on their arms in the field ofbattle.132General Washington, who had been exceedinglyactive through the day, and entirely regardless of personal danger, reposed himself at night in his cloak, under a tree, in the midst of his soldiers. His intention of renewing the battle was, however, frustrated; the British troops marched away about midnight in such profound silence, that the most advanced posts knew nothing of their departure until morning. The American general, declining all further pursuit of the royal army, detached some light troops to attend its motions, and drew off his soldiers to the borders of the North river. Sir Henry Clinton, after remaining a few days on the high grounds of Middleton, proceeded to Sandy Hook, whence he passed his army over to New York.
The British having entered New York, Washington conducted his army to White Plains. Congress returned to Philadelphia; and in July received, with inexpressible joy, a letter from the count D’Estaing, announcing his arrival on the coast of Virginia, with twelve sail of the line and six frigates, with about four thousand troops on board. The count had intended to surprise admiral Howe in the Delaware, but adverse winds detained him on the passage, until the British fleet had sailed for New York. He appeared before that harbor, but on sounding, found that his largest ships could not pass the bar. By the advice of Washington, a combined attack upon the British forces at Newport, in Rhode Island, was resolved on. General Sullivan, who had been appointed to command the troops, called upon the militia of New England to aid him in the enterprise. His army soon amounted to ten thousand men, and, as he was supported by the fleet he felt confident of success. On the9thof August, he took a position on the north end of Rhode Island, and afterwards moved nearer to Newport. Admiral Howe, having received a reinforcement, now appeared before the harbor, and the count instantly put to sea to attack him. A furious storm, however, came on, which damaged and dispersed both fleets. As soon as the weather permitted, each commander sought the port from which he had sailed; but great was the disappointment of the Americans when D’Estaing announced his intention of proceeding to Boston to refit; they earnestly remonstrated, but the count was inflexible. Deserted by the fleet, the army could remain no longer with safety on the island. General Sullivan, therefore, immediately retreated to his first position. He was pursued and attacked by the enemy; but they were gallantly resisted and repulsed with loss. The next day the two armies cannonaded each other, and the succeeding night the American general, deceiving the enemy by a show of resistance to the last, made a skilful retreat to the continent. It was a remarkable escape. The delay of a single day would probably have been fatal to the Americans; for Sir Henry Clinton, who had been impeded by adverse winds, arrived with a reinforcement of four thousand men the very next day, when a retreat, it is presumed, would have been impracticable.
At this period of the war hostilities were carried on with more than usual acrimony. In several instances the British troops, and their allies,the American tories and native Indians, exhibited a barbarity deeply to be lamented, wantonly destroying the property and injuring the persons of peaceful unarmed inhabitants. While asleep in a barn at Tappan, colonel Baylor’s troop of light dragoons were surprised by general Grey, who commanded his soldiers to use the bayonet only, and to give the rebels no quarter. Incapable of defence, they sued for mercy; but the most pathetic supplications were heard without awakening compassion; nearly one-half of the troop were killed. To many, repeated thrusts were barbarously given as long as signs of life remained; while some who had nearly a dozen stabs through the body, and were left for dead, afterwards recovered. A few escaped, and forty were saved by the humanity of a British captain, who dared to disobey the orders of his general. With feelings of revenge yet more barbarous, Wyoming, a happy and flourishing settlement, on the eastern branch of the Susquehannah, in Pennsylvania, was attacked by a band of tories and Indians. The conditions of the capitulation were entirely disregarded by the British and savage forces, and after the fort was delivered up, all kinds of barbarities were committed by them. The village of Wilkesbarre, consisting of twenty-three houses, was burnt; men and their wives were separated from each other and carried into captivity; their property was plundered, and the settlement laid waste. The remainder of the inhabitants were driven from the valley, and compelled to proceed on foot sixty miles through the great swamp, almost without food or clothing. A number perished in the journey, principally women and children; some died of their wounds, others wandered from the path in search of food and were lost; and those who survived called the wilderness through which they passed ‘The Shades of Death,’ an appellation which it has since retained. Many other instances might be adduced;but it is better to suffer the record of them toperish.133
In the campaign of 1778 little on either side was accomplished. The alliance with France gave birth to expectations which events did not fulfil;but the presence of her fleets on the coast deranged the plans of the British; induced them to relinquish a part of their conquests; and prevented their making any progress in the accomplishment of their designs.
The close of this year was distinguished by a change of the theatre of war from the northern to the southern section of the confederacy. The country, weak by its scattered population, the multitude of slaves, and the number of tories, presented a prospect of easy victory. In the end of November, lieutenant-colonel Campbell, with two thousand five hundred men, sailed from New York to the coast of Georgia. Having landed his troops, he marched towards Savannah, the capital; and defeating a small body of Americans whom he met on his route, he immediately took possession of the city. After the fall of the capital, Sunbury surrendered at discretion; and these were the only military posts in Georgia.
The campaign of 1779 was opened by general Lincoln, who had been appointed to the command of the American troops in the southern department. In April, leaving South Carolina, he marched into the interior of Georgia; upon which the British army, entering the state he had left, invested Charleston, the capital. Lincoln hastened back to its defence; and on his approach, the British retired to Stono ferry, where an action was fought, and a few days afterwards they continued their retreat to Savannah. The heat of the season suspended farther operations until September; when count D’Estaing, with a fleet carrying six thousand troops, arrived on the coast. The two armies, in concert, laid siege to Savannah. At the expiration of a month, the count, impatient of delay, insisted that the siege should be abandoned, or that a combined assault upon the enemy’s works should immediately be made. General Lincoln determined upon the latter course. Great gallantry was displayed by the French and American troops,but the British repulsed the assailants, killing and wounding nearly a thousandmen,134while on their part the loss was small. The next day the siege was raised, the French returning home, and the Americans to South Carolina.
The operations of the British in the more northern parts of America were predatory rather than military. In May, a naval and land force, commanded by Sir George Collier and general Matthews, made a descent on Virginia. On their arrival, they took possession of Portsmouth and of Norfolk; destroyed the houses, vessels, naval stores, and a large magazine of provisions, at Suffolk; made a similar destruction at Kemp’s Landing, Shepherd’s, Gosport, Tanner’s Creek, and other places in the vicinity; and, after setting fire to the houses and other public buildings in the dockyard at Gosport, embarked with their booty for New York. A similar expedition was soon after undertaken from New York against Connecticut, by governor Tryon, with two thousand six hundred land forces, supported by brigadier-general Garth, and accompanied by Sir George Collier with armed vessels to cover the transports. Though checked in their march, they entered New Haven about one in the afternoon, from which time untileight in the evening the town was subjected to almost indiscriminate ravage and plunder. The royal army also plundered and burned the town of Fairfield, and the greatest part of the neighboring village of Green Farms. A few days afterward they laid the town of Norwalk in ashes.
Early in the season, colonel Clarke, of Virginia, who was stationed at Kaskaskia, on the Mississippi, achieved an enterprise conspicuous for boldness of design, and evincing uncommon hardihood in its execution. With only one hundred and thirty men, he penetrated through the wilderness toSt.Vincent’s, a British post on the Wabash, in the heart of the Indian country. His route lay across deep swamps and morrasses; and in one instance the party waded through water, often as high as the breast, for nearly five miles. After a march of sixteen days, they reached the town, which, having no intimation of their approach, surrendered without resistance; and a short time after, the fort capitulated. This fortunate achievement arrested an expedition which the enemy had projected against the frontiers of Virginia, and detached several tribes of Indians from the British interest.
Congress, though its measures toward the Indians were conciliatory, could not secure the western frontiers. The Six Nations had been advised by that body, and had promised, to observe a neutrality in the war; but, excepting the Oneidas, and a few others who were friendly to the Americans, those Indians took a decided part against them. The presents and promises of Sir John Johnson and other British agents, with the desire of plunder, induced them to invade the frontiers; and wherever they went, they carried slaughter and devastation. An expedition was therefore ordered against them, and general Sullivan, to whom the conduct of it was intrusted, marched into their country. The Indians, on hearing of the projected expedition, collected their strength, took possession of proper ground, and fortified it with judgment. General Sullivan attacked them in their works, and they sustained a cannonade of more than two hours; but they then gave way, and, after their trenches were forced, they fled with precipitation. The victorious army, penetrating into the heart of their country, laid it desolate. Their villages, their detached habitations, their corn-fields, their fruit-trees and gardens, were indiscriminately destroyed.
The campaign of this year, though barren in important events, was distinguished by one gallant enterprise, which reflected much honor on the American arms. Stony Point, a fortress on the North river, had been taken from the Americans, and strongly fortified by the British. It was at this time garrisoned by about six hundred men, under the command of lieutenant-colonel Johnson. General Washington, having obtained precise information of the condition of the works, the nature of the ground in their vicinity, the strength and arrangements of the garrison, and the disposition of the guards, and having in person reconnoitred the post, resolved to attempt the surprise of it. The execution of the plan was intrusted to general Wayne, and the troops employed on this service were chiefly from New England. At half-past eleven on the night of the15thof July, the columns moved on to the charge at opposite points of the works, the van of each with unloaded muskets and fixed bayonets; and at twenty minutes after twelve both columns rushed forward under a tremendous fire of musketry and grape-shot, entered the works at the point of the bayonet, and, arrivingin the centre of them at nearly the same instant, compelled the garrison to surrender at discretion. A more gallant exploit has seldom been performed, and the humanity of the victors was equal to their valor. Notwithstanding the devastations in Connecticut, and the butchery of Baylor’s troop, the scene of which was near, not an individual suffered after resistance had ceased.