C.

BROWN DYE. Upon this subject some general views are given in the articleDyeing, explanatory of the nature of this colour, to which I may in the first place refer. This dye presents a vast variety of tints, from yellow and red to black brown, and is produced either by mixtures of red, yellow, and blue with each other, or of yellow or red with black, or by substantive colours, such as catechu or oxide of manganese, alone. We shall here notice only the principal shades; leaving their modifications to the caprice or skill of the dyer.1. Brown from mixture of other colours.Wool and woollen cloths must be boiled with one eighth their weight of alum and sulpho-tartrate of iron (see this article); afterwards washed, and winced through the madder bath, which dyes the portion of the stuff imbued with the alum red, and that with the salt of iron black; the tint depending upon the proportion of each, and the duration of the madder bath.A similar brown is produced by boiling every pound of the stuff with two ounces of alum, and one ounce of common salt, and then dyeing it in a bath of logwood containingeither sulphotartrate, acetate, or sulphate of iron. Or the stuff may be boiled with alum and tartar, dyed up in a madder bath, and then run through a black bath of iron mordant and galls or sumach. Here the black tint is added to the red till the proper hue be hit. The brown may be produced also by adding some iron liquor to the madder bath, after the stuff has been dyed up in it with alum and tartar. A better brown of this kind is obtained by boiling every pound of wool with 2 ounces of alum, dyeing it up in cochineal, then changing the crimson thus given into brown, by turning the stuff through the bath after acetate of iron has been added to it. Instead of the cochineal, archil or cutbear, with a little galls or sumach, may be used.Wool or silk may also receive a light blue ground from the indigo vat, then be mordanted with alum, washed, and turned through a madder bath till the wished-for brown be brought out. For the deeper shades, galls or sumach may be added to the paler Brazil-wood, with more or less iron mordant. Instead of the indigo vat, Saxon blue may be employed to ground the stuff before dyeing it with madder, or 5 pounds of madder, with 1 pound of alum, a solution of one tenth of a pound of indigo in sulphuric acid, may be used with the proper quantity of water for 20 pounds of wool; for dark shades some iron mordant may be added. Or we may combine a bath of cochineal or cutbear, fustic, and galls, and add to it sulphate of iron and sulphate of indigo, blunted with a little potash.If we boil woollen cloth with alum and tartar, then pass it through a madder bath, and afterwards through one of weld or fustic, containing more or less iron mordant, we obtain shades variable, according to the proportions of the materials, frommordoréand cinnamon to chesnut brown.After the same manner, bronze colours may be obtained from the union of olive dyes with red. For 25 pounds of cloth, we take 4 pounds of fustic chips, boil them for 2 hours, turn the cloth in this bath for an hour, and drain it; then add to the bath from 4 to 6 ounces of sulphate of iron, and 1 pound of ordinary madder, or 2 pounds of sandal wood; put the cloth again in this compound bath, and turn it through, till the desired shade be obtained. By changing the proportions, and adding an iron mordant, other tints may be produced.This mode of dyeing is suitable for silk, but with three different baths, one of logwood, one of Brazil-wood, and one of fustic. The silk, after being boiled with soap, is to be alumed, and then dyed up in a bath compounded of these three decoctions, mixed in the requisite proportions. By the addition of walnut peels, sulphate of copper, and a little sulphate of iron, or by passing the silk through a bath of annotto, a variety of brown shades may be had.Or the silk may receive an annotto ground, and then be passed through a bath of logwood or Brazil-wood. For 10 pounds of silk, 6 ounces of annotto are to be taken, and dissolved with 18 ounces of potashes in boiling water. The silk must be winced through this solution for 2 hours, then wrung out, dried, next alumed, passed through a bath of Brazil-wood, and finally through a bath of logwood containing some sulphate of iron. It is to be wrung out and dried.Brown of different shades is imparted to cotton and linen, by impregnating them with a mixed mordant of acetates of alumina and iron, and then dyeing them up, either with madder alone, or with madder and fustic. When the aluminous mordant predominates, the madder gives an amaranth tint. For horse-chesnut brown, the cotton must be galled, plunged into a black bath, then into a bath of sulphate of copper, next dyed up in a decoction of fustic, wrung out, passed through a strong madder bath, then through the sulphate of copper solution, and finished with a soap boil. Different shades of cinnamon are obtained, when cottons first dyed up with madder get an olive cast with iron liquor in a fustic bath.These cinnamon and mordoré shades are also produced by dyeing them first in a bath of weld and verdigris, passing them through a solution of sulphate of iron, wringing and drying them; next putting them through a bath containing 1 pound of galls for 10 pounds of stuff, again drying, next aluming, and maddering. They must be brightened by a boil in soap water.A superior brown is produced by like means upon cotton goods, which have undergone the oiling process of the Turkey red dye. Such stuffs must be galled, mordanted with alum (seeMadder), sulphate of iron, and acetate of lead (equal to2⁄3of the alum); after washing and drying, dyed in a madder bath, and cleared with a soap boil. The tint of brown varies with the proportion of alum and sulphate of iron.We perceive from these examples, in how many ways the browning of dyes may be modified, upon what principles they are founded, and how we have it in our power to turn the shade more or less towards red, black, yellow, blue, &c.Brown may be produced by direct dyes. The decoction of oak bark dyes wool a fast brown of different shades, according to the concentration of the bath. The colour is more lively with the addition of alum.The decoction of bastard marjoram (Origanum vulgare) dyes cotton and linen a reddish brown, with acetate of alumina. Wool takes from it a dark brown.The bark of the mangrove tree (Rizophora mangle) affords to wool boiled with alum and tartar a fine red brown colour, which, with the addition of sulphate of iron, passes into a fast chocolate.TheBablah, the pods of the East IndianMimosa cineraria, and the AfricanMimosa nilotica, gives cotton a brown with acetate or sulphate of copper.The root of the white sea rose (Nymphæa alba) gives to cotton and wool beautiful shades of brown. A mordant of sulphate of iron and zinc is first given, and then the wool is turned through the decoction of the root, till the wished-for shade is obtained. The cotton must be mordanted with a mixture of the acetates of iron and zinc.Walnut peels (Juglans regia), when ripe, contain a dark brown dye stuff, which communicates a permanent colour to wool. The older the infusion or decoction of the peels, the better dye does it make. The stuff is dyed in the lukewarm bath, and needs no mordant, though it becomes brighter with alum. Or this dye may be combined with the madder or fustic bath, to give varieties of shade. For dyeing silk, this bath should be hardly lukewarm, for fear of causing inequality of colour.The peelings of horse-chesnuts may be used for the same purpose. With muriate of tin they give a bronze colour, and with acetate of lead a reddish brown.Catechu gives cotton a permanent brown dye, as also a bronze, and mordoré, when its solution in hot water is combined with acetate or sulphate of copper, or when the stuff is previously mordanted with the acetates of copper and alumina mixed, sometimes with a little iron liquor, rinsed, dried, and dyed up, the bath being at a boiling heat.Ferrocyanate of copper gives a yellow brown or a bronze to cotton and silk.The brown colour calledcarmeliteby the French is produced by one pound of catechu to four ounces of verdigris, with five ounces of muriate of ammonia.—The bronze (solitaire) is given by passing the stuff through a solution of muriate or sulphate of manganese, with a little tartaric acid, drying, passing through a potash lye at 4° Baumé, brightening and fixing with solution of chloride of lime.

1. Brown from mixture of other colours.

Wool and woollen cloths must be boiled with one eighth their weight of alum and sulpho-tartrate of iron (see this article); afterwards washed, and winced through the madder bath, which dyes the portion of the stuff imbued with the alum red, and that with the salt of iron black; the tint depending upon the proportion of each, and the duration of the madder bath.

A similar brown is produced by boiling every pound of the stuff with two ounces of alum, and one ounce of common salt, and then dyeing it in a bath of logwood containingeither sulphotartrate, acetate, or sulphate of iron. Or the stuff may be boiled with alum and tartar, dyed up in a madder bath, and then run through a black bath of iron mordant and galls or sumach. Here the black tint is added to the red till the proper hue be hit. The brown may be produced also by adding some iron liquor to the madder bath, after the stuff has been dyed up in it with alum and tartar. A better brown of this kind is obtained by boiling every pound of wool with 2 ounces of alum, dyeing it up in cochineal, then changing the crimson thus given into brown, by turning the stuff through the bath after acetate of iron has been added to it. Instead of the cochineal, archil or cutbear, with a little galls or sumach, may be used.

Wool or silk may also receive a light blue ground from the indigo vat, then be mordanted with alum, washed, and turned through a madder bath till the wished-for brown be brought out. For the deeper shades, galls or sumach may be added to the paler Brazil-wood, with more or less iron mordant. Instead of the indigo vat, Saxon blue may be employed to ground the stuff before dyeing it with madder, or 5 pounds of madder, with 1 pound of alum, a solution of one tenth of a pound of indigo in sulphuric acid, may be used with the proper quantity of water for 20 pounds of wool; for dark shades some iron mordant may be added. Or we may combine a bath of cochineal or cutbear, fustic, and galls, and add to it sulphate of iron and sulphate of indigo, blunted with a little potash.

If we boil woollen cloth with alum and tartar, then pass it through a madder bath, and afterwards through one of weld or fustic, containing more or less iron mordant, we obtain shades variable, according to the proportions of the materials, frommordoréand cinnamon to chesnut brown.

After the same manner, bronze colours may be obtained from the union of olive dyes with red. For 25 pounds of cloth, we take 4 pounds of fustic chips, boil them for 2 hours, turn the cloth in this bath for an hour, and drain it; then add to the bath from 4 to 6 ounces of sulphate of iron, and 1 pound of ordinary madder, or 2 pounds of sandal wood; put the cloth again in this compound bath, and turn it through, till the desired shade be obtained. By changing the proportions, and adding an iron mordant, other tints may be produced.

This mode of dyeing is suitable for silk, but with three different baths, one of logwood, one of Brazil-wood, and one of fustic. The silk, after being boiled with soap, is to be alumed, and then dyed up in a bath compounded of these three decoctions, mixed in the requisite proportions. By the addition of walnut peels, sulphate of copper, and a little sulphate of iron, or by passing the silk through a bath of annotto, a variety of brown shades may be had.

Or the silk may receive an annotto ground, and then be passed through a bath of logwood or Brazil-wood. For 10 pounds of silk, 6 ounces of annotto are to be taken, and dissolved with 18 ounces of potashes in boiling water. The silk must be winced through this solution for 2 hours, then wrung out, dried, next alumed, passed through a bath of Brazil-wood, and finally through a bath of logwood containing some sulphate of iron. It is to be wrung out and dried.

Brown of different shades is imparted to cotton and linen, by impregnating them with a mixed mordant of acetates of alumina and iron, and then dyeing them up, either with madder alone, or with madder and fustic. When the aluminous mordant predominates, the madder gives an amaranth tint. For horse-chesnut brown, the cotton must be galled, plunged into a black bath, then into a bath of sulphate of copper, next dyed up in a decoction of fustic, wrung out, passed through a strong madder bath, then through the sulphate of copper solution, and finished with a soap boil. Different shades of cinnamon are obtained, when cottons first dyed up with madder get an olive cast with iron liquor in a fustic bath.

These cinnamon and mordoré shades are also produced by dyeing them first in a bath of weld and verdigris, passing them through a solution of sulphate of iron, wringing and drying them; next putting them through a bath containing 1 pound of galls for 10 pounds of stuff, again drying, next aluming, and maddering. They must be brightened by a boil in soap water.

A superior brown is produced by like means upon cotton goods, which have undergone the oiling process of the Turkey red dye. Such stuffs must be galled, mordanted with alum (seeMadder), sulphate of iron, and acetate of lead (equal to2⁄3of the alum); after washing and drying, dyed in a madder bath, and cleared with a soap boil. The tint of brown varies with the proportion of alum and sulphate of iron.

We perceive from these examples, in how many ways the browning of dyes may be modified, upon what principles they are founded, and how we have it in our power to turn the shade more or less towards red, black, yellow, blue, &c.

Brown may be produced by direct dyes. The decoction of oak bark dyes wool a fast brown of different shades, according to the concentration of the bath. The colour is more lively with the addition of alum.

The decoction of bastard marjoram (Origanum vulgare) dyes cotton and linen a reddish brown, with acetate of alumina. Wool takes from it a dark brown.

The bark of the mangrove tree (Rizophora mangle) affords to wool boiled with alum and tartar a fine red brown colour, which, with the addition of sulphate of iron, passes into a fast chocolate.

TheBablah, the pods of the East IndianMimosa cineraria, and the AfricanMimosa nilotica, gives cotton a brown with acetate or sulphate of copper.

The root of the white sea rose (Nymphæa alba) gives to cotton and wool beautiful shades of brown. A mordant of sulphate of iron and zinc is first given, and then the wool is turned through the decoction of the root, till the wished-for shade is obtained. The cotton must be mordanted with a mixture of the acetates of iron and zinc.

Walnut peels (Juglans regia), when ripe, contain a dark brown dye stuff, which communicates a permanent colour to wool. The older the infusion or decoction of the peels, the better dye does it make. The stuff is dyed in the lukewarm bath, and needs no mordant, though it becomes brighter with alum. Or this dye may be combined with the madder or fustic bath, to give varieties of shade. For dyeing silk, this bath should be hardly lukewarm, for fear of causing inequality of colour.

The peelings of horse-chesnuts may be used for the same purpose. With muriate of tin they give a bronze colour, and with acetate of lead a reddish brown.

Catechu gives cotton a permanent brown dye, as also a bronze, and mordoré, when its solution in hot water is combined with acetate or sulphate of copper, or when the stuff is previously mordanted with the acetates of copper and alumina mixed, sometimes with a little iron liquor, rinsed, dried, and dyed up, the bath being at a boiling heat.

Ferrocyanate of copper gives a yellow brown or a bronze to cotton and silk.

The brown colour calledcarmeliteby the French is produced by one pound of catechu to four ounces of verdigris, with five ounces of muriate of ammonia.—The bronze (solitaire) is given by passing the stuff through a solution of muriate or sulphate of manganese, with a little tartaric acid, drying, passing through a potash lye at 4° Baumé, brightening and fixing with solution of chloride of lime.

BRUSHES. (Brosses, Fr.;Bürsten, Germ.) Mr. T. Mason obtained a patent in October, 1830, for an improvement in the manufacture of this article. It consists in a firmer mode of fixing the knots or small bundles of hair into the stock or the handle of the brush. This is done by forming grooves in the stocks of the brushes, for the purpose of receiving the ends of the knots of hair, instead of the holes drilled into the wood, as in brushes of the common constructions. These grooves are to be formed like a dovetail, or wider at the bottom than the top; and when the ends of the knots of hair have been dipped into cement, they are to be placed in the grooves and compressed into an oval form, by which the ends of the hair will be pressed outwards into the recess or wider part of the dovetailed groove, or the grooves may be formed with threads or teeth on the sides, instead of being dovetailed; and the cement and hairs being pressed into the teeth or threads, will cause them to adhere firmly to the stock or handle of the brush.BrushesA metal ferrule may be placed on the outside of the stock of the brush, if necessary, and secured by pins or rivets, or in any other convenient manner, which ferrule may also form one side of the outer groove.Fig.182.is a plan view of the stock of a round brush;fig.183.is a section of the same;a aare the dovetailed grooves, which are turned out of the wood;bis the metal ferrule;c care knots or small bundles of hair, to form the brush. After a number of the knots of hair are prepared, the ends are to be dipped into proper cement, and then placed into the grooves, when their ends are to be squeezed by a pair of plyers, or other means, which will compress them into the oval shape, as shown infig.184., and cause the ends of the hairs to extend outward under the dovetailed part of the recess.The knots of hair are to be successively placed in the grooves, and forced up by a tool against the last knot put in, and so on, until the grooves are filled;fig.184.is a section taken through a brush with teeth or threads of a screw formed upon the sides of the groove; into these teeth or threads the cement and hairs will be forced by the compression, by which means they will be held firmly in the stock of the brush.

Brushes

A metal ferrule may be placed on the outside of the stock of the brush, if necessary, and secured by pins or rivets, or in any other convenient manner, which ferrule may also form one side of the outer groove.Fig.182.is a plan view of the stock of a round brush;fig.183.is a section of the same;a aare the dovetailed grooves, which are turned out of the wood;bis the metal ferrule;c care knots or small bundles of hair, to form the brush. After a number of the knots of hair are prepared, the ends are to be dipped into proper cement, and then placed into the grooves, when their ends are to be squeezed by a pair of plyers, or other means, which will compress them into the oval shape, as shown infig.184., and cause the ends of the hairs to extend outward under the dovetailed part of the recess.

The knots of hair are to be successively placed in the grooves, and forced up by a tool against the last knot put in, and so on, until the grooves are filled;fig.184.is a section taken through a brush with teeth or threads of a screw formed upon the sides of the groove; into these teeth or threads the cement and hairs will be forced by the compression, by which means they will be held firmly in the stock of the brush.

BUTTER. (Beurre, Fr.;Butter, Germ.) Milk contains a fatty matter of more or less consistency, modified very much according to the nature of the animals which afford it. This substance is butter, held suspended in the milk by means of the caseous matter and whey, with which it is intimately blended. Milk is a true emulsion resulting from the mixture of these three ingredients, owing its opacity and white colour to the diffusion through it of that butyraceous oil. When any circumstancedissolves this union, each component becomes insulated, and manifests its peculiar properties. Milk, even left to itself, at a temperature of from 50° to 60° F., separates spontaneously into several products. A layer of a fatter, more consistent, but lighter nature, floats upon its surface, while the subjacent liquid forms a white magma, which retains among its curdy flocks all the whey of the milk. The upper layer or cream contains nearly the whole of the butter; but a portion remains entangled with the curd and whey below.It belongs to a work on husbandry or rural economy to treat fully of the operations of the dairy; one of the principal of which is the extraction of butter from milk.The Tartars and French have been long in the habit of preserving butter, by melting it with a moderate heat, whereby are coagulated the albuminous and curdy matters remaining in it, which are very putrescible. This fusion should be made by a heat of a water bath, about 176° F., continued for some time, to effect the more complete purification of the butter. If in this settled liquified state it be carefully decanted, strained through a tammy cloth, and slightly salted, it may be kept for a long time nearly fresh, without becoming in any degree rancid, more especially if it be put up in small jars closely covered.

It belongs to a work on husbandry or rural economy to treat fully of the operations of the dairy; one of the principal of which is the extraction of butter from milk.

The Tartars and French have been long in the habit of preserving butter, by melting it with a moderate heat, whereby are coagulated the albuminous and curdy matters remaining in it, which are very putrescible. This fusion should be made by a heat of a water bath, about 176° F., continued for some time, to effect the more complete purification of the butter. If in this settled liquified state it be carefully decanted, strained through a tammy cloth, and slightly salted, it may be kept for a long time nearly fresh, without becoming in any degree rancid, more especially if it be put up in small jars closely covered.

BUTTER OF CACAO. SeeCacaoandOils.

BUTTON MANUFACTURE. This art is divided into several branches, constituting so many distinct trades. Horn, leather, bone, and wood, are the substances frequently employed for buttons, which are either plain, or covered with silk, mohair thread, or other ornamental materials. The most durable and ornamental buttons are made of various metals, polished, or covered with an exceedingly thin wash, as it is termed, of some more valuable metal, chiefly tin, silver, and gold.Those buttons intended to be covered with silk, &c. are termed, in general, moulds. They are small circles, perforated in the centre, and made from those refuse chips of bone which are too small for other purposes. These chips, which, for the large and coarser buttons, are pieces of hard wood, are sawn into thin flakes, of an equal thickness; from which, by a machine, the button moulds are cut out at two operations.The shavings, sawdust, and more minute fragments, are used by manufacturers of cutlery and iron toys, in the operations of case-hardening; so that not the smallest waste takes place.Metal buttons are formed of an inferior kind of brass, pewter, and other metallic compositions: the shanks are made of brass or iron wire, the formation of which is a distinct trade. The buttons are made by casting them round the shank. For this purpose the workman has a pattern of metal, consisting of a great number of circular buttons, connected together in one plane by very small bars from one to the next; and the pattern contains from four to twelve dozen of buttons of the same size. An impression from this pattern is taken in sand in the usual manner; and shanks are pressed into the sand in the centre of each impression, the part which is to enter the metal being left projecting above the surface of the sand. The buttons are now cast from a mixture of brass and tin; sometimes a small proportion of zinc is added, which is found useful in causing the metal to flow freely into the mould, and make a sharp casting. When the buttons are cast, they are cleaned from the sand by brushing; they are then broken asunder, and carried to a second workman at the lathe, who inserts the shank of a button into a chuck of a proper figure, in which it is retained by the back centre of the lathe being pressed against the button with a spring. The circumference is now, by filing it as it turns round, reduced to a true circle; and the button is instantly released by the workman’s holding back the centre, and is replaced by another. A third workman now turns the back of the button smooth, in a chuck lathe, and makes the projecting part round the shank true; and a fourth renders the face of the button smooth, by placing it in a chuck, and applying the edge of a square bar of steel across its centre.Gilt buttons are stamped out from copper, (having sometimes a small alloy of zinc,) laminated in the flatting mill to the proper thickness. The stamp is urged by a fly-press, which cuts them out at one stroke. These circular pieces, called blanks, are annealed in a furnace to soften them; and the maker’s name, &c. is struck on the back by a monkey, which is a machine very similar to a pile-engine. This stamp also renders the face very slightly convex, that the buttons may not stick together in the gilding process. The shanks are next soldered on. The burnishing is performed by a piece of hematites or blood-stone, fixed into a handle, and applied to the button as it revolves by the motion of the lathe.A great number of the buttons, thus prepared for gilding, are put into an earthen pan, with the proper quantity of gold to cover them[14], amalgamated with mercury in thefollowing manner:—The gold is put into an iron ladle, and a small quantity of mercury added to it; the ladle is held over the fire, till the gold and mercury are perfectly united. This amalgam being put into the pan with the buttons, as much aquafortis, diluted with water, as will wet them all over, is thrown in, and they are stirred up with a brush, till the acid, by its affinity to the copper, carries the amalgam to every part of its surface, covering it with the appearance of silver. When this is perfected, the acid is washed away with clean water. This process by the workman is called quicking.[14]By act of parliament 5 grains of gold are allotted for the purpose of gilding 144 buttons, though they may be tolerably well gilt by half that quantity. In this last case, the thickness would be about the 214,000th part of an inch.The old process in gilding buttons, called the drying off, was exceedingly pernicious to the operator, as he inhaled the vapour of the mercury, which is well known to be a violent poison. In order to obviate this, the following plan of apparatus has been employed with success. The vapour, as it rises from the pan of buttons heated by a charcoal fire, is conducted into an oblong iron flue or gallery, gently sloped downwards, having at its end a small vertical tube dipping into a water cistern, for condensing the mercury, and a large vertical pipe for promoting the draught of the products of the combustion.Plated buttons are stamped by the fly-press, out of copper-plate, covered on one side with silver at the flatting-mill. The copper side is placed upwards in stamping, and the die or hole through which they are stamped, is rather chamfered at its edge, to make the silver turn over the edge of the button. The backs are stamped in the same manner as the gilt buttons. The shanks are soldered on with silver solder, and heated one by one in the flame of a lamp, with a blow-pipe urged by bellows. The edges are now filed smooth in the lathe, care being taken not to remove any of the silver which is turned over the edge. They are next dipped in acid, to clean the backs, and boiled in cream of tartar and silver, to whiten them; after which they are burnished, the backs being first brushed clean by a brush held against them as they revolve in the lathe. The mode of burnishing is the same as for gilt buttons.Button shanks are made by hand from brass or iron wire, bent and cut by the following means:—The wire is lapped spirally round a piece of steel bar. The steel is turned round by screwing it into the end of the spindle of a lathe, and the wire by this means lapped close round it till it is covered. The coil of wire thus formed is slipped off, and a wire fork or staple with parallel legs put into it. It is now laid upon an anvil, and by a punch the coil of wire is struck down between the two prongs of the fork, so as to form a figure 8, a little open in the middle. The punch has an edge which marks the middle of the 8, and the coil being cut open by a pair of shears along this mark, divides each turn of the coil into two perfect button shanks or eyes.ButtonsMr. Holmes, of Birmingham, obtained in May, 1833, a patent for an improved construction of buttons.Fig.185.represents the outside appearance of one of his improved shanks, as raised or formed out of the disc of metal which is to constitute theback of the button;fig.186.an edge view, looking through the shank or loop;fig.187.is another edge view, looking at the raised shank or loop endways;fig.188.is a section taken through the shank and disc in the direction of the dotted lineA B, infig.185.; andfig.189.another section taken in the direction of the dotted lineC D, infig.185.All these figures of his improved shanks, as well as those hereinafter described, together with the tools used to form the same, are drawn at about half the real size, to show the parts more distinctly. It will be seen that the shanks or loopsa aare formed by partially cutting and raising, or forcing up a portion of the metal disc or backb, and are compressed or formed by the action of the tools, or punches and dies, so as to have a rounded figure on the inside of the top part of the shank, as atc, the edges of the metal being turned so as to prevent them cutting the threads by which the button is fastened to the cloth or garment. It will be observed that, there being but one passage or way through which the thread can be passed to sew on the button, and that opening being rounded on all edges, will cause the threads to keep in the centre of the shanks, the form of the shank allowing a much neater attachment to the garment, and keeping the threads from the edges of the metal. The ends of the shank, or portionse e, which rise up from the disc or backb, are made nearly circular, in order to avoid presenting any edges of the metal to the sides of the button-hole; and when the shank is sewed on the cloth, it forms, in conjunction with the threads, a round attachment, thereby preventing the shank from cutting or wearing the button-hole: the threads, when the shank is properly sewed to the garment, nearly filling up the opening through the shank, and completing that portion of the circle which has been taken out of the shank by the dies in forming the crescented parts of the loop. It will be therefore understood that the intention is, that the inside edges of the shank should be turned as much as possible away from the threads by which the button is sewed on the cloth, and that the outside of the shank should be formed so as to present rounded surfaces to the button-hole, and that the thread should fill up the opening through the shank, so as to produce a round attachment to the garment. It should here be observed, that the backs of the buttons shown in these figures are of the shape generally used for buttons covered with Florentine or other fabric, or faced with plates of thin metal, and are intended to have the edges of a disc, or what is termed a shell, forming the face, to be closed in upon the inclined or bevelled edges of the backs. Having now described the peculiar form of the improved shanks which he prefers, for buttons to be covered with Florentine or other fabric, or shells of thin metal plate, he proceeds to describe some of the different variations from the same.ButtonsFig.190.is a representation of a shank, the cut through the disc or back being effected by a parallel rib on the die, and corresponding groove in the shaping punch, instead of the semi-circular or crescented cut shown infig.185.;fig.191.is a view of another shank, the separation of the sides of the loop being performed by straight edges in both punch and die. He prefers finishing this shaped shank (that is, giving it the rounded form, to prevent its cutting the threads), by detached punches, and dies, or pincers, as will be hereinafter described.Fig.192.is a representation of one of the improved shanks, which has merely portions,f f, of the back of the button connected to its ends. This shank may be used for buttons which have a metal shell to be closed in upon the bevelled edges of the ends, or the shank piece may be otherwise connected to the face part of the button.Fig.193.is a representation of a shank raised out of a small disc of metalg g, intended to be soldered to the disc of metal forming the button, or it may be otherwise fixed to the back;fig.194.is a representation of another shank for the same purpose, having only portions of metalh h, for soldering or otherwise attaching it to the back of the button, as by placing a ring or annular piece over it forming the back, which shall be confined to the face, as before described;fig.195.is a representation of a shank raised upon a dish or bevelled piece of metal, and is intended to be used for buttons made from pearl-shell, horn, wood, paper, or other substances. The back part of the button has a dovetailed recess formed in it to receive the dish-shaped back, which is pressed into the recess, the edges of the dish being expanded in the dovetailed parts of the recess by the ordinary means, and thereby firmly fixing it to the button, as shown infig.196.Buttons and toolsHaving now explained the peculiar forms of his improved shanks, he proceeds to describe the tools, or punches and dies, by which he cuts the disc or back from out of a sheet of metal, and at the same operation produces and forms the shank complete.Fig.197.is a longitudinal section taken through a pair of dies and punches when separated;fig.198.is a similar section, taken when they are put together, and in the act of forming a shank after cutting out the disc or back of the button from a sheet of metal;fig.199.is a face view of the punch; andfig.200.is a similar representation of the counter die, with the tools complete,ais the punch or cutter, andbthe counter bed, by the circular edges of which the disc of metal is cut out of the sheet;cis a die, fixed in the cuttera, (upon which the name of the button-maker may be engraved).Fig.201.is a face view of this die when removed out of the punch;dis the counter die to the diec. It will be perceived that these diescandd, together with the punch and bed, compress the disc of metal into the form requiredfor the back of the button; that shown in the figures, as before stated, is of the shape used for buttons to be covered with Florentine or thin plate metal, in a round shell closed in upon the inclined or bevelled edge of the back;eis the cutting and shaping punch of the shank, which is fixed within the counter die; this punch cuts through the metal of the disc, and forms the shank as the dies approach nearer together, by raising or forcing it up into the recess or opening in the diec, where it is met by the end of another shaping punchf, fixed in the puncha, which compresses the upper part of the shank into the recessg, in the end of the punche, thereby giving the shank its rounded figure, and at the same time forming the other part of the shank into the required shape, as described atfigs.185.to189.The ends of these shaping punches fit into and over each other, as will be seen by the detached figures of the punches designed for forming the shank first described.Fig.202.is a representation of the punches when apart and removed out of the dies;fig.203.is a longitudinal section of the same;fig.204.is another view of the punches as seen on the top. The sharp edge of the recessh, in the punche, comes in contact with the cutting edges of the projecting ribi, of the diec, and thereby cuts through so much of the metal as is required. The edgekof this die keeps the outside ends of the shank of a spherical figure, as before explained, while the punches force up the metal, and form the elevated loop or shank:u uare holes made through the counter died, for the passage of clearing pins, which force out the shank or back piece from the counter die when finished; the operation of which will be shown when describing the machinery hereafter. There are adjusting screws at the back of the punches and dies, by which they can be regulated and brought to their proper position one to the other.Button diesAlthough he has shown the punches which form his improved shanks, fixed into and working in conjunction with the punch and dies which cut out and shape the discs of metal for the back of the button, yet he does not intend to confine himself to that mode of using them, as flat blanks or discs for the backs of buttons may be cut out in a separate stamping press, and afterwards shaped in the same press or in another, and then brought under the operation of the punches which form his improved shanks, fixed in any suitable press. This last-mentioned mode of producing button shanks and backs he prefers when such metals are employed as require annealing between the operations of shaping the backs and forming the shank.Fig.205.is a section taken through a pair of dies, in which the operation only of forming the shank is to be performed, the backs being previously shaped in another press. In this instance the puncheseandfare mounted in guide-piecesmandn, which keep them in the proper position towards each other, the die c being mounted in the piecen, and acting against the face of the guidem. The blanks or backs of the buttons may be fed into these dies by hand or any other means; and after the shank is formed, the finished back can be pushed out of the lower die by clearing rods passed through the holesu u, and removed by hand, or in any convenient manner.Buttons and toolWhen his improved shanks are formed out of iron or other metal which is too brittle to allow of the shank being forced up and finished at one operation in the dies and punches, he prefers cutting out and shaping the blank or back of the button first, and after annealing it, to raise or force up the portion of metal to form the shank into the shape shown infig.206., that is, without the edges of the metal being turned to prevent their cutting the threads, and after again annealing it, to bend or turn the edges into the shape shown infig.191.by means of suitable punches in another press, or by a pair of pincers and punch as shown infig.207., which is a side view of a small apparatus to be used for turning the edges of the shank by hand, with a partly formed shank seen under operation.a, is the upper jaw of a pair of pincers, this jaw being fixed on to the head of the standardb; the under jawc, is formed by the end of the lever or handled, which has its fulcrum in the standardb.e, is a small punch, passed through a guide hole in the head of the standard, one end projecting into the jaws of the pincers, the other against a piecef, attached by a joint to the leverd, and working through a slot in the head of the standard; this piecef, has an inclined plane on the side next the end of the punch, which, in its descent, projects the punch forward against the top of the loop of the shank, (placed atg,) as the pincers are closed by forcing down the leverd, and, in conjunction with the jaws of the pincers, compresses the shank into the required form, as shown ath, and in the enlargedfig.191.A spring,i, acts against a pin fixed into the punche, for the purpose of bringing it back as the jaws open after forming a shank.Figs.208.and209.represent the face and section of the dies mentioned before, for cutting the slits in the discs, as atfig.190.Punch machinePunch machinePunch machinePunch machineHaving explained the peculiar forms of his improved metallic shanks for buttons, and the tools employed in making the same, he proceeds to describe the machinery or apparatus by which he intends to carry his invention into effect. He proposes to take a sheet of metal, say about 30 or 40 feet long, and of the proper width and thickness; which thin sheet is to be wound upon a roller, and placed above the machine, so that it can be easily drawn down into the machine as required for feeding the punches anddies.Fig.210.is a plan view of a machine, intended to work any convenient number of sets of punches and dies placed in rows. Eleven sets of punches and dies are represented, each set being constructed as described underfigs.197to204;fig.211.is a side view, andfig.212.a longitudinal section, taken through the machine;figs.213. and 214. are transverse sections taken through the machine between the punches and counter dies,fig.213.representing its appearance at the face of the punches, andfig.214.the opposite view of the counter dies.a a, are the punches;b b, the counter dies; each being mounted in rows in the steel platesc c, fixed upon two strong barsdande, by countersunk screws and nuts, the punches and dies being retained in their proper position by the plates, which are screwed on to the front of the steel plates, and press against the collars of the punches and dies. The barsdandeare both mounted on the guide-pinsg g, fixed in the headsh hof the frame, which guide pins pass through the bosses on the ends of the bars. The bardis stationary upon the guide pins, being fixed to the headsh h, by nuts and screws passed through ears cast on their bosses. The bareslides freely upon the guide pinsg g, as it is moved backwards and forwards by the cranki i, and connecting-rodsj j, as the crank shaft revolves. The sheet of thin iron to be operated upon is placed, as before stated, above the machine; its end being brought down as ata a, and passed between the guide rod and clearing-platek, and between the pair of feeding-rollersl l, which, by revolving, draw down a further portion of the sheet of metal between the punches and dies, after each operation of the punches.As the counter dies advance towards the punches, they first come in contact with the sheet of metal to be operated upon; and after having produced the pressure which cuts out the discs, the perforations of the sheet are pushed on to the ends of the punches by the counter dies; and in order that the sheet may be allowed to advance, the carriage which supports the axles of the feeding-rollers, with the guide rod and clearing-plate, are made to slide by means of the pinm, which works in a slot in the sliding-piecen, bearing the axis of the feeding-rollerl l, the sliden, being kept in its place on the frame work by dovetailed guides shown infig.214.When the counter dies have advanced near to the sheet of metal, the pinmcomes in contact with that end of the slot in the piecen, which is next to the punches, and forces the carriage with feed-rollers and clearing-plate, and also the sheet of metal, onwards, as the dies are advanced by the reaction of the cranks; and after they have cut out the discs, and raised the shanks, the sheet of metal will remain upon the punches; and when the barereturns, the finished backs and shanks are forced out of the counter dies, by the clearing-pins and rodso o, which project through the bare, and through the holes before mentioned in the counter dies; these clearing-pins being stationary between the barsp p, mounted upon the standardq q, on the cross bar of the frame, as shown infigs.210.,212.,213.Immediately after this is done, the pinsmcome in contact with the other ends of the slots in the piecesn, and draw back the feeding-rollersl l, together with the clearing-platek, and the sheet of metal, away from the punches into the position represented in the figures.At this time the feeding of the metal into the machine is effected by a crank-pinr, on the end of the crank-shafts coming in contact with the bent end of the sliding-bars, supported in standardst t; and as the crank-shaft revolves, this pinrforces the barsforward, and causes the tooth or pallu, on its reverse end, to drive the racket-wheelv, one or more teeth; and as the racket-wheelvis fixed on to the end of the axle of one of the rollersl, it will cause that roller to revolve; and by means of the pair of spur-pinions on the other ends of the axles of the feeding-rollers, they will both revolve simultaneously, and thereby draw down the sheet of metal into the machine. It will be perceived that the standards which support the clearing-plate and guide-bar are carried by the axles of the feeding rollers, and partake of their sliding motion: also that the clearing-pinso, are made adjustable between the barsp, to correspond with the counter dies. There is an adjustable sliding stopxupon the bars, which comes in contact with the back standardt, and prevents the barssliding back too far, and consequently regulates the quantity of sheet metal to be fed into the machine by the pall and ratchet-wheel, in order to suit different sizes of punches and dies. In case the weight of the barc, carrying the counter dies, should wear upon its bearings, the guide pinsg g, have small friction-rollersy y, shown under the bosses of this bar, which friction-rollers run upon adjustable beds or planesz z, by which means the guide pins may be partially relieved from the weight of the barc, and the friction consequently diminished.

Those buttons intended to be covered with silk, &c. are termed, in general, moulds. They are small circles, perforated in the centre, and made from those refuse chips of bone which are too small for other purposes. These chips, which, for the large and coarser buttons, are pieces of hard wood, are sawn into thin flakes, of an equal thickness; from which, by a machine, the button moulds are cut out at two operations.

The shavings, sawdust, and more minute fragments, are used by manufacturers of cutlery and iron toys, in the operations of case-hardening; so that not the smallest waste takes place.

Metal buttons are formed of an inferior kind of brass, pewter, and other metallic compositions: the shanks are made of brass or iron wire, the formation of which is a distinct trade. The buttons are made by casting them round the shank. For this purpose the workman has a pattern of metal, consisting of a great number of circular buttons, connected together in one plane by very small bars from one to the next; and the pattern contains from four to twelve dozen of buttons of the same size. An impression from this pattern is taken in sand in the usual manner; and shanks are pressed into the sand in the centre of each impression, the part which is to enter the metal being left projecting above the surface of the sand. The buttons are now cast from a mixture of brass and tin; sometimes a small proportion of zinc is added, which is found useful in causing the metal to flow freely into the mould, and make a sharp casting. When the buttons are cast, they are cleaned from the sand by brushing; they are then broken asunder, and carried to a second workman at the lathe, who inserts the shank of a button into a chuck of a proper figure, in which it is retained by the back centre of the lathe being pressed against the button with a spring. The circumference is now, by filing it as it turns round, reduced to a true circle; and the button is instantly released by the workman’s holding back the centre, and is replaced by another. A third workman now turns the back of the button smooth, in a chuck lathe, and makes the projecting part round the shank true; and a fourth renders the face of the button smooth, by placing it in a chuck, and applying the edge of a square bar of steel across its centre.

Gilt buttons are stamped out from copper, (having sometimes a small alloy of zinc,) laminated in the flatting mill to the proper thickness. The stamp is urged by a fly-press, which cuts them out at one stroke. These circular pieces, called blanks, are annealed in a furnace to soften them; and the maker’s name, &c. is struck on the back by a monkey, which is a machine very similar to a pile-engine. This stamp also renders the face very slightly convex, that the buttons may not stick together in the gilding process. The shanks are next soldered on. The burnishing is performed by a piece of hematites or blood-stone, fixed into a handle, and applied to the button as it revolves by the motion of the lathe.

A great number of the buttons, thus prepared for gilding, are put into an earthen pan, with the proper quantity of gold to cover them[14], amalgamated with mercury in thefollowing manner:—The gold is put into an iron ladle, and a small quantity of mercury added to it; the ladle is held over the fire, till the gold and mercury are perfectly united. This amalgam being put into the pan with the buttons, as much aquafortis, diluted with water, as will wet them all over, is thrown in, and they are stirred up with a brush, till the acid, by its affinity to the copper, carries the amalgam to every part of its surface, covering it with the appearance of silver. When this is perfected, the acid is washed away with clean water. This process by the workman is called quicking.

[14]By act of parliament 5 grains of gold are allotted for the purpose of gilding 144 buttons, though they may be tolerably well gilt by half that quantity. In this last case, the thickness would be about the 214,000th part of an inch.

The old process in gilding buttons, called the drying off, was exceedingly pernicious to the operator, as he inhaled the vapour of the mercury, which is well known to be a violent poison. In order to obviate this, the following plan of apparatus has been employed with success. The vapour, as it rises from the pan of buttons heated by a charcoal fire, is conducted into an oblong iron flue or gallery, gently sloped downwards, having at its end a small vertical tube dipping into a water cistern, for condensing the mercury, and a large vertical pipe for promoting the draught of the products of the combustion.

Plated buttons are stamped by the fly-press, out of copper-plate, covered on one side with silver at the flatting-mill. The copper side is placed upwards in stamping, and the die or hole through which they are stamped, is rather chamfered at its edge, to make the silver turn over the edge of the button. The backs are stamped in the same manner as the gilt buttons. The shanks are soldered on with silver solder, and heated one by one in the flame of a lamp, with a blow-pipe urged by bellows. The edges are now filed smooth in the lathe, care being taken not to remove any of the silver which is turned over the edge. They are next dipped in acid, to clean the backs, and boiled in cream of tartar and silver, to whiten them; after which they are burnished, the backs being first brushed clean by a brush held against them as they revolve in the lathe. The mode of burnishing is the same as for gilt buttons.

Button shanks are made by hand from brass or iron wire, bent and cut by the following means:—

The wire is lapped spirally round a piece of steel bar. The steel is turned round by screwing it into the end of the spindle of a lathe, and the wire by this means lapped close round it till it is covered. The coil of wire thus formed is slipped off, and a wire fork or staple with parallel legs put into it. It is now laid upon an anvil, and by a punch the coil of wire is struck down between the two prongs of the fork, so as to form a figure 8, a little open in the middle. The punch has an edge which marks the middle of the 8, and the coil being cut open by a pair of shears along this mark, divides each turn of the coil into two perfect button shanks or eyes.

Buttons

Mr. Holmes, of Birmingham, obtained in May, 1833, a patent for an improved construction of buttons.Fig.185.represents the outside appearance of one of his improved shanks, as raised or formed out of the disc of metal which is to constitute theback of the button;fig.186.an edge view, looking through the shank or loop;fig.187.is another edge view, looking at the raised shank or loop endways;fig.188.is a section taken through the shank and disc in the direction of the dotted lineA B, infig.185.; andfig.189.another section taken in the direction of the dotted lineC D, infig.185.All these figures of his improved shanks, as well as those hereinafter described, together with the tools used to form the same, are drawn at about half the real size, to show the parts more distinctly. It will be seen that the shanks or loopsa aare formed by partially cutting and raising, or forcing up a portion of the metal disc or backb, and are compressed or formed by the action of the tools, or punches and dies, so as to have a rounded figure on the inside of the top part of the shank, as atc, the edges of the metal being turned so as to prevent them cutting the threads by which the button is fastened to the cloth or garment. It will be observed that, there being but one passage or way through which the thread can be passed to sew on the button, and that opening being rounded on all edges, will cause the threads to keep in the centre of the shanks, the form of the shank allowing a much neater attachment to the garment, and keeping the threads from the edges of the metal. The ends of the shank, or portionse e, which rise up from the disc or backb, are made nearly circular, in order to avoid presenting any edges of the metal to the sides of the button-hole; and when the shank is sewed on the cloth, it forms, in conjunction with the threads, a round attachment, thereby preventing the shank from cutting or wearing the button-hole: the threads, when the shank is properly sewed to the garment, nearly filling up the opening through the shank, and completing that portion of the circle which has been taken out of the shank by the dies in forming the crescented parts of the loop. It will be therefore understood that the intention is, that the inside edges of the shank should be turned as much as possible away from the threads by which the button is sewed on the cloth, and that the outside of the shank should be formed so as to present rounded surfaces to the button-hole, and that the thread should fill up the opening through the shank, so as to produce a round attachment to the garment. It should here be observed, that the backs of the buttons shown in these figures are of the shape generally used for buttons covered with Florentine or other fabric, or faced with plates of thin metal, and are intended to have the edges of a disc, or what is termed a shell, forming the face, to be closed in upon the inclined or bevelled edges of the backs. Having now described the peculiar form of the improved shanks which he prefers, for buttons to be covered with Florentine or other fabric, or shells of thin metal plate, he proceeds to describe some of the different variations from the same.

Buttons

Fig.190.is a representation of a shank, the cut through the disc or back being effected by a parallel rib on the die, and corresponding groove in the shaping punch, instead of the semi-circular or crescented cut shown infig.185.;fig.191.is a view of another shank, the separation of the sides of the loop being performed by straight edges in both punch and die. He prefers finishing this shaped shank (that is, giving it the rounded form, to prevent its cutting the threads), by detached punches, and dies, or pincers, as will be hereinafter described.Fig.192.is a representation of one of the improved shanks, which has merely portions,f f, of the back of the button connected to its ends. This shank may be used for buttons which have a metal shell to be closed in upon the bevelled edges of the ends, or the shank piece may be otherwise connected to the face part of the button.Fig.193.is a representation of a shank raised out of a small disc of metalg g, intended to be soldered to the disc of metal forming the button, or it may be otherwise fixed to the back;fig.194.is a representation of another shank for the same purpose, having only portions of metalh h, for soldering or otherwise attaching it to the back of the button, as by placing a ring or annular piece over it forming the back, which shall be confined to the face, as before described;fig.195.is a representation of a shank raised upon a dish or bevelled piece of metal, and is intended to be used for buttons made from pearl-shell, horn, wood, paper, or other substances. The back part of the button has a dovetailed recess formed in it to receive the dish-shaped back, which is pressed into the recess, the edges of the dish being expanded in the dovetailed parts of the recess by the ordinary means, and thereby firmly fixing it to the button, as shown infig.196.

Buttons and tools

Having now explained the peculiar forms of his improved shanks, he proceeds to describe the tools, or punches and dies, by which he cuts the disc or back from out of a sheet of metal, and at the same operation produces and forms the shank complete.Fig.197.is a longitudinal section taken through a pair of dies and punches when separated;fig.198.is a similar section, taken when they are put together, and in the act of forming a shank after cutting out the disc or back of the button from a sheet of metal;fig.199.is a face view of the punch; andfig.200.is a similar representation of the counter die, with the tools complete,ais the punch or cutter, andbthe counter bed, by the circular edges of which the disc of metal is cut out of the sheet;cis a die, fixed in the cuttera, (upon which the name of the button-maker may be engraved).Fig.201.is a face view of this die when removed out of the punch;dis the counter die to the diec. It will be perceived that these diescandd, together with the punch and bed, compress the disc of metal into the form requiredfor the back of the button; that shown in the figures, as before stated, is of the shape used for buttons to be covered with Florentine or thin plate metal, in a round shell closed in upon the inclined or bevelled edge of the back;eis the cutting and shaping punch of the shank, which is fixed within the counter die; this punch cuts through the metal of the disc, and forms the shank as the dies approach nearer together, by raising or forcing it up into the recess or opening in the diec, where it is met by the end of another shaping punchf, fixed in the puncha, which compresses the upper part of the shank into the recessg, in the end of the punche, thereby giving the shank its rounded figure, and at the same time forming the other part of the shank into the required shape, as described atfigs.185.to189.The ends of these shaping punches fit into and over each other, as will be seen by the detached figures of the punches designed for forming the shank first described.Fig.202.is a representation of the punches when apart and removed out of the dies;fig.203.is a longitudinal section of the same;fig.204.is another view of the punches as seen on the top. The sharp edge of the recessh, in the punche, comes in contact with the cutting edges of the projecting ribi, of the diec, and thereby cuts through so much of the metal as is required. The edgekof this die keeps the outside ends of the shank of a spherical figure, as before explained, while the punches force up the metal, and form the elevated loop or shank:u uare holes made through the counter died, for the passage of clearing pins, which force out the shank or back piece from the counter die when finished; the operation of which will be shown when describing the machinery hereafter. There are adjusting screws at the back of the punches and dies, by which they can be regulated and brought to their proper position one to the other.

Button dies

Although he has shown the punches which form his improved shanks, fixed into and working in conjunction with the punch and dies which cut out and shape the discs of metal for the back of the button, yet he does not intend to confine himself to that mode of using them, as flat blanks or discs for the backs of buttons may be cut out in a separate stamping press, and afterwards shaped in the same press or in another, and then brought under the operation of the punches which form his improved shanks, fixed in any suitable press. This last-mentioned mode of producing button shanks and backs he prefers when such metals are employed as require annealing between the operations of shaping the backs and forming the shank.Fig.205.is a section taken through a pair of dies, in which the operation only of forming the shank is to be performed, the backs being previously shaped in another press. In this instance the puncheseandfare mounted in guide-piecesmandn, which keep them in the proper position towards each other, the die c being mounted in the piecen, and acting against the face of the guidem. The blanks or backs of the buttons may be fed into these dies by hand or any other means; and after the shank is formed, the finished back can be pushed out of the lower die by clearing rods passed through the holesu u, and removed by hand, or in any convenient manner.

Buttons and tool

When his improved shanks are formed out of iron or other metal which is too brittle to allow of the shank being forced up and finished at one operation in the dies and punches, he prefers cutting out and shaping the blank or back of the button first, and after annealing it, to raise or force up the portion of metal to form the shank into the shape shown infig.206., that is, without the edges of the metal being turned to prevent their cutting the threads, and after again annealing it, to bend or turn the edges into the shape shown infig.191.by means of suitable punches in another press, or by a pair of pincers and punch as shown infig.207., which is a side view of a small apparatus to be used for turning the edges of the shank by hand, with a partly formed shank seen under operation.a, is the upper jaw of a pair of pincers, this jaw being fixed on to the head of the standardb; the under jawc, is formed by the end of the lever or handled, which has its fulcrum in the standardb.e, is a small punch, passed through a guide hole in the head of the standard, one end projecting into the jaws of the pincers, the other against a piecef, attached by a joint to the leverd, and working through a slot in the head of the standard; this piecef, has an inclined plane on the side next the end of the punch, which, in its descent, projects the punch forward against the top of the loop of the shank, (placed atg,) as the pincers are closed by forcing down the leverd, and, in conjunction with the jaws of the pincers, compresses the shank into the required form, as shown ath, and in the enlargedfig.191.A spring,i, acts against a pin fixed into the punche, for the purpose of bringing it back as the jaws open after forming a shank.Figs.208.and209.represent the face and section of the dies mentioned before, for cutting the slits in the discs, as atfig.190.

Punch machine

Having explained the peculiar forms of his improved metallic shanks for buttons, and the tools employed in making the same, he proceeds to describe the machinery or apparatus by which he intends to carry his invention into effect. He proposes to take a sheet of metal, say about 30 or 40 feet long, and of the proper width and thickness; which thin sheet is to be wound upon a roller, and placed above the machine, so that it can be easily drawn down into the machine as required for feeding the punches anddies.Fig.210.is a plan view of a machine, intended to work any convenient number of sets of punches and dies placed in rows. Eleven sets of punches and dies are represented, each set being constructed as described underfigs.197to204;fig.211.is a side view, andfig.212.a longitudinal section, taken through the machine;figs.213. and 214. are transverse sections taken through the machine between the punches and counter dies,fig.213.representing its appearance at the face of the punches, andfig.214.the opposite view of the counter dies.a a, are the punches;b b, the counter dies; each being mounted in rows in the steel platesc c, fixed upon two strong barsdande, by countersunk screws and nuts, the punches and dies being retained in their proper position by the plates, which are screwed on to the front of the steel plates, and press against the collars of the punches and dies. The barsdandeare both mounted on the guide-pinsg g, fixed in the headsh hof the frame, which guide pins pass through the bosses on the ends of the bars. The bardis stationary upon the guide pins, being fixed to the headsh h, by nuts and screws passed through ears cast on their bosses. The bareslides freely upon the guide pinsg g, as it is moved backwards and forwards by the cranki i, and connecting-rodsj j, as the crank shaft revolves. The sheet of thin iron to be operated upon is placed, as before stated, above the machine; its end being brought down as ata a, and passed between the guide rod and clearing-platek, and between the pair of feeding-rollersl l, which, by revolving, draw down a further portion of the sheet of metal between the punches and dies, after each operation of the punches.

As the counter dies advance towards the punches, they first come in contact with the sheet of metal to be operated upon; and after having produced the pressure which cuts out the discs, the perforations of the sheet are pushed on to the ends of the punches by the counter dies; and in order that the sheet may be allowed to advance, the carriage which supports the axles of the feeding-rollers, with the guide rod and clearing-plate, are made to slide by means of the pinm, which works in a slot in the sliding-piecen, bearing the axis of the feeding-rollerl l, the sliden, being kept in its place on the frame work by dovetailed guides shown infig.214.

When the counter dies have advanced near to the sheet of metal, the pinmcomes in contact with that end of the slot in the piecen, which is next to the punches, and forces the carriage with feed-rollers and clearing-plate, and also the sheet of metal, onwards, as the dies are advanced by the reaction of the cranks; and after they have cut out the discs, and raised the shanks, the sheet of metal will remain upon the punches; and when the barereturns, the finished backs and shanks are forced out of the counter dies, by the clearing-pins and rodso o, which project through the bare, and through the holes before mentioned in the counter dies; these clearing-pins being stationary between the barsp p, mounted upon the standardq q, on the cross bar of the frame, as shown infigs.210.,212.,213.Immediately after this is done, the pinsmcome in contact with the other ends of the slots in the piecesn, and draw back the feeding-rollersl l, together with the clearing-platek, and the sheet of metal, away from the punches into the position represented in the figures.

At this time the feeding of the metal into the machine is effected by a crank-pinr, on the end of the crank-shafts coming in contact with the bent end of the sliding-bars, supported in standardst t; and as the crank-shaft revolves, this pinrforces the barsforward, and causes the tooth or pallu, on its reverse end, to drive the racket-wheelv, one or more teeth; and as the racket-wheelvis fixed on to the end of the axle of one of the rollersl, it will cause that roller to revolve; and by means of the pair of spur-pinions on the other ends of the axles of the feeding-rollers, they will both revolve simultaneously, and thereby draw down the sheet of metal into the machine. It will be perceived that the standards which support the clearing-plate and guide-bar are carried by the axles of the feeding rollers, and partake of their sliding motion: also that the clearing-pinso, are made adjustable between the barsp, to correspond with the counter dies. There is an adjustable sliding stopxupon the bars, which comes in contact with the back standardt, and prevents the barssliding back too far, and consequently regulates the quantity of sheet metal to be fed into the machine by the pall and ratchet-wheel, in order to suit different sizes of punches and dies. In case the weight of the barc, carrying the counter dies, should wear upon its bearings, the guide pinsg g, have small friction-rollersy y, shown under the bosses of this bar, which friction-rollers run upon adjustable beds or planesz z, by which means the guide pins may be partially relieved from the weight of the barc, and the friction consequently diminished.

CABLE. (Cable, Fr.;Ankertau, Germ.) A strong rope or chain, connecting the ship with the anchor for the purpose of mooring it to the ground. Thesheet anchorcable is the strongest, and is used at sea; thestreamcable is more slender, being used chiefly in rivers. A cable’s length is 120 fathoms. The greatest improvement in mooring vessels has been the introduction of the chain cable, which, when duly let out, affords in the weight of its long catenary curve, an elastic tension and play to the ship under the pressure of wind. The dead strain upon the anchor is thus greatly reduced, and the sudden pull by which the flukes or arms are readily snapped is in a great measure obviated. The best iron cables are chains made of links, bound and braced by rods across their middle. Experience has taught that the ends of these links wear out much sooner than the sides. To remedy this evil, Mr. Hawkes, iron manufacturer, obtained a patent in July, 1828, for constructing these anchor chains with links considerably stouter at the ends than in the middle. With this view, he forms the short rods of iron, of which the links are to be made, with swells or protuberances about one third of their length from each of their ends, so that when these are welded together, the slenderer parts are at the sides, and the thicker at the ends of the elliptic links. Such rods as the above are formed at once by rolling, swagging, or any other means. When the link is welded, it may be strengthened, by a brace or stretcher fixed across the middle.The first avowed proposal to substitute iron cables for cordage in the sea service, was made by Mr. Slater, surgeon of the navy, who obtained a patent for the plan in 1808, though he does not seem to have had the means of carrying it into effect; a very general misfortune with ingenious projectors. It was Captain Brown of the West Indiamerchant service who, in 1811, first employed chain cables in the vessel Penelope, of 400 tons burden, of which he was captain. He made a voyage in this ship from England to Martinique and Guadaloupe and home again, in the course of four months, having anchored many times in every variety of ground without any accident. He multiplied his trials, and acquired certain proofs that iron might be substituted for hemp in making cables, not only for mooring vessels, but for the standing rigging. Since this period chain cables have been universally introduced into all the ships of the royal navy, but the twisted links employed at first by Brown, have been replaced by straight ones, stayed in the middle with a cross rod, the contrivance of Mr. Brunton, which was secured by patent in this country and in France; but the latter patent was suffered to fall from not being acted upon within the two years specified by law.The first thing to be considered in the manufacture of iron cables is, to procure a material of the best quality, and, in using it, always to keep in view the direction of the strain, in order to oppose the maximum strength of the iron to it. The best form of the links may be deduced from the following investigation.Chain linkLetA Bfig.215.be a circular link or ring, of one inch rod iron, the outer circumference of the ring being 15 inches, and the inner 9. If equal opposite forces be applied to the two points of the linkC D, pullingCtowardsE, andDtowardsF, the result will be, when the forces are sufficiently intense, that the circular form of the link will be changed into another form with two round ends and two parallel sides, as seen infig.216.The ratio of the exterior to the interior periphery which was originally as 15 to 9, or 5 to 3, is no longer the same infig.216.Hence there will be a derangement in the relative position of the component particles, and consequently their cohesion will be progressively impaired, and eventually destroyed. Infig.215.the segmentM Nof the outside periphery being equal to 3 inches, the corresponding inside segment will be3⁄5of it, or 14⁄5inches. If this portion of the link, in consequence of the stretching force, comes to be extended into a straight line, as shown infig.216., the corresponding segments, interior and exterior, must both be reduced to an equal length. The matter contained in the 3 inches of the outside periphery must therefore be either compressed, that is, condensed into 14⁄5inch, or the inside periphery, which is only 14⁄5inch already, must be extended to 3 inches; that is to say, the exterior condensation and the interior expansion must take place in a reciprocal proportion. But, in every case, it is impossible to effect this contraction of one side of the rod, and extension of the other, without disrupture of the link.Let us imagine the outside periphery divided into an infinity of points, upon each of which equal opposite forces act to straighten the curvature: they must undoubtedly occasion the rupture of the corresponding part of the internal periphery. This is not the sole injury which must result; others will occur, as we shall perceive in considering what passes in the portion of the link which surroundsC D,fig.216., whose length is 41⁄2inches outside, and 21⁄10inside. The segmentsM PandN O,fig.215., are actually reduced to semi-circumferences, which are inside no more than half an inch, and outside as before. There is thus contraction in the interior, with a quicker curvature or one of shorter radius in the exterior. The derangement of the particles takes place here, in an order inverse to that of the preceding case, but it no less tends to diminish the strength of that portion of the link; whence we may certainly conclude that the circular form of cable links is an extremely faulty one.Chain linkLeaving matters as we have supposed infig.215., but suppose thatGis a rod introduced into the mail, hindering its two opposite pointsA Bfrom approximating. This circumstance makes a remarkable change in the results. The link pulled as above described, must assume the quadrilateral form shown infig.217.It offers more resistance to deformation than before; but as it may still suffer change of shape, it will lose strength in so doing, and cannot therefore be recommended for the construction of cables which are to be exposed to very severe strains.Supposing still the link to be circular, if the ends of the stay comprehended a larger portion of the internal periphery, so as to leave merely the space necessary for the plan of the next link, there can be no doubt of its opposing more effectively the change of form, and thus rendering the chain stronger. But, notwithstanding, the circular portions which remain between the points of application of the strain and the stay, would tend always to be straightened, and of consequence to be destroyed. Besides, though we could construct circular links of sufficient strength to bear all strains, we ought still to reject them, because they would consume more materials than links of a more suitable form, as we shall presently see.The effect of two opposite forces applied to the links of a chain, is, as we have seen,to reduce to a straight line or a straight plane every curved part which is not stayed; whence it is obvious that twisted links, such as Brown first employed, even with a stay in their middle, must of necessity be straightened out, because there is no resistance in the direction opposed to the twist. A cable formed of twisted links, for a vessel of 400 tons stretches 30 feet, when put to the trial strain, and draws back only 10 feet. This elongation of 20 feet proceeds evidently from the straightening of the twist in each link, which can take place only by impairing the strength of the cable.From the preceding remarks, it appears that the strongest links are such as present, in their original form, straight portions between the points of tension; whence it is clear that links with parallel sides and round ends, would be preferable to all others, did not a good cable require to be able to resist a lateral force, as well as one in the direction of its length.Chain linkLet us suppose that by some accident the linkfig.216.should have its two extremities pulled towardsYandZ, whilst an obstacleX, placed right opposite to its middle, resisted the effort. The side of the link which touchesX, would be bent inwards; but if as infig.218., there is a stayA G B, the two sides would be bent at the same time; the link would notwithstanding assume a faulty shape.Chain linkIn thus rejecting all the vicious forms, we are naturally directed to that which deserves the preference. It is shown infig.219.This link has a cast-iron stay with large ends, it presents in all directions a great resistance to every change of form; for let it be pulled in the directiona b, against an obstaclec, it is evident that the portionsd eandd f, which are supported by the partsg eandg f, cannot get deformed or be broken without the whole link giving way. As the matter composingg eandg fcannot be shortened, or that which composesd eandd fbe lengthened, these four sides will remain necessarily in their relative positions, by virtue of the large-ended stayh, whose profile is shown infig.220.Chain linkWe have examined the strength of a link in every direction, except that perpendicular to its plane.Fig.221.represents the assemblage of three links in the above predicament; but we ought to observe, that the obstacleC, placed between the linksA B, must be necessarily very small, and could not therefore resist the pressure or impact of the two lateral links.Process of manufacturing iron cables.—The implements and operations are arranged in the following order:—1. A reverberatory furnace (seeIron), in which a number of rods or round bars of the best possible wrought-iron, and of proper dimensions, are heated to bright ignition.2. The cutting by a machine of these bars, in equal lengths, but with opposite bevels, to allow of the requisite crossing and splicing of the ends in the act of welding.3. The bending of each of these pieces by a machine, so as to form the links; the last two operations are done rapidly while the iron is red-hot.4. The welding of the links at small forge fires, fitted with tools for this express purpose, and the immediate introduction of the stay, by means of a compound lever press.5. Proving the strength of the cables by an hydraulic press, worked by two men turning a winch furnished with a fly wheel.The furnace is like those used in the sheet-iron works, but somewhat larger, and needs no particular description here.Rod shearsFigs.222.and223.are a plan and elevation of the shears with which the rods are cut into equal pieces, for forming each a link. It is moved at Mr. Brunton’s factory by a small steam engine, but, for the sake of simplicity, it is here represented worked by four or more labourers, as it may be in any establishment. These must be relieved howeverfrequently by others, for I believe each shears’ machine is calculated to require nearly one horse in steam power. It is portable and must be placed in the neighbourhood of both the furnace and bending machine.AandBare the two cast-iron limbs of the shears. The first is fixed and the second is movable by means of a crank shaftC, driven by a heavy fly-wheel weighing 7 or 8 cwt.The cutting jawsGare mounted with pieces of steel which are made fast by bolts, and may be changed at pleasure.E, the bar of iron to be cut. It is subjected, immediately upon being taken out of the fire, to the shears, under a determinate uniform angle, care being taken not to let it turn round upon its axis, lest the planes of the successive incisions should become unequal.Fis a stop which serves to determine, for the same kind of chain, the equality of length in the link pieces.Link bending machineFigs.224,225,226.plan and elevations of the machine for bending the links into an elliptic form. It is represented at the moment when a link is getting bent upon it.Ais an elliptic mandrel of cast-iron; it is fixed upon the top of a wooden pillarB, solidly supported in the ground.Cis the jaw of the vice, pressed by a square-headed screw against the mandrelA.Dpart of the mandrel comprehended betweenXandY, formed as an inclined plane, so as to preserve an interval equal to the diameter of the rod between the two surfaces that are to be welded together.Erectangular slots (shears) passing through the centre of the nut of the mandrel, in which each of the pinsFmay be freely slidden.Ghorizontal lever of wrought-iron six feet long. It carries atHa pulley or friction-roller of steel, whose position may be altered according to the diameter of the links. It is obvious that as many mandrels are required as there are sizes and shapes of links.The piece of iron intended to form a link being cut, is carried, while red-hot, to the bending machine, where it is seized with the jaw of the viceC, by one of its ends, the slant of the cut being turned upwards; this piece of iron has now the horizontal directionm n; on pushing the leverGin the line of the arrow, the rollerHwill forcem nto be applied successively in the elliptic groove of the mandrel; thus finally the two faces that are to be welded together will be placed right opposite each other.The length of the small diameter of the ellipse ought to exceed by a little the length of the stay-piece, to allow of this being readily introduced. The difference between the pointsF,Eis equal to the difference of theradii vectoresof the ellipse. Hence it will be always easy to find the eccentricity of the ellipse.Lever pressFig.227.is a lever press for squeezing the links upon their stays, after the links are welded. This machine consists of a strong cast-iron pieceA, in the form of a square, of which one of the branches is laid horizontally, and fixed to a solid bed by means of bolts; the other branch, composed of two cheeks, leaving between them a space of two inches, stands upright. These two cheeks are united at top, and on the back of their plane by a cross pieceB.C, a rectangular staple, placed to the right and left of the cheeks through which is passed the mandrelD, which represents and keeps the place of the following link.E, is a press lever, 6 feet long.F, clamp and counterclamp, between which the link is pressed at the moment when the stay is properly placed. There are other clamps, as well as staplesC, for changing with each changed dimension of links.The links bent, as we have seen, are carried to the forge hearth to be welded, and to receive their stay; two operations performed at one heating. Whenever the welding is finished, while the iron is still red-hot, the link is placed upright between the clampsF; then a workman introduces into the staple the mandrelD, and now applies the stay with a pair of tongs or pincers, while another workman strikes down the leverEforcibly upon it. This mechanical compression first of all joins perfectly the sides of the link against the concave ends of the stay, and afterwards the retraction of the iron on cooling increases still more this compression.If each link be made with the same care, the cable must be sound throughout. It is not delivered for use however till it be proved by the hydraulic press, at a draw-bench made on purpose. The press is an horizontal one, having the axis of its ram in the middle line of the draw-bench, which is about 60 feet long, and is secured to the body of the press by strong bolts.The portion of chain under trial, being attached at the one end to the end of the ram of the press, and at the other to a cross-bar at the extremity of the draw-bench, two men put the press in action, by turning the winch which works by a triple crank three forcing pumps alternately; the action being equalized by means of a heavy fly-wheel. As long as the resistance does not exceed the force of two men, the whole three pumps are kept in play. After a while one pump is thrown out of geer and next another, only one being worked towards the conclusion. The velocity of the ram being retarded first one third and next two thirds, gives the men a proportional increase of mechanical power.The strength of two average men thus applied being computed, enables us to know at every instant the resistance opposed by the chain to the pressure of the ram. The strain usually applied to the stronger cables is about 500 tons.The side beams of the draw-bench are of cast-iron, 6 inches in diameter; the different pieces composing it are adjusted to each other end-wise by turned joints. Props also of cast-iron support the beams two feet asunder, and at the height of 30 inches above the ground. The space between them is filled with an oak plank on which the trial chain is laid.Strength of iron-cables compared to hemp cables:—Iron Cables.Diameter of Iron Rod.Hemp Cables.Circumference of Rope.Resistance.Inches.Inches.Tons.07⁄89121101811⁄8112611⁄4123215⁄16133513⁄814to 153811⁄2164415⁄8175213⁄4186017⁄82070222to 2480It would be imprudent to put hemp cables to severer strains than those indicated in the preceding table, drawn up from Brunton’s experiments; but the iron cables of the above sizes will support a double strain without breaking. They ought never in common cases however to be exposed to a greater stress. A cable destined for ships of a certain tonnage, should not be employed in those of greater burden. Thus treated it may be always trusted to do its duty, and will last longer than the ship to which it belongs. A considerable part of this decided superiority which iron cables have over hemp ones, is undoubtedly due to the admirable form contrived by Brunton. Repeated experiments have proved that his cables possess double the strength of the iron rods with which they are made—a fact which demonstrates that no stronger form can be devised or is in fact possible.One of the most valuable qualities of iron cables is their resisting lateral as well as longitudinal strains as explained underfigs.219.and221.Vessels furnished with such cables have been saved by them from the most imminent peril. The Henry, sent out with army stores during the peninsular war, was caught on the northern coast of Spain in a furious storm. She run for shelter into the Bay of Biscay among the rocks, where she was exposed for three days to the hurricane. She possessed fortunately one of Brunton’s 70 fathom chain cables, which held good all the time, but it was found afterwards to have had the links of its lower portion polished bright by attrition against the rocky bottom. A hemp cable would have been speedily torn to pieces in such a predicament.In the contracts of the Admiralty for chain cables for the British navy, it is stipulated that “the iron shall have been manufactured in the best manner from pig iron, smelted from iron-stone only, and selected of the best quality for the purpose, and shall not have received in any process whatever subsequent to the smelting, the admixture of either the cinder or oxides produced in the manufacture of iron; and shall also have been puddled in the best manner upon iron bottoms, and at least three times sufficiently drawn out at three distinct welding heats, and at least twice properly fagotted.”The following is a table of the breaking proof of chain cables, and of the iron for the purpose of making them, also of the proofs required by her majesty’s navy for chains.Size of Bolt.Proof of Bolt.Proof of Chain.NavyProof of Chain.Inches.Tons.Cwt.Tons.Cwt.Tons.1⁄25781141⁄25⁄88713451⁄23⁄4121195107⁄87⁄8164265133⁄412183451811⁄82724815223⁄411⁄433105311281⁄213⁄840106503411⁄2484770401⁄215⁄856119010471⁄213⁄465121050551⁄817⁄875612010631⁄42851413707221⁄896151550811⁄4In Brunton’s cable the matter in the link is thrown very much into one plane; thelink being of an oval form, and provided with a stay. As there are emergencies in which the cable must be severed, this is accomplished in those of iron by means of a bolt and sheckle (shackle), at every fathom or two fathoms; so that by striking out this bolt or pin, this cable is parted with more ease than a hempen one can be cut.

The first avowed proposal to substitute iron cables for cordage in the sea service, was made by Mr. Slater, surgeon of the navy, who obtained a patent for the plan in 1808, though he does not seem to have had the means of carrying it into effect; a very general misfortune with ingenious projectors. It was Captain Brown of the West Indiamerchant service who, in 1811, first employed chain cables in the vessel Penelope, of 400 tons burden, of which he was captain. He made a voyage in this ship from England to Martinique and Guadaloupe and home again, in the course of four months, having anchored many times in every variety of ground without any accident. He multiplied his trials, and acquired certain proofs that iron might be substituted for hemp in making cables, not only for mooring vessels, but for the standing rigging. Since this period chain cables have been universally introduced into all the ships of the royal navy, but the twisted links employed at first by Brown, have been replaced by straight ones, stayed in the middle with a cross rod, the contrivance of Mr. Brunton, which was secured by patent in this country and in France; but the latter patent was suffered to fall from not being acted upon within the two years specified by law.

The first thing to be considered in the manufacture of iron cables is, to procure a material of the best quality, and, in using it, always to keep in view the direction of the strain, in order to oppose the maximum strength of the iron to it. The best form of the links may be deduced from the following investigation.

Chain link

LetA Bfig.215.be a circular link or ring, of one inch rod iron, the outer circumference of the ring being 15 inches, and the inner 9. If equal opposite forces be applied to the two points of the linkC D, pullingCtowardsE, andDtowardsF, the result will be, when the forces are sufficiently intense, that the circular form of the link will be changed into another form with two round ends and two parallel sides, as seen infig.216.The ratio of the exterior to the interior periphery which was originally as 15 to 9, or 5 to 3, is no longer the same infig.216.Hence there will be a derangement in the relative position of the component particles, and consequently their cohesion will be progressively impaired, and eventually destroyed. Infig.215.the segmentM Nof the outside periphery being equal to 3 inches, the corresponding inside segment will be3⁄5of it, or 14⁄5inches. If this portion of the link, in consequence of the stretching force, comes to be extended into a straight line, as shown infig.216., the corresponding segments, interior and exterior, must both be reduced to an equal length. The matter contained in the 3 inches of the outside periphery must therefore be either compressed, that is, condensed into 14⁄5inch, or the inside periphery, which is only 14⁄5inch already, must be extended to 3 inches; that is to say, the exterior condensation and the interior expansion must take place in a reciprocal proportion. But, in every case, it is impossible to effect this contraction of one side of the rod, and extension of the other, without disrupture of the link.

Let us imagine the outside periphery divided into an infinity of points, upon each of which equal opposite forces act to straighten the curvature: they must undoubtedly occasion the rupture of the corresponding part of the internal periphery. This is not the sole injury which must result; others will occur, as we shall perceive in considering what passes in the portion of the link which surroundsC D,fig.216., whose length is 41⁄2inches outside, and 21⁄10inside. The segmentsM PandN O,fig.215., are actually reduced to semi-circumferences, which are inside no more than half an inch, and outside as before. There is thus contraction in the interior, with a quicker curvature or one of shorter radius in the exterior. The derangement of the particles takes place here, in an order inverse to that of the preceding case, but it no less tends to diminish the strength of that portion of the link; whence we may certainly conclude that the circular form of cable links is an extremely faulty one.

Chain link

Leaving matters as we have supposed infig.215., but suppose thatGis a rod introduced into the mail, hindering its two opposite pointsA Bfrom approximating. This circumstance makes a remarkable change in the results. The link pulled as above described, must assume the quadrilateral form shown infig.217.It offers more resistance to deformation than before; but as it may still suffer change of shape, it will lose strength in so doing, and cannot therefore be recommended for the construction of cables which are to be exposed to very severe strains.

Supposing still the link to be circular, if the ends of the stay comprehended a larger portion of the internal periphery, so as to leave merely the space necessary for the plan of the next link, there can be no doubt of its opposing more effectively the change of form, and thus rendering the chain stronger. But, notwithstanding, the circular portions which remain between the points of application of the strain and the stay, would tend always to be straightened, and of consequence to be destroyed. Besides, though we could construct circular links of sufficient strength to bear all strains, we ought still to reject them, because they would consume more materials than links of a more suitable form, as we shall presently see.

The effect of two opposite forces applied to the links of a chain, is, as we have seen,to reduce to a straight line or a straight plane every curved part which is not stayed; whence it is obvious that twisted links, such as Brown first employed, even with a stay in their middle, must of necessity be straightened out, because there is no resistance in the direction opposed to the twist. A cable formed of twisted links, for a vessel of 400 tons stretches 30 feet, when put to the trial strain, and draws back only 10 feet. This elongation of 20 feet proceeds evidently from the straightening of the twist in each link, which can take place only by impairing the strength of the cable.

From the preceding remarks, it appears that the strongest links are such as present, in their original form, straight portions between the points of tension; whence it is clear that links with parallel sides and round ends, would be preferable to all others, did not a good cable require to be able to resist a lateral force, as well as one in the direction of its length.

Chain link

Let us suppose that by some accident the linkfig.216.should have its two extremities pulled towardsYandZ, whilst an obstacleX, placed right opposite to its middle, resisted the effort. The side of the link which touchesX, would be bent inwards; but if as infig.218., there is a stayA G B, the two sides would be bent at the same time; the link would notwithstanding assume a faulty shape.

Chain link

In thus rejecting all the vicious forms, we are naturally directed to that which deserves the preference. It is shown infig.219.This link has a cast-iron stay with large ends, it presents in all directions a great resistance to every change of form; for let it be pulled in the directiona b, against an obstaclec, it is evident that the portionsd eandd f, which are supported by the partsg eandg f, cannot get deformed or be broken without the whole link giving way. As the matter composingg eandg fcannot be shortened, or that which composesd eandd fbe lengthened, these four sides will remain necessarily in their relative positions, by virtue of the large-ended stayh, whose profile is shown infig.220.

Chain link

We have examined the strength of a link in every direction, except that perpendicular to its plane.Fig.221.represents the assemblage of three links in the above predicament; but we ought to observe, that the obstacleC, placed between the linksA B, must be necessarily very small, and could not therefore resist the pressure or impact of the two lateral links.

Process of manufacturing iron cables.—The implements and operations are arranged in the following order:—

1. A reverberatory furnace (seeIron), in which a number of rods or round bars of the best possible wrought-iron, and of proper dimensions, are heated to bright ignition.

2. The cutting by a machine of these bars, in equal lengths, but with opposite bevels, to allow of the requisite crossing and splicing of the ends in the act of welding.

3. The bending of each of these pieces by a machine, so as to form the links; the last two operations are done rapidly while the iron is red-hot.

4. The welding of the links at small forge fires, fitted with tools for this express purpose, and the immediate introduction of the stay, by means of a compound lever press.

5. Proving the strength of the cables by an hydraulic press, worked by two men turning a winch furnished with a fly wheel.

The furnace is like those used in the sheet-iron works, but somewhat larger, and needs no particular description here.

Rod shears

Figs.222.and223.are a plan and elevation of the shears with which the rods are cut into equal pieces, for forming each a link. It is moved at Mr. Brunton’s factory by a small steam engine, but, for the sake of simplicity, it is here represented worked by four or more labourers, as it may be in any establishment. These must be relieved howeverfrequently by others, for I believe each shears’ machine is calculated to require nearly one horse in steam power. It is portable and must be placed in the neighbourhood of both the furnace and bending machine.

AandBare the two cast-iron limbs of the shears. The first is fixed and the second is movable by means of a crank shaftC, driven by a heavy fly-wheel weighing 7 or 8 cwt.

The cutting jawsGare mounted with pieces of steel which are made fast by bolts, and may be changed at pleasure.

E, the bar of iron to be cut. It is subjected, immediately upon being taken out of the fire, to the shears, under a determinate uniform angle, care being taken not to let it turn round upon its axis, lest the planes of the successive incisions should become unequal.

Fis a stop which serves to determine, for the same kind of chain, the equality of length in the link pieces.

Link bending machine

Figs.224,225,226.plan and elevations of the machine for bending the links into an elliptic form. It is represented at the moment when a link is getting bent upon it.

Ais an elliptic mandrel of cast-iron; it is fixed upon the top of a wooden pillarB, solidly supported in the ground.Cis the jaw of the vice, pressed by a square-headed screw against the mandrelA.

Dpart of the mandrel comprehended betweenXandY, formed as an inclined plane, so as to preserve an interval equal to the diameter of the rod between the two surfaces that are to be welded together.

Erectangular slots (shears) passing through the centre of the nut of the mandrel, in which each of the pinsFmay be freely slidden.

Ghorizontal lever of wrought-iron six feet long. It carries atHa pulley or friction-roller of steel, whose position may be altered according to the diameter of the links. It is obvious that as many mandrels are required as there are sizes and shapes of links.

The piece of iron intended to form a link being cut, is carried, while red-hot, to the bending machine, where it is seized with the jaw of the viceC, by one of its ends, the slant of the cut being turned upwards; this piece of iron has now the horizontal directionm n; on pushing the leverGin the line of the arrow, the rollerHwill forcem nto be applied successively in the elliptic groove of the mandrel; thus finally the two faces that are to be welded together will be placed right opposite each other.

The length of the small diameter of the ellipse ought to exceed by a little the length of the stay-piece, to allow of this being readily introduced. The difference between the pointsF,Eis equal to the difference of theradii vectoresof the ellipse. Hence it will be always easy to find the eccentricity of the ellipse.

Lever press

Fig.227.is a lever press for squeezing the links upon their stays, after the links are welded. This machine consists of a strong cast-iron pieceA, in the form of a square, of which one of the branches is laid horizontally, and fixed to a solid bed by means of bolts; the other branch, composed of two cheeks, leaving between them a space of two inches, stands upright. These two cheeks are united at top, and on the back of their plane by a cross pieceB.C, a rectangular staple, placed to the right and left of the cheeks through which is passed the mandrelD, which represents and keeps the place of the following link.E, is a press lever, 6 feet long.F, clamp and counterclamp, between which the link is pressed at the moment when the stay is properly placed. There are other clamps, as well as staplesC, for changing with each changed dimension of links.

The links bent, as we have seen, are carried to the forge hearth to be welded, and to receive their stay; two operations performed at one heating. Whenever the welding is finished, while the iron is still red-hot, the link is placed upright between the clampsF; then a workman introduces into the staple the mandrelD, and now applies the stay with a pair of tongs or pincers, while another workman strikes down the leverEforcibly upon it. This mechanical compression first of all joins perfectly the sides of the link against the concave ends of the stay, and afterwards the retraction of the iron on cooling increases still more this compression.

If each link be made with the same care, the cable must be sound throughout. It is not delivered for use however till it be proved by the hydraulic press, at a draw-bench made on purpose. The press is an horizontal one, having the axis of its ram in the middle line of the draw-bench, which is about 60 feet long, and is secured to the body of the press by strong bolts.

The portion of chain under trial, being attached at the one end to the end of the ram of the press, and at the other to a cross-bar at the extremity of the draw-bench, two men put the press in action, by turning the winch which works by a triple crank three forcing pumps alternately; the action being equalized by means of a heavy fly-wheel. As long as the resistance does not exceed the force of two men, the whole three pumps are kept in play. After a while one pump is thrown out of geer and next another, only one being worked towards the conclusion. The velocity of the ram being retarded first one third and next two thirds, gives the men a proportional increase of mechanical power.

The strength of two average men thus applied being computed, enables us to know at every instant the resistance opposed by the chain to the pressure of the ram. The strain usually applied to the stronger cables is about 500 tons.

The side beams of the draw-bench are of cast-iron, 6 inches in diameter; the different pieces composing it are adjusted to each other end-wise by turned joints. Props also of cast-iron support the beams two feet asunder, and at the height of 30 inches above the ground. The space between them is filled with an oak plank on which the trial chain is laid.

Strength of iron-cables compared to hemp cables:—

It would be imprudent to put hemp cables to severer strains than those indicated in the preceding table, drawn up from Brunton’s experiments; but the iron cables of the above sizes will support a double strain without breaking. They ought never in common cases however to be exposed to a greater stress. A cable destined for ships of a certain tonnage, should not be employed in those of greater burden. Thus treated it may be always trusted to do its duty, and will last longer than the ship to which it belongs. A considerable part of this decided superiority which iron cables have over hemp ones, is undoubtedly due to the admirable form contrived by Brunton. Repeated experiments have proved that his cables possess double the strength of the iron rods with which they are made—a fact which demonstrates that no stronger form can be devised or is in fact possible.

One of the most valuable qualities of iron cables is their resisting lateral as well as longitudinal strains as explained underfigs.219.and221.

Vessels furnished with such cables have been saved by them from the most imminent peril. The Henry, sent out with army stores during the peninsular war, was caught on the northern coast of Spain in a furious storm. She run for shelter into the Bay of Biscay among the rocks, where she was exposed for three days to the hurricane. She possessed fortunately one of Brunton’s 70 fathom chain cables, which held good all the time, but it was found afterwards to have had the links of its lower portion polished bright by attrition against the rocky bottom. A hemp cable would have been speedily torn to pieces in such a predicament.

In the contracts of the Admiralty for chain cables for the British navy, it is stipulated that “the iron shall have been manufactured in the best manner from pig iron, smelted from iron-stone only, and selected of the best quality for the purpose, and shall not have received in any process whatever subsequent to the smelting, the admixture of either the cinder or oxides produced in the manufacture of iron; and shall also have been puddled in the best manner upon iron bottoms, and at least three times sufficiently drawn out at three distinct welding heats, and at least twice properly fagotted.”

The following is a table of the breaking proof of chain cables, and of the iron for the purpose of making them, also of the proofs required by her majesty’s navy for chains.

In Brunton’s cable the matter in the link is thrown very much into one plane; thelink being of an oval form, and provided with a stay. As there are emergencies in which the cable must be severed, this is accomplished in those of iron by means of a bolt and sheckle (shackle), at every fathom or two fathoms; so that by striking out this bolt or pin, this cable is parted with more ease than a hempen one can be cut.

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