[7]In this statement we follow Clavé and other authors. Huffel takes exception to this conception of the origin of the shelterwood system, because he finds in some documents allusion to a modified application of thetire et airemethod which might be construed into shelterwood regeneration. Indeed, Guiot (1770) and Varennes de Fenille (1790) describe methods of procedure which resemble somewhat this method of regeneration. But as the method of successive fellings was practised in Germany since 1720, and fully developed in all its detail by 1790—Hartig formulating merely into rules what was long practised—it is likely that the French authors had heard of it. Moreover, in another place (vol. III, p. 271) Huffel says: “At this time (1821) one made several tentative regeneration cuttings by successive fellings according to the new formula—but without success.”
[7]In this statement we follow Clavé and other authors. Huffel takes exception to this conception of the origin of the shelterwood system, because he finds in some documents allusion to a modified application of thetire et airemethod which might be construed into shelterwood regeneration. Indeed, Guiot (1770) and Varennes de Fenille (1790) describe methods of procedure which resemble somewhat this method of regeneration. But as the method of successive fellings was practised in Germany since 1720, and fully developed in all its detail by 1790—Hartig formulating merely into rules what was long practised—it is likely that the French authors had heard of it. Moreover, in another place (vol. III, p. 271) Huffel says: “At this time (1821) one made several tentative regeneration cuttings by successive fellings according to the new formula—but without success.”
At the present time large areas of coppice and of coppice with standards characterize the holdings of the municipal and private owners, and the selection forest still plays a considerable part even in the State forests; the method of shelterwood in compartments, being still more under discussion than found in practice.
The main credit for advance in silvicultural direction which belongs to the French foresters in particular is the development of new and fertile ideas regarding the operations of thinnings; here the differentiation of the crop into the final harvest (le haut) and the nurse crop (le bas) (seepage 105) and the differentiation of the operations,par le hautandpar le bas, seems to have been for the first time described by Boppe in 1887. Indeed, the theory of thinnings, at least, seems to have been well understood by Buffon, who advanced his theories in a memoir to the Academy of France, in 1774, and gives a very clear exposition of the value of thinnings and improvement cuttings.
Nevertheless, thinning practice, while often accentuated in the literature, is too often omitted in practice,or exercised only in long intervals, while otherwise silvicultural practice is excellent, especially in the coppice. Most valuable lessons may be had especially from the experience in converting coppice into timber forest.
At the International Congress of Silviculture, convening in connection with the Universal Exposition in 1900, supposedly the best home talent was represented, but it cannot be said that anything new, or striking, or promotive of the art or science transpired. The desirability of establishing experiment stations outside the one in existence at Nancy (established in 1882), and the desirability of constructing yield tables still required arguments at this meeting.
In the direction of forest organization, it is stated by Clavé that in 1860 only 900,000 acres of the State domain were under a regulated management, namely 380,000 acres in timber forest and 520,000 in coppice with standards, leaving about 1,500,000 acres at that time still merely exploited. The same writer states that of the corporation or communal forests hardly any are under management for sustained yield, and private forest management is not mentioned in this connection. Even to-day less than one-third of the total area is under systematic control. In 1908 still, about 14% of the State forests were without working plans, and 15% in selection forest.
The method of forest organization employed, outside of the crude determinations of a felling budget in the selection forest, is an imitation of Cotta’s combined area and volume allotment, with hardly any attempt of securing normality, introduced in 1825. Characteristic, and differing from the German model,is the practice of actually collocating in each district (canton) the periodic felling areas (affectations) on the ground so as to secure a schematic felling series or periodic block (séries). This is done often at great sacrifice. Lately, various, more pliable modifications have come into vogue (méthode de l’affectation unique) and freer methods (méthode du quartier de régénération), somewhat similar to Judeich’s stand management, are proposed. Altogether working plans, such as are elaborated in Germany, are rare, and yield tables are still looked upon by Huffel as doubtfully useful.
The management of the State forests is extremely conservative, large accumulations of old stock, the holding over of one quarter for reserve, and high rotations—only apparently based on maximum volume production, since the statistical data are scanty—are characteristic. The opposite conditions appear in the private forests.
In the earlier times the service established was as we have seen, often, nay mostly in incompetent hands; the offices of forestmasters were purchasable, were given to courtiers as benefices, and became hereditary. In all these, higher professional knowledge was unnecessary. The ignorance of the subordinates was as great as that of their German counterparts, but lasted longer. Hardly any book literature on the subject of forestry developed before the 19th century, and educational institutions had to wait until long past the beginning of that century.
The first, and up to the present, only forest school,came into existence after a considerable campaign, directed by Baudrillart, Chief of Division, Administration Générale des Forêts, and professor of political economy. His campaign in theAnnales Forestières, the first volume of which appeared in 1808, and in other writings as in hisDictionnaire des eaux et forêts(1825), led to the establishment of the forest school at Nancy in 1825.
The first director of this school,Bernard Lorentz, having become acquainted with and befriended by G. L. Hartig, and his assistant, afterward his son-in-law and successor,Adolphe Parade, having studied under Cotta (1817-1818) in Tharandt, this school introduced the science of forestry as it had then been developed in Germany; but later generations underNanquette,Bagneris,Broillard,BoppeandPuton, imbued with patriotism, attempted in a manner to strike out on original lines.
As a consequence of the “unpatriotic” German tendencies of its first directors the continuance of the school at Nancy was several times threatened, there being friction between the administration of the school and the service, which in 1844 came to a climax, agents in the service being employed without preparation in the school, a condition which lasted until 1856.
Even to date an active service of 15 years is considered equivalent to the education in the school for advancement in the service.
In 1839, Lorentz was disgracefully displaced, in spite of his great merits, because he advocated too warmly the application of the superior system of regeneration under shelterwood to replace the coppiceand selection forest, an incident almost precisely repeated in the State of New York in abandoning its State College at Cornell University; and in other respects the two cases appear parallel.[8]Parade, the successor of Lorentz being imbued with the same heretical doctrines was constantly in trouble, and in 1847, a most savage attack in the legislature was launched which threatened the collapse of the school. This condition lasted until Parade’s death, in 1864, whenNanquetteassumed guidance of the school and steered in more peaceful waters by avoiding all ideas at reforms and innovations, but otherwise improving the character of the school and introducing the third year study. But he, too, was much criticized and in difficulties until 1880; nor wasPuton, his successor, free from troubles, until in 1889 a new regime and new regulations were enacted.
[8]According to others (a reviewer of this volume), the difficulties which befell the institution were financial ones, “the too rapid conversion into timberforest reducing receipts, which the Minister of Finance resented.” Guyot’s history of the school, however, leaves little doubt of the above interpretation being correct. In the case of the State College at Cornell University, a later historian might similarly claim financial difficulties, the school having actually been closed for lack of appropriation; nevertheless political trickery was the real cause of this lack.
[8]According to others (a reviewer of this volume), the difficulties which befell the institution were financial ones, “the too rapid conversion into timberforest reducing receipts, which the Minister of Finance resented.” Guyot’s history of the school, however, leaves little doubt of the above interpretation being correct. In the case of the State College at Cornell University, a later historian might similarly claim financial difficulties, the school having actually been closed for lack of appropriation; nevertheless political trickery was the real cause of this lack.
The school is organized on military lines. The students, who intend to enter the State service are chosen from the graduates of the Institute national agronomique of Paris, only a limited number being admitted. It has 12 professors, two for forestry, two each for natural science, mathematics, and one each for law, soil physics and agriculture, for military science and for German. A three year course, which includes journeys through the forest regions of France, leadsto government employment; indeed, the first paid position asgarde général stagiaireis attained after two years study and before leaving school.
For several years, (1867 to 1884) English students preparing for the Indian service received their instruction here, and 380 foreigners have received their education in this school since its foundation.
For the education of the lower grades, an imperial rescript ordered the establishment of several schools, which were, however, never organized. In 1863, were proposed, and in 1868, opened, four schools, where efficient forest guards were to secure some knowledge that would assist them to advancement; three of these schools persisted until 1883. In 1873, an additional school for silviculture for the education of underforesters was organized at Barres-Vilmorin, where annually a limited number of students are permitted to enter. This institution has persisted to date.
The Frenchforestry literaturehas never been prolific, and to this day occupies still a limited amount of shelf room. The first book on record is a translation of the well known volume of the Italian, Peter de Crescentiis, translated at the instance of Charles V in 1373. In the 16th century we have reference to an encyclopædic volume, probably similar to the German Hausväter, byOliver de Serres,Théatre d’Agriculture et Mesnage des Champs, in which a chapter is devoted to the forests. During the 18th century, just as in Germany the cameralists, we have in France a number of high class writings, not byforesters, but by savants or students of natural history, the names of Réaumur, Duhamel, Buffon and Micheaux appearing with memoirs transmitted to the Academy of France, the highest literary and scientific body of men, on subjects relating to forestry.Réaumur, in hisRéflexions sur l’état des forêts, in 1721, recommended the conversion of coppice forests into timber forests by a system of thinnings, but it is evident that his words were not heard beyond the Academy.Duhamel(in 1755, 1764, 1780) repeats the recommendation of Réaumur in his three memoirs,Semis et Plantations,Exploitation des BoisandTraité de la Physique des Arbres, in which he exhibits considerable learning, whileBuffon, the great naturalist, in 1739 and after, presented several memoirs on forestry subjects full of excellent advice.Varennes de Fenille, another one of the Academicians, but also one of the conservators is on record with two memoirs (1790, 1791) on the management of coppice and timber forests in which also the theory of thinnings was well developed. But among the foresters of the service there seems not to have been sufficient education to appreciate these writings, or, with the exception ofGuiotwith hisManuel forestier(1770), to bring forth any contributions to the literature and art, until the 19th century. In 1803, we find the first encyclopædic volume inTraité de l’Aménagement des Forêts, which was followed, in 1805, by a very incorrect translation of Hartig’sLehrbuch, both by Baudrillart, professor of political economy, who also published in 12 volumes hisTraité Général des Eaux et Forêts.Perthuis, in 1796, andDralet, a forester, in 1807, alsobrought out treatises on forest management, which include all branches of the subject.
According to Huffel, the foresters of this period (Louis XV and XVI) were of superior character, and forestry in France the first in the world; the writings of French authors were being translated into German and studied by foreign foresters. He has to admit, however, that the majority of these authors were not really members of the forest service.
In 1836 appearedParade’sCours Elémentaire de Culture des Bois, an excellent book, recording the teachings of Hartig and Cotta. This seems to have been all-sufficient until 1873, at least. Such things as yield tables are still a mere wish, whenTassywrote hisEtudes, etc., in 1858, whilede Salomona little later reproduced Cotta’s yield tables, and to this day this needful tool of the forester is still almost absent, at least in the literature of France.Nanquette,Broillard,Bagneris,Puton,Reuss,Boppe, all directors or professors at the forest school, enriched the French literature by volumes on silviculture and forest management, andHenryon soil physics. He also translated from the German Wollny’sDécomposition des matières organiques. It is claimed byGuyot, that a truly “French science” (!) of forestry dates fromBroillard’s Cours d’aménagementin 1878.Demontzey’s Reboisement des montagnes, 1882, is a classic volume. Of more modern book literature may be mentioned three voluminous publications, namelyTraité des arbresbyMouillefert(1892-1898) in 3 volumes, andTraité d’exploitation commerciale des boisbyMattheyin two volumes, andGuyot’sCours dedroit forestierin two volumes. A very complete work on valuation of damage under the misleading titleIncendies en forêtwas published byJacquotin 1903.
But the latest and perhaps most ambitious work in the French language and especially of intense interest from the historical point of view, tracing not only the development of forest policies but of silvicultural and managerial practices in France, isG. Huffel’sEconomie Forestièrein three volumes published 1904-1907.
There should not be forgotten as among the non-professional promoters of forest questions,Chevandier, a chemist and manufacturer, who, in 1844, made investigations regarding the influence of irrigation on wood growth and on the influence of fertilizers, and in connection withWertheim, laid the foundation for timber physics.
One bi-weekly magazine,Revue des Eaux et Forêts, in existence for 50 years, the successor to theAnnales forestières, begun in 1808, satisfies the needs of current literature, besides the journals of various forestry associations, among which the Bulletin de la Société de Franche Comté et Belfort has for a long time taken a prominent rank.
A very active propagandist literary and association work has within the last decades been inaugurated, and forestry associations of local character abound. Among these the “Touring Club,” a sporting association with some 16,000 members in 364 branches is active by writing out prizes and promoting wasteland planting. Through its agency some 4000 acres had been planted by 1910, some 900 nurseries furnishing plant material.
An active Section of Silviculture in theSociété des Agriculteurssome time ago absorbed the forestry association and is also doing practical work in the direction most needed, improvement of forestry practice among private woodland owners.
The French possess extensive colonies in Africa, Asia, America and Oceania, covering not less than four million square miles with over 90 million people, to some of which at least they have extended some features of their forest policy, notably in Algeria, Tunis, Indo-China and Madagascar.
Algeria, which was conquered in 1828, is about four-fifths of the size of France, but only 5.5 per cent. is forested. Besides the desert, there are two forest regions, the northern slope, the so-called Tell, abutting on the Mediterranean, which, with 20 per cent. forested, contains the most valuable forests of Cork Oak, various other oaks, and Aleppo Pine; and the high plateau to the south, a region of steppes with about 6% forested, mostly with brushwood. The adjoiningTunisalso contains some 2 million acres of forest, a part of which clothed with the valuable Cork Oak.
Although the population does not exceed 5 million, import of wood from Sweden and elsewhere to nearly one million dollars in amount is necessary. The first advance of civilization led to wide-spread destructionof the originally larger forest area; fire and pasture being specially destructive.
Before the French occupation, the 8 million acres of forest were all, as usual in the mussulman’s empires, the property of the sultan, but were used like communal property by the people. By 1871, the larger portion, some 6 million acres remained in possession of the state, much encumbered by rights of user.
At the same time, considerable areas (some 700,000 acres) had been ceded to communities outright, and others (1.25 million acres) had been sold to private parties. At first, these latter lands were let for exploitation of the cork oak on 40 year leases, later extended to 90 years with indemnities for damage by fire—an incentive to allow these to run, until in 1870, the fire damage having become onerous, all areas burned after 1863 were gratuitously ceded to the contractors, more than one-third the areas involved, and the other two-thirds were then sold at a ridiculously low price and under the easiest conditions of payment, in the same shameful manner in which the timberlands of the United States were given away.
In 1836, a forest administration for the state domain was inaugurated, but the unfortunate division of powers between military and civil authorities was a hindrance to effective improvement of conditions. The fire ravages of 1871 led to a thorough re-organization under the direction of Tassy, in 1873.
Nevertheless, in 1900, Lefebvre, Inspector of Forests, in his book,Les forêts de l’Algérie, still complains that the forests are being ruined, especiallyby pasturing, the means allowed the administration being too niggardly measured.
The Forest Code of the home country and special laws enacted from time to time applies. The administration of the state and communal forest is directly under the home department and is regulated in similar manner.
A re-organization and a special forest code for Algiers was enacted in 1903. This legislation relies still largely on the general principles of the Code of 1827. The most interesting features are the provision for expropriation and addition to the state domain of forests the preservation of which is of public interest, and the rigorous forest fire legislation, which permits the treatment of incendiaries as insurrectionists, makes the extinction of forest fires a duty of the forest officials, and provides the forcible establishment of fire lines (rides) between neighbors.
In the forests placed under the forestry regime, permits from the governor-general are required for clearing. For the administration of these properties, the state receives ten per cent. of the gross yield. Reforested hilltops or slopes and sand dunes are relieved from taxes for 30 years, burnt areas for 10 years.
In the other African possessions, unregulated exploitation of the tropical forests, largely for by-products, like caoutchouc, kola, and fine furniture woods, is still the order of the day, except inMadagascar, which with 25 to 30 million acres of tropical forest area, was, in 1900, provided with a forest service, which is under the Minister of Colonies. Here,a license system is in vogue, giving concessions to exploit limited areas for a given time, at an annual rent of less than one cent, per acre per year. The concessions run from 5 to 20 years, and on 12,500 acres or more, the time of their duration being extended from the lowest term for one year for every 2,500 acres. Police regulations and fines are intended to check abuses, and to regulate the rights of user exercised by natives.
InIndo-China(Cochin-China, Cambodia, Anam, Tonquin) the total forest area is still unknown. Only that of Cochin-China with 2.5 million acres, and of Cambodia with 10 million acres can be stated, and Cochin-China seems to possess the only approach to a forest service. Although it is estimated that in 1901 in the whole of Indo-China, with 18 million people, some 85 million cubic feet of wood were cut (nine-tenths fire wood) an import of over $200,000 worth of workwood from Europe was needed.
The first attempts at regulating forest use in these Asiatic possessions date back to 1862, when exploitation was confined to delimited areas. The administration, however, remained inefficient, and under impracticable and heterogeneous orders, which were issued from time to time, devastation progressed with little hindrance.
For Cochin-China, a more definite forest policy was formulated in 1894-5, when not only the State domain but also the private forest property was placed under therégime forestier. The supervision of the private forests consists in requiring the marking of trees tobe cut by government agents, and a permit for their removal.
The State forests are of two classes: Reserves in which all cutting is forbidden, only some 200,000 acres; and those in which licenses to cut may operate. Such licenses are given for one year and for a price of 100 piastres. The villagers have free use of the less valuable woods, their only obligation being to assist in protection against fire and theft.
A real forest service was not instituted until 1901 a director with four assistants being placed in charge under the Department of Agriculture. Until recently reports of the deplorable condition due to absence of technical management reached the outside, but lately (1911), the Governor-General discussing the situation not only speaks approvingly of the forest service, which on the two million acres under its immediate management had, by 1909, trebled the revenue, but talks of extending its activities to planting up waste places in order to secure favorable water conditions for irrigating lands.
The rest of the colonies are being merely exploited.
Les Forêts de la Russie, Ministère de l’Agriculture, Paris Exposition Universelle, 1900, pp. 190, gives a very detailed description of forest conditions, markets and management, with a few historic points.Russlands Wald, byF. v. Arnold, Berlin, 1893, pp. 526, contains historic notes and a profuse discussion of the law of 1888.The Industries of Russia: Agriculture and Forestry, issued by the Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Crown Lands, at World’s Columbian Exposition, translated byJ. M. Crawford, 1893, contains a chapter on Forestry byRoudzskiandShafranov, professors at the Forest Institute, in 35 pp.Annual reports by the Russian Forest Administration are published since 1866.Four diffuse volumes, byJohn Croumbie Brown, treat of Russian conditions, namely,Forests and Forestry in Poland, Lithuania, etc., 1885;Finland, its Forests and Forest Management, 1883;Forestry and Mining districts of the Ural Mountains, 1884;Forests and Forestry of Northern Russia, 1884.Numerous articles and Reviews byO. Guse, scattered through the German forestry journals, give insight into Russian forest conditions.An excellent idea of prevailing forestry practice can be gained from an extended article byDr. Schwappach,Forstliche Reisebilder aus Russlandin Zeitschrift für Forst- und Jagdwesen, 1902.For Finland an article byB. Ericsonin Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, 1896, and another article byP. W. Hannikainenin Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung, 1892, both native foresters, give considerable information.Finland: Its Public and Private Economy, byN. C. Frederiksen, 1902, 306 pp.
Les Forêts de la Russie, Ministère de l’Agriculture, Paris Exposition Universelle, 1900, pp. 190, gives a very detailed description of forest conditions, markets and management, with a few historic points.
Russlands Wald, byF. v. Arnold, Berlin, 1893, pp. 526, contains historic notes and a profuse discussion of the law of 1888.
The Industries of Russia: Agriculture and Forestry, issued by the Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Crown Lands, at World’s Columbian Exposition, translated byJ. M. Crawford, 1893, contains a chapter on Forestry byRoudzskiandShafranov, professors at the Forest Institute, in 35 pp.
Annual reports by the Russian Forest Administration are published since 1866.
Four diffuse volumes, byJohn Croumbie Brown, treat of Russian conditions, namely,
Numerous articles and Reviews byO. Guse, scattered through the German forestry journals, give insight into Russian forest conditions.
An excellent idea of prevailing forestry practice can be gained from an extended article byDr. Schwappach,Forstliche Reisebilder aus Russlandin Zeitschrift für Forst- und Jagdwesen, 1902.
For Finland an article byB. Ericsonin Forstwissenschaftliches Centralblatt, 1896, and another article byP. W. Hannikainenin Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung, 1892, both native foresters, give considerable information.
Finland: Its Public and Private Economy, byN. C. Frederiksen, 1902, 306 pp.
While Germany and France were forced into the adoption of forest policies through necessity, after the natural woods had been largely destroyed or devastated, Russia started upon a conservative forest management, long before the day of absolute necessity seemed to have arrived.
Indeed, even to-day Russia is one of the largest and increasingly growing exporter of forest products in the world, its annual export having grown in the fiveyears, 1903 to 1908, from 4 to 6 million tons and from 35 to 62 million dollars. A vast territory of untouched woods is still at her command, representing roughly two-thirds of the forest area of Europe.
The vast empire, second only to the British empire in extent, gradually acquired since the 15th century, occupies in Europe (including Finland) somewhat over 2 million square miles with over 120 million inhabitants, and in Asia somewhat over 6.5 million square miles, with only 30 to 40 million people.
Until 1906, when as a result of a revolution, a kind of representative government was secured, the hereditary Czar was ostensibly and by title an autocrat, governing with the assistance of four great councils and 12 ministers, but in reality the government was in the hands of a bureaucracy and court cabal, to a large extent corrupt, and hence the many good laws and institutions of which we read, may not always be found executed in practice as intended.
The European section of the country is divided into 98 governments or provinces, each under a governor, who is, however, largely dependent on the central power. The large territory of Siberia is divided into three governor-generalships, much of it, as well as of the other Asiatic provinces, is still unorganized, undeveloped and unexplored, or at least little known. Originally used mainly as a penal colony for criminal and political exiles, since the completion of the great Trans-Siberian railway, the country has been peopled by Russian farmers.
Both European Russia and Siberia are in the mainvast plains, the former sloping northwestward from the Ural mountains in the East and from the Caucasus in the South, and the latter from the Altai, Lyan and Yabloni mountains north to the Arctic Ocean. Both sections exhibit in the southern ranges the effect of continental climates, prairie and plains country: the steppe; and in its northern ranges the effect of an arctic climate, short hot summers and long, severe winters: tundra and swamps.
Both the forest area and the ownership conditions vary very much throughout the empire. Russian statistics are very unreliable and are based on estimates rather than enumerations, and vary from year to year.
So little is known of conditions in Asia, where Russia occupies a territory three times as large as its European possessions, that we can dispose of them briefly. There exists a vast forested area, almost unknown as to its extent and contents, or value. This area is mainly located in Siberia, and although its extent is uncertain, it is known to exceed 700 million acres, but it is also known that its character is very variable, and much of it is “taiga” or swamp forest, much of it devastated, and much of it in precarious condition, fires having run and still running over large portions, destroying it to such an extent that in several of the provinces within the forest belt, the question of wood supplies is even now a troublesome one. The natives are especially reckless, and devastation difficult to control. The railroad has only increased the evils.
Here, in Siberia, the first attempt at a management was made in 1897 in the government forests, which are estimated at over 300 million acres; in addition about 400 million acres have been declared reserved forests. Not one-third, however, even of the government forests is well stocked and less than 4 million acres are under some form of management.
In European Russia, the forest area comprises about 465 million acres, or 36% of the land area. The population being now over 120 million (nearly one-half escaped from serfdom only since 1861), the forest area per capita is only about 4 acres, somewhat less than in the United States, half of what is claimed for Sweden and Norway, although seven times as large as that of Germany or France.
It will be seen, therefore, that Russia, although still an exporting country, has reasons for a conservative policy, even if only the needs of the domestic population are considered, which alone probably consumes more than the annual increment of the whole forest area; and the consumption is growing with the growth of civilization as appears from the increase of wood consuming industries, which in 1877 showed a product of 8 million dollars, in 1887, of 121⁄2million, in 1897, of 50 million dollars.
This assertion, that the era of over-cutting has actually arrived, may be made in spite of the stated fact, that in the northern provinces only two-fifths of what is supposed to be a proper felling budget, is cut and marketed, and that other most uncertain estimates make the cut 17 cubic feet per acre of productive forest area, and the annual growth, on stillmore uncertain basis, 31 cubic feet.[9]The same reasons that operate in the United States contribute to wasteful practices, namely uneven distribution of forest and population.
[9]An idea of the supposed productive conditions may be gathered from the estimates which have been made, in 1898, for the State forests and the operations in these.In the two northern provinces, in which the state owns nearly the entire forest area it is estimated that 8 cubic feet per acre would be available felling budget, but only 10 per cent. of this is actually cut and sold. Outside of this territory the available felling budget is calculated at 24 cubic feet per acre, but only 60 per cent. or 14 cubic feet is being cut. Altogether in 1898 there were cut in the State forests (somewhat over 300 million acres), 1,860 million cubic feet, say 6 cubic feet per acre or 40 per cent. of the estimated proper felling budget. The administration claims that three-fifth of the projected felling budget is saleable. In 1906, the budget was placed at 345 million cubic feet, but only 130 million were cut.An estimate of the cut in the communal forests with 12 cubic feet, in the peasants holdings with 20 cubic feet, and in the private forests with 40 cubic feet per acre, brings the total for the country to round 10 billion cubic feet, worth round 100 million dollars for stumpage. It is assumed that 30 cubic feet should be the annual increment per acre, when it would appear that only 70 per cent. of the increment is cut.The cut in the State forests was sold for 21 million dollars (1898), or at an average of less than 1c. per cubic foot. The highest price paid in the Vistula district was 2.5 cents, which scales down to 1c. in Siberia and to one-third cent. in the Caucasus. This refers to stumpage, nearly all sales being made on the stump to wood merchants by bids, the trees being marked in some parts, in others the area only being designated. The transportation is almost entirely by river. From 1883 to 1901 the net revenue from the State forests increased from 16 to 47 million dollars, while the expenditures dropped from 29 per cent. of the gross revenue to 18.4 per cent. The gross result is 46 cents per acre. In 1906, the returns were $27 million, and expenses $5 million.
[9]An idea of the supposed productive conditions may be gathered from the estimates which have been made, in 1898, for the State forests and the operations in these.
In the two northern provinces, in which the state owns nearly the entire forest area it is estimated that 8 cubic feet per acre would be available felling budget, but only 10 per cent. of this is actually cut and sold. Outside of this territory the available felling budget is calculated at 24 cubic feet per acre, but only 60 per cent. or 14 cubic feet is being cut. Altogether in 1898 there were cut in the State forests (somewhat over 300 million acres), 1,860 million cubic feet, say 6 cubic feet per acre or 40 per cent. of the estimated proper felling budget. The administration claims that three-fifth of the projected felling budget is saleable. In 1906, the budget was placed at 345 million cubic feet, but only 130 million were cut.
An estimate of the cut in the communal forests with 12 cubic feet, in the peasants holdings with 20 cubic feet, and in the private forests with 40 cubic feet per acre, brings the total for the country to round 10 billion cubic feet, worth round 100 million dollars for stumpage. It is assumed that 30 cubic feet should be the annual increment per acre, when it would appear that only 70 per cent. of the increment is cut.
The cut in the State forests was sold for 21 million dollars (1898), or at an average of less than 1c. per cubic foot. The highest price paid in the Vistula district was 2.5 cents, which scales down to 1c. in Siberia and to one-third cent. in the Caucasus. This refers to stumpage, nearly all sales being made on the stump to wood merchants by bids, the trees being marked in some parts, in others the area only being designated. The transportation is almost entirely by river. From 1883 to 1901 the net revenue from the State forests increased from 16 to 47 million dollars, while the expenditures dropped from 29 per cent. of the gross revenue to 18.4 per cent. The gross result is 46 cents per acre. In 1906, the returns were $27 million, and expenses $5 million.
As in the United States the East and West are or were well wooded, with a forestless agricultural region between, so in Russia the North and the South (Caucasus Mountains) are well wooded, with a forestless region, the steppe, between. This leads, as with us, to an uneconomical exploitation of the woods, the inferior materials being wasted because not paying for their transportation in one section, and dearth of timber and fuelwood in the other section.
The two most northern provinces of Archangel and Vologda, in size equal to all Germany, are wooded to the extent of 75 and 89 per cent. respectively, and the 14 northern provinces together contain nearly one-half the entire forest area. Here the forest covers 64 per cent. of the land area, and nowhere below 20 per cent., and the acreage per capita ranges from 3 to over 200.
These largely unsettled provinces are the basis of the active wood export trade, and, as in the similarly conditioned areas of North America, the territory is devastated by fires, which sweep again and again over large areas without check.
Southern Russia (excepting the Caucasus), is largely prairie or steppe, forest cover sinking below 20 per cent. on the whole, down to 2 per cent., and less than one-half acre per capita.
Altogether, one-half the country and three-fourths of the population are, with less than 14 per cent. of the forest area, exposed to a dearth of timber.
The northern forest, the most important economic factor, is composed largely of pure or mixed coniferous woods (74%), principally Norway Spruce (34%) and Scotch Pine (29.5%) with only slight admixtures of larch and fir, and more frequently White Birch. Open stand, comparatively poor development, and slow growth, characteristic of northern climate, reduce its productive capacity, while frequent bogs and other natural waste places outside of those produced by mismanagement reduce its productive area by not less than 20 per cent.
Toward the south, deciduous species are more frequent, oak finally becoming the prevailing timber and forming forests, with beech, maple, ash and elm as admixtures. As the plains are approached pure deciduous forest indicates the change of climate. The forest of the Caucasus is principally of coniferous composition.
There are six classes of forest property: the government domain; the apanage or imperial family (crown) forests; private forests; peasant or communal forests; institute or corporation forests; and forests of mixed ownership in which government and private owners participate.
The larger part of the forest area of European Russia is in control of the Crown or State, namely, nearly 278 million acres, or a little less than two-thirds of the whole, and a similar amount in Asia, besides the so-called apanage forests of 14 million acres set aside for the support of the court. Especially the northern forest is in government control, in some governments (Archangel) the entire area; 67% of the domain forest lies in the two governments of Archangel and Wologda.
In the less wooded districts State property, is insignificant. The area under government control in Europe and Asia is estimated in the official report for 1908 at around 957 million acres. This is, however, not the exclusive property of the State; only about 260 million acres are so claimed, the larger balance includes 170 million acres which are to be apportioned to the liberated peasants, 200 million acres in whichthe government is only part owner, or the ownership is in dispute; and the rest is only temporarily placed under the management or surveillance of the administration. Yet, 60% in Europe and 13% in Asia is exclusive State property. In 1907, the area in Europe under working plans of the Forest Administration, however, was only 48 million acres, 86 million having been examined for working plans. Of the State property in Europe 34% is spruce forest, 30% pine, and 26% mixed conifer forest; altogether 88% of coniferous timber. The Asiatic area is also over 80 per cent. coniferous.
The apanage or crown forests, the yield of which goes toward maintenance of the imperial family, comprise about 16 million acres, or 3.4%. Private forest property to the extent of over 100 million acres (23%) is most developed in the Baltic provinces and along the Vistula. Mining corporations and other institutes own about 7 million acres.
The peasants, who until 1861 were mere serfs and had no ownership of any kind, being supplied with their necessities by the landed proprietors, still largely supply themselves in the northern provinces by the exercise of rights of user from the public domain on designated areas. In the central and southern provinces, farm and forest land, the latter to the extent of nearly 40 million acres, were given to them in communal ownership. As stated above, about 170 million acres classed as government domain still awaits partition and cession to the peasants.
The first record of attention to the woods as a special property dates from Michael, the founder, and Alexis, the second of the house of Romanoff, the former becoming Czar in 1613, the latter in 1645. He it was who began to introduce Western civilization. He confined himself, however, to regulating property rights, which up to that time had remained somewhat undefined, the forest, as elsewhere, being considered more or less public property. He issued deeds of ownership, or at least granted exclusive rights to the use of forests, somewhat similar as was done in the banforests. Soldiers alone were permitted to help themselves, even in private forests, to the wood they required. Protection against theft and fire was also provided.
The peasants, being serfs, were bound to the glebe, and had, of course, no property rights, being maintained by the bounty of the seigneurs.
Alexis’ successor, the far-seeing Peter the Great, who in his travels in Germany and other European countries had, no doubt, been imbued with ideas of conservatism, inaugurated in the end of the 17th and beginning of the 18th century a far-reaching restrictive policy, which had two objects in view, namely economic use of wood, which he had learned to appreciate while playing carpenter in Amsterdam, and preservation of ship timber, which his desire to build up a navy dictated. All forests for 35 miles alongside of rivers were declared in ban, and placed under the supervision of the newly organized Administration of Crown forests. In these banforests, thefelling of timbers fit for ship building was forbidden. Minute regulations as to the proper use of wood for the purposes for which it was most fit were prescribed, and the use of the saw instead of the axe was ordered. These rules were to prevail in all forests, with a few exceptions, and penalties were to be exacted for contraventions.
This good beginning experienced a short setback under Catherine I (1725), Peter’s wife, who, influenced by her minister, Menshikoff, abolished the forest administration and the penalties, and reduced the number and size of banforests. But the entire legislation was re-enacted within three years after Catherine’s death (1727) under Anna Ivanovna’s reign, and many new prescriptions for the proper use of wood were added and additional penalties enforced.
At this time, under the influence of a German “forest expert,”Fokel, the increase of forest area by sowing oak, etc., in the poorly wooded districts, was also inaugurated; and this planting was made obligatory, not only on the administration of crown forests, but also upon private owners, who in case of default were to lose their land and have it reforested by the forest administration. To Fokel’s initiative is also to be credited the celebrated larch forest on the Gulf of Finland.
These restrictions of private rights and the tutelage exercised by the forest administration were abolishedin totoby Catherine II, in 1788, and although it was reported by the admiralty, concerned in the supply of shipbuilding materials, that as a consequence thecutting, especially of oak timber, was proceeding rapidly, no new restrictive, but rather an ameliorative policy was attempted, such as, for instance, the offering of prizes for plantations in certain localities by the provincial governors.
Upon the abolishment of the serfdom of the peasants, under Alexander II, in 1863, lands, both farm and woodlands, were allotted to them, and in this partition, in some parts as much as 25 to 50% of this forest property was handed over to them. Immediately a general slaughtering, both by peasants and by the private owners, who had suffered by losing the services of the serfs, was inaugurated, leading to wholesale devastation.
Servitudes or rights of user also prevailed in some districts and proved extremely destructive.
By 1864, complaints in regard to forest devastation had become so frequent that a movement for reform was begun by the Czar, which led to the promulgation of a law in 1867, followed by a number of others during the next decade, designed to remedy the evils. This was to be done by restricting the acreage that might be felled, by forbidding clearings, and by giving premiums for good management and plantations. Finally, in 1875, a special commission was charged with the elaboration of a general order which, after years of hearing of testimony and of deliberation, was promulgated in 1888, a comprehensive law for the conservation of forests, private and otherwise, which in many respects resembles the French, in other respects the Swedish conservation laws.
The devastation and its evil consequences on waterflow and soil conditions had been especially felt in the southern districts adjoining the steppe, and these experiences were the immediate cause for the enactment of the law, which, however, was framed to apply conditionally to the entire European Russia.
The law makes an interesting distinction between “protective,” “protected” and non-protective, or unprotected forests, as well as between different ownership classes, and it makes distinction of four regions as to the extent of its application. In the far northern governments, densely forested (60%) and thinly populated, only the protective forests are under the operations of the law. In the Caucasus also, none of the restrictions of private property except in protective and communal peasant forests are to apply, perhaps because the forest area (averaging not over 17%) is there largely owned by members of the imperial house and by nobles. In certain districts adjoining the northern zone (with 37% forest) also only the last two classes of forest, namely protective and communal properties, with institute forests added, are subject to the provisions of the law. The rest, a territory of over one million square miles with only 12% in forest, is subject to all the provisions of the law, which is remarkably democratic in treating State, imperial and private forests alike.
This law declares as “protective forests,” to be managed under special plans prescribed by the Crown forest department, those forest areas which protect shifting sands and dunes, the shores of rivers, canalsand other waters; and those on the slopes of mountains, where they serve to prevent erosion, landslides and avalanches.
Conversion of these protective forests to farm use is forbidden, and the use of a clearing system in forest management, as well as pasturage and other uses supposed to be detrimental, may be interdicted, and the method of management may be prescribed. An instruction regarding the execution of the law promulgated in 1889 prohibited clear cutting in conifer forests, permitting only selection forest, and in especially endangered localities only the use of the dry wood and such trees as interfere with natural reproduction.
“Protected” forests are those which are located at the head waters and upper reaches of streams and their affluents. Here the rules as regards clearing, mismanagement, reforestation and pasture applicable to the non-protective forests, prevail, except that clearing may be prohibited or permitted, if the committee deems it not dangerous owing to the small size of the clearing.
In forests, which are not protective forests, conversion into farms or clearing with the sanction of the committee is permitted, if thereby the estate is improved,e.g., if the soil is fit for orchards and vineyards. Such clearing may also be allowed if the soil is fit for temporary field use, but in that case the area must be eventually reforested. Clearing is also permitted, if another formerly farmed parcel of the same size has been reforested at least three years prior to the proposed clearing; or if in artificial plantationsthe growth is not yet 20 years old; also in a few special cases where property boundaries are to be rounded off, roads to be located, etc. If after six months from the time of the application the committee has not forbidden the clearing, it is considered as permitted. It is also forbidden to make fellings which prevent natural regeneration, and the running of cattle in young growth is prohibited. Private owners are not required, but are permitted, to submit working plans, and if these are accepted, they are exempted from any other restrictions. Such plans may be considered as accepted if the committee does not express itself within one year. All clearings made in contravention to the committee’s decision must be replanted within a prescribed time or may be forcibly reforested by the committee.
The most interesting feature, because thoroughly democratic, is the creation of the local forest protection committees, which are formed in each province and district, composed of various representatives of the local administration, one or two foresters included, the justice of the peace or other justice, the county council and two elected forest owners, in all nine to eleven members, under the presidency of the governor.
This committee is vested with large powers. It decides, without appeal, what areas are included in protective forests and approves of the working plans for these as well as for the unreserved forests; it determines what clearings may be made, and exercises wide police powers with reference to all forest matters working in co-operation with the Forest Administration,which latter has the duty of making working plans free of charge for the reserved forests, and, at the expense of the owner for the private unreserved forests. Owners of the latter are, however, at liberty to prepare their own plans subject to approval. Appeal from decisions of the Forest Committees lies through the Committee to the Minister of Crown lands and Minister of the Interior.
In case the owner refuses to incur the extra expense arising from measures imposed upon him, the domain ministry may expropriate him, but the owner may recover within 10 years by paying costs with 6% interest in addition to the sale price. In addition to the above cited and other restrictive measures, some ameliorative provisions are also found. All protective forests are free from taxes forever; those artificially planted also for 30 years.
Some of the best forest officials are detailed to give advice gratuitously to forest owners (forest revisor—instructors) and prizes are given for the best results of silvicultural operations. At the recommendation of the Forest Committees, medals or money rewards or other distinctions are given to the forest guards and forest managers of private as well as public forests. Plant material is distributed free or at cost price, and working plans for protective forests are made free of charge.
The Imperial Loan Bank advances long term loans on forests, based upon detailed working plans made by the State, which insure a conservative management. In 1900, over 7,000,000 acres were in this way mortgaged under such management.
The minutest details are elaborated in the instructions for the execution of this most comprehensive law. How far this law is really executed and what its results so far have been, it would be difficult to ascertain. It is, however, believed that it has worked satisfactorily. By 1900, 1.5 million acres had been declared protection forests, nearly 2 million protected or river forests, and nearly 100 million private and communal forests had been placed under the regime. In 1907, the total area under the regime had grown to over 136 million acres. Of private forests, 18 million acres in 6015 forests were being managed according to working plans made or approved by the forest committees. In these plans, usually, the strip system or seed tree system with natural regeneration under 60 year rotation for conifers, and at least 30 year rotation for broadleaf forest, is provided.
In 1903, the application of the law was extended to the Caucasus, the Trans-caucasian and other southern provinces, but in the absence of suitable personnel and in a half civilized country, no result for the immediate future may be anticipated.
The surveillance of the execution of this law lies, with the assistance of the Forest Committees, in the hands of the State Forest Administration.
This latter, centralized in the Department of Agriculture, consists of a Director General with two Vice-Directors and a so-called bureau of forests with seven division chiefs, a number of vice-inspectors and assistants. The local administration in the governments is represented by the Direction of Crown lands with a superintendent or supervisor and several inspectors.The crown forests, divided into some 1260 administrative units, are under the administration of superintendents, with foresters and guards of several degrees.
The whole service comprised, in 1908, about 3790 higher officials, some 850 of whom in the central office at St. Petersburg, and over 30,000 lower officials some 20,000 of whom are educated underforesters.
Large as this force appears to be, it is small in comparison with the acreage, and inadequate. Although the net income from the 300 million acres of State forest which are actually worked is now close to thirty million dollars, the expenditures being near 6 million, the pay of the officials is such as to almost force them to find means of subsistence at the cost of their charges. Perhaps nowhere else is there so much machinery and so much regulation with so little execution in practice. Nevertheless, progress is being made in gradually improving matters, and the forest property, or at least the cut, has become more and more valuable. While in the middle of the last century the income from the domain forest was only $500,000, by 1892 it had grown to $10,000,000, by 1901 to $23,000,000, in 1908 to nearly $30,000,000, besides several million dollars’ worth of free wood. In 1908, the department spent over half a million dollars on planting and assisting natural regeneration. Timber is sold as a rule to contractors by the tree or acre, and a diameter limit is almost the only restriction. In 1897, however, an arrangement was made by which the lumberman was obliged to reforest, or at least to pay a certain tax into a planting fund, and a part paymentof $2 to $4 per acre as guarantee must be made before cutting. This order has, however, remained mostly a dead letter, the buyer preferring to allow his guarantee to lapse. In 1906, there stood $3,000,000 to the credit of this planting fund, and only half of it had been applied. Meanwhile the unplanted area increases, since natural regeneration generally proves a failure.
3.Education and Literature.
The attempts at forestry education date back to the year 1732 when a number of foresters were imported from Germany to take charge of the forest management as well as of the education of foresters, each forstmeister having six pupils assigned to him. This method failing to produce results, the interest in ship timber suggested a course in forestry at the Naval Academy, which was instituted in 1800. Soon the need of a larger number of educated foresters led to the establishment of several separate forest schools, one at Zarskoye Selo (near St. Petersburg) in 1803, another at Kozlovsk in 1805, and a third at St. Petersburg in 1808. This latter under the name of the Forest Institute absorbed the other two, and from 1813 has continued to exist through many vicissitudes. Now, with 15 professors and instructors and an expenditure of nearly $250,000, and over 500 students, it is the largest forest school in the world. It prepares in a four years’ course for the higher positions in the forest service. “The history of this Forest Institute is practically the history of forestry in Russia.”
A second school at Novo-Alexandria, near Warsaw, was instituted in 1860. In these schools, as in the methods of management, German influence is everywhere visible.
In addition to these schools, chairs of forestry were instituted in the Petrovsk School of Rural Economy in Moskau and in the Riga Polytechnic Institute, and also in seven intermediate schools of rural economy.
In 1888, ten secondary schools were established after Austrian pattern for the lower or middle service, rangers and underforesters; their number, by 1900, having been increased to 30 and, in 1908, to 33, with 460 students. These are boarding schools in the woods, where a certain number of the students are taught free of charge, the maximum number of those admitted being 10 to 20 at each school. The course is of two years’ duration, and is mainly directed to practical work and theoretical study in silviculture. The total expense of such a school is about $3,300, of which the State contributes $2,500, the total expenditure, in 1908, being $84,134.
A number of experiment stations were established in various parts of the country by the Administration of Crownlands, and a very considerable and advanced literature testifies to the good education and activity of the higher forest service.
Two forestry journals,Lesnoj Journal(since 1870) andLessopromychlenny Vestnik, the first bi-monthly, the latter weekly, besides several lesser ones, keep the profession informed.
There are in existence several general societies for the encouragement of silviculture. Probably theoldest, which ceased to exist in 1850, was the Imperial Russian Society for the Advancement of Forestry which was founded in 1832. It published a magazine and provided translations of foreign books, among which the Forest Mathematics of the noted German forester König, who also prepared yield tables for the Society. (Seep. 135.) A society of professional foresters was founded at St. Petersburg in 1871, another exists in Moscow, and recently two associations for the development of forest planting in the steppes have been formed.
Among the prominent writers and practitioners there should be especially mentionedTheodor Karlowitsch Arnold, who is recognized as the father of Russian forestry. He was the soul of the forest organization work, for which he drew up the instructions in 1845, and as professor, afterwards director, of the Institute for Agronomy and Forestry at Moscow since 1857, he became the teacher of most of the present practitioners. Finally he became the head of the forest department in the Ministry of Apanages where he remained until his death in 1902. He is the author of several classical works on silviculture, forest mensuration, forest management, etc., and, in conjunction withDr. W. A. Tichonoff, published an encyclopædic work in three volumes. In the first volume,Russland’s Wald(1890), which has been translated into German, the author makes an extended plea for improved forestry practice and describes and argues at length the provisions of the law of 1888. In 1895, he published a history of forestryin Germany, France and Russia. Of other prominent foresters who have advanced forestry in Russia we may citeCount Vargaci de Bedemar, who made the first attempt to prepare Russian growth and yield tables in 1840 to 1850.
Professor A. F. Rudzsky, who was active at the Forest Institute until a few years ago, developed in his volumes especially the mathematical branches and methods of forest organization. The names ofTursky,KravchinskyandKaigodorovare known to Russian students of dendrology and silviculture, and among the younger generation the names ofMorozov,Nestorov,Orlov, andTolskymay be mentioned.
It is well known how prominent Russian investigators have become in the natural sciences, and to foresters the work of the soil physicists,OtozkyandDokuchaevwould at least be familiar.
While then a very considerable activity in scientific direction exists, the practical application of forestry principles is less developed than one would expect, especially in view of the stringent laws. So far not much more than conservative lumbering is the rule.
Generally speaking, the State and crown forests are better managed than the private, many of which are being merely exploited; and in the northern departments large areas remain still inaccessible.
Some notable exceptions to the general mismanagement of private forests are furnished by some of those owned by the nobility, like those of Count Uwaroff with 150,000 acres under model management by aGerman forester, and of Count Strogonoff with over 1,000,000 acres under first-class organization with a staff of over 230 persons.
A regular forest organization was first attempted in the forests attached to iron furnace properties in 1840. By this time some 100 million acres have come under regulated management, half of the area being government forests. The method of regulation employed is that of area division and sometimes area allotment according to Cotta. In some regions a division by rides into compartments, ranging from 60 to 4,000 acres each, according to intensity of exploitation, has been effected. It is estimated that at the present rate of progress it would take 300 years to complete the work of organization.
The selection method is still largely employed, a felling budget by number of trees and volume being determined in the incompletely organized areas; while a clearing system with artificial reforestation is used in most cases where a complete yield calculation has been made. The rotations employed are from 60 to 100 years for timber forest, 30 to 60 years for coppice.
In the pineries, the strip system in echelons is mostly in vogue, the strips being made 108 feet wide, leaving four seed trees per acre, and on the last strip, which is left standing for five years, this number is increased to eight which are left as overholders. This method, according to some, seems to secure satisfactory reproduction. To get rid of undesirable species, especially aspen and birch, these are girdled. In spruce forest, 50 to 60 per cent. of the trees are left in the fellings, when after three to four yearsthe natural regeneration requires often repair, which is done if at all by bunch planting; after eight to ten years the balance of the old growth is removed.
While for a long time natural regeneration was alone relied upon, now, at least, artificial assistance is more and more frequently practiced. Yet, although over 2 million acres were under clearing system, not more than 5% of the revenue, or $100,000, was in 1898 allowed for planting as against 7.5% in Prussia; the total budget of expenses then remaining below 3 million dollars.
But, ten years later, over half a million dollars was employed by the government in planting, the planting fund contributed by the lumberman (seep. 269) furnishing the means.
The forest administration of the province of Poland, where the State owns over 1.5 million acres was for some time independent, but, about 1875, was reorganized and placed under the central bureau at St. Petersburg. Although the forests of Poland are the most lucrative to the government and, with good market and high prices for wood, which are now rapidly increasing, would allow of intensive management, the stinginess of the administration, the low moral tone of the personnel, and long established bad practice have retarded the introduction of better methods. The private forests of Poland comprise over 4.5 million acres, and are mostly not much better treated than the State forest; in the absence of any restrictive policy they have diminished by 25% in the last 20 years.
Considerable efforts have been made towards reforesting the steppes in southern Russia, first as in our own prairies and plains by private endeavor, but lately with more and more direct assistance of the State forest administration.
This planting was begun by German colonists at the end of the 18th century, but without encouraging results, although over 25,000 acres had been planted by the middle of the 19th century. Since 1843, the government has had two experimental forest reserves in the steppes of the governments of Ekaterinoslav and Tauride, on which some 10,000 acres have been planted; the originator of this work beingvon Graff, a German forester, whose plantations, made with 8,000 plants to the acre, are still the best. Later, the number of plants was reduced to one-half, and the results have not been satisfactory. Altogether, planting on large areas on soils unfit for the purpose and by wrong methods has produced poor results. At present the policy is not to create large bodies of forest, but to plant small strips of 20 to 80 yards square in regular distribution, which are to serve as windbreaks, and the result has been satisfactory, especially in the government of Samara. There are now annually 2,000 acres added to these plantations.
The reclamation of shifting sands and sand dunes has also received considerable attention and, to some extent, the reboisement of mountain slopes in the Crimea and Caucasus. Of the former, some 10 million acres are in existence in European Russia, and in the province of Woronesh alone each year 100,000 acres are added. For 50 years sporadical work in theirrecovery was done. Not until 1891 and 1892, when two droughty famine years had led to an investigation of agricultural conditions, was a systematic attempt proposed, and this was begun in 1897. By 1902, some 80,000 acres had been fixed, and by 1904, 150,000 acres. In this work the government contributes 36% of the cost, the benefited communities the balance. In addition, 1,500 square miles of swamps in Western Russia were reclaimed by extensive canals and recovered with meadow and forest at a cost of $300,000, of which the Imperial Treasury paid one-third, the owners one-half, the local government the balance.
While rational forest management, as we have seen, is far from being generally established, the government tries at least to prevent waste and to pave the way from exploitation to regulated management.
The Grand Duchy of Finland in the northeast of Russia is still in some respects independent of Russia.
Finland, the “land of a thousand lakes” and of most extensive forests, is hardly less important as a wood producer than Russia itself; its wood exports amounting at present to around 200 million cubic feet and over 25 million dollars in value, represent over 50 per cent. of its trade, and its most important resource.
Settled in the 7th century by an Aryan tribe, the Finns, congeners of the Magyars, who subdued the aboriginal Laplanders, Finland became by conquestin the 12th century, and remained for 500 years, a province of Sweden. In the wars between Sweden and Russia; parts of this province were conquered by Russia, and finally, in 1809, Sweden lost the whole; but the Finns succeeded in preserving national unity and partial independence under a constitution, adopted in 1772 and recognized by the Czar.
Finland stands very much in the same relation to Russia as does Hungary to Austria, the union being merely a personal one: the Czar is the ruler or Grand Duke, but the administration is otherwise largely separate from that of the empire, under a Governor-General, appointed by the Czar, and a Senate of 18 members at Helsingfors, with a national parliament of the four estates, nobles, clergy, burgers, peasants, which convenes every five years; the Czar having the veto power over its legislation. The War Department of Russia, however, is in charge of military affairs, and other departments seem to be under more or less supervision of the Russian administration. Lately repressive measures are threatening or have nearly accomplished the destruction of this autonomy.
Of the 145,000 square miles of territory, nearly 50% is occupied by lakes and bogs, marshes or tundra; less than 9 million acres (9.7%) is in farms, and 37.5 million acres or 42%, is forestland, actual or potential; The major part of this is located in the northern and eastern sections, where the population is scanty, agriculture little developed, and sand soils prevail. Beyond the 69th degree, forest growth ceases, and naturally near the forest limit the scrubby growth partakes of the character of all northern forests.Not more than 2.5 million acres, mostly in the southwestern sections, are actually under cultivation; the population being short of 2.5 million.
The rigorous climate makes a large consumption of fuelwood necessary, and, since houses are also mostly built of wood, the home consumption is over 32 cubic feet per capita. Over 10 million cubic feet of pine are consumed in making tar, and a like amount for paper pulp. The total cut is in the neighborhood of 370 million cubic feet, four-fifth of which comes from private forests of the middle and southern area, and over one-third of it is being exported.
The country generally is a tableland with occasional low hills. The forest consists principally of pine, the latter a variety of the Scotch Pine (or species?), called Riga Pine which excels in straightness of bole and thrifty growth, and of spruce (10 per cent. of the whole, mainly in the southeast). Aspen, alder and birch, especially the latter, are considered undesirable weeds, and fire is used to get rid of them where coniferous aftergrowth is desired, although birch is also employed for fuel, bobbins and furniture, and aspen for matches. Basswood, maple, elm, ash and some oak occur, and larch (Larix sibirica) was introduced some 150 years ago.
Long, severe winters and hot, dry summers produce slow growth, the pine in the north requiring 200 to 250 years, in the middle sections 140 to 160 years to grow to merchantable size.
Fires, used in clearing, have from time to time run over large areas and have nearly killed out the spruce except in the lowlands, but the pine being moreresistant has increased its area and in spite of the deterioration of the soil by fire reproduces well.
Originally the forest was communal property, but in 1524, Gustav Vasa declared all forest and water not specially occupied to belong to “God, King and the Swedish Crown,” although he allowed the usufruct to the people free of charge or nearly so. These rights of user are still the bane of the forest administration. Being left without supervision it mattered little who owned the land, the forest was ruthlessly exploited. Later, the rights of user thus originating were bought off by ceding lands to the peasants.
Not until 1851 did an improvement in these conditions occur when a provisional administration of the State forests was provided in connection with the Land Survey; but a rational organization materialized only after an eminent German forester, v. Berg, Director of the forest school of Tharandt, had been imported (1858) to effect a reconstruction. His advice was, however, only partially followed, and the organization was not perfected until 1869.
Almost immediately, a powerful opposition to the administration developed, because it could not at once show increased profits, and the personnel which had been scanty enough, was still further reduced, the large districts into which the State property had been divided were still further enlarged, and to this day, improvement in these respects has been only partial.
The State forest area, situated mainly in the north is stated as between 35 and 45 million acres (variable because of clearing for farms and new settlements),but it contains about 15 million acres of bogs and moors and much other waste land, which reduces the productive forest area to about 12 million acres (35%), leaving 65% of the productive forest area to private ownership.