WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE. In reference to textile fabrics, sheep’s wool is of two different sorts, the short and the long stapled; each of which requires different modes of manufacture in the preparation and spinning processes, as also in the treatment of the cloth after it is woven, to fit it for the market. Each of these is, moreover, distinguished in commerce by the names of fleece wools and dead wools, according as they have been shorn at the usual annual period from the living animal, or are cut from its skin after death. The latter are comparatively harsh, weak, and incapable of imbibing the dyeing principles, more especially if the sheep has died of some malignant distemper. The annular pores, leading into the tubular cavities of the filaments, seem, in this case, to have shrunk and become obstructed. The time of year for sheep-shearing most favourable to the quality of the wool, and the comfort of the animal, is towards the end of June and beginning of July;—the period when Lord Leicester holds his celebrated rural fête for that interesting purpose.The wool of the sheep has been surprisingly improved, by its domestic culture. Themouflon(Ovis aries), the parent stock from which our sheep is undoubtedly derived, and which is still found in a wild state upon the mountains of Sardinia, Corsica, Barbary, Greece, and Asia Minor, has a very short and coarse fleece, more like hair than wool. When this animal is brought under the fostering care of man, the rank fibres gradually disappear; while the soft wool round their roots, little conspicuous in the wild animal, becomes singularly developed. The male most speedily undergoes this change, and continues ever afterwards to possess far more power in modifying the fleece of the offspring, than the female parent. The produce of a breed from a coarse-woolled ewe, and a fine-woolled ram, is not of a mean quality between the two, but half-way nearer that of the sire. By coupling the female thus generated, with such a male as the former, another improvement of one-half will be obtained, affording a staple three-fourths finer than that of the grandam. By proceeding inversely, the wool would be as rapidly deteriorated. It is, therefore, a matter of the first consequence in wool husbandry, to exclude from the flock all coarse-fleeced rams.Long wool is the produce of a peculiar variety of sheep, and varies in the length of its fibres from 3 to 8 inches. Such wool is not carded like cotton, but combed like flax, either by hand or appropriate machinery. Short wool is seldom longer than 3 or 4 inches; it is susceptible of carding and felting, by which processes the filaments become first convoluted, and then densely matted together. The shorter sorts of the combing wool are used principally for hosiery, though of late years the finer kinds have been extensively worked up into merino and mousseline-de-laine fabrics. The longer wools of the Leicestershire breed are manufactured into hard yarns, for worsted pieces, such as waistcoats, carpets, bombasines, poplins, crapes, &c.The wool of which good broad cloth is made, should be not only shorter, but, generally speaking, finer and softer than the worsted wools, in order to fit them for the fulling process. Some wool-sorters and wool-staplers acquire by practice great nicety of discernment in judging of wools by the touch and traction of the fingers. Two years ago, I made a series of observations upon different wools, and published the results. The filaments of the finer qualities varied in thickness from1⁄1100to1⁄1500of an inch; their structure is very curious, exhibiting, in a good achromatic microscope, at intervals of about1⁄300of an inch, a series of serrated rings, imbricated towards each other, like the joints ofEquisetum, or rather like the scaly zones of a serpent’s skin. SeePhilosophy of Manufactures,figs.11, 12., page 91. second edition.There are four distinct qualities of wool upon every sheep; the finest being upon the spine, from the neck to within 6 inches of the tail, including one-third of the breadth of the back; the second covers the flanks between the thighs and the shoulders; the third clothes the neck and the rump; and the fourth extends upon the lower part of the neck and breast down to the feet, as also upon a part of the shoulders and the thighs, to the bottom of the hind quarter. These should be torn asunder, and sorted, immediately after the shearing.The harshness of wools is dependent not solely upon the breed of the animal, or the climate, but is owing to certain peculiarities in the pasture, derived from the soil. It is known, that in sheep fed upon chalky districts, wool is apt to get coarse; but in those upon a rich loamy soil, it becomes soft and silky. The ardent sun of Spain renders the fleece of the Merino breed harsher than it is in the milder climate of Saxony. Smearing sheep with a mixture of tar and butter, is deemed favourable to the softness of their wool.All wool, in its natural state, contains a quantity of a peculiar potash-soap, secreted by the animal, called in this country theyolk; which may be washed out by water alone, with which it forms a sort of lather. It constitutes from 25 to 50 per cent. of the wool, being most abundant in the Merino breed of sheep; and however favourable to the growth of the wool on the living animal, should be taken out soon after it is shorn, lestit injure the fibres by fermentation, and cause them to become hard and brittle. After being washed in water, somewhat more than lukewarm, the wool should be well pressed, and carefully dried. England grows annually about 1,000,000 packs of wool, and imports 100,000 bags.Wool imported into the United Kingdom, in 1836, 64,239,977 lbs.; in 1837, 48,356,121 lbs. Retained for home consumption, in 1836, 60,724,795 lbs.; in 1837, 43,148,297 lbs. Duty received, in 1836,£190,075; in 1837,£118,519.Having premised these general observations on wool, I shall now proceed to treat of its manufacture, beginning with that of wool-combing, orTHE WORSTED MANUFACTURE.In this branch of business, a long stapled and firm fibre is required to form a smooth level yarn, little liable to shrink, curl, or felt in weaving and finishing the cloth. It must not be entangled by carding, but stretched in lines as parallel as possible, by a suitable system ofcombing, manual or mechanical.When the long wool is brought into the worsted factory, it is first of all washed by men with soap and water, who are paid for their labour by the piece, and are each assisted by a boy, who receives the wool as it issues from between the dryingsqueezers(seeBleaching). The boy carries off the wool in baskets, and spreads it evenly upon the floor of the drying-room, usually an apartment over the boilers of the steam-engine, which is thus economically heated to the proper temperature. The health of the boys employed in this business is found to be not at all injured.Steel combsThe wool, when properly dried, is transferred to a machine called theplucker, which is always superintended by a boy of 12 or 14 years of age, being very light work. He lays the tresses of wool pretty evenly upon the feed-apron, or table covered with an endless moving web of canvas, which, as it advances, delivers the ends of the long tufts to a pair of fluted rollers, whence it is introduced into a fanning apparatus, somewhat similar to thewillowemployed in thecotton manufacture, which see. The filaments are turned out, at the opposite end of this winnowing machine, straightened, cleaned, and ready for the combing operation. According to the old practice of the trade, and still for the finer descriptions of the long staple, according to the present practice, the wool is carded by hand. This is far more severe labour than any subservient to machinery, and is carried on in rooms rendered close and hot by the number of stoves requisite to heat the combs, and so enable them to render the fibres soft, flexible, and elastic. This is a task at which only robust men are engaged. They use three implements: 1. a pair of combs for each person; 2. a post, to which one of the combs can be fixed; 3. a comb-pot, or small stove for heating the teeth of the combs. Each comb is composed either of two or three rows of pointed tapering steel teeth,b,fig.1203., disposed in two or three parallel planes, each row being a little longer than the preceding. They are made fast at the roots to a wooden stock or headc, which is covered with horn, and has a handled, fixed into it at right angles to the lines of the teeth. The spaces between these two or three planes of teeth, is about one-third of an inch at their bottoms, but somewhat more at their tips. The first combing, when the fibres are most entangled, is performed with the two-row toothed combs; the second or finishing combing, with the three-row toothed.PostIn the workshop a post is planted (fig.1204.) upright, for resting the combs occasionally upon, during the operation. An iron stemg, projects from it horizontally, having its end turned up, so as to pass through a hole in the handle of the comb. Near its point of insertion into the post, there is another staple pointh, which enters into the hollow end of the handle; which, between these two catches, is firmly secured to the post. The stove is a very simple affair, consisting merely of a flat iron plate, heated by fire or steam, and surmounted with a similar plate, at an interval sufficient to allow the teeth to be inserted between them at one side, which is left open, while the space between their edges, on the other sides, is closed to confine the heat.In combing the wool, the workman takes it up in tresses of about four ounces each, sprinkles it with oil, and rolls it about in his hands, to render all the filaments equallyunctuous. Some harsh dry wools require one-sixteenth their weight of oil, others no more than a fortieth. He next attaches a heated comb to the post, with its teeth pointed upwards, seizes one-half of the tress of wool in his hands, throws it over the teeth, then draws it through them, and thus repeatedly: leaving a few straight filaments each time upon the comb. When the comb has in this way collected all the wool, it is placed with its points inserted into the cell of the stove, with the wool hanging down outside, exposed to the influence of the heat. The other comb, just removed in a heated state from the stove, is planted upon the post, and furnished in its turn with the remaining two-ounce tress of wool; after which it supplants the preceding at the stove. Having both combs now hot, he holds one of them with his left hand over his knee, being seated upon a low stool, and seizing the other with his right hand, he combs the wool upon the first, by introducing the teeth of one comb into the wool stuck in the other, and drawing them through it. This manipulation is skilfully repeated, till the fibres are laid truly parallel, like a flat tress of hair. It is proper to begin by combing the tips of the tress, and to advance progressively, from the one end towards the other, till at length the combs are worked with their teeth as closely together as is possible, without bringing them into collision. If the workman proceeded otherwise, he would be apt to rupture the filaments, or tear their ends entirely out of one of the combs. The flocks left at the end of the process, because they are too short for the comber to grasp them in his hand, are callednoyls. They are unfit for the worsted spinner, and are reserved for the coarse cloth manufacture.The wool finally drawn off from the comb, though it may form a uniform tress of straight filaments, must yet be combed again at a somewhat lower temperature, to prepare it perfectly for the spinning operation. From ten to twelve slivers are then arranged in one parcel.To relieve the workman from this laborious and not very salubrious task, has been the object of many mechanical inventions. One of these, considerably employed in this country and in France, is the invention of the late Mr. John Collier, of Paris, for which a patent was obtained in England, under the name of John Platt, of Salford, in November, 1827. It consists of two comb-wheels, about ten feet in diameter, having hollow iron spokes filled with steam, in order to keep the whole apparatus at a proper combing heat. The comb forms a circle, made fast to the periphery of the wheel, the teeth being at right angles to the plane of the wheel. The shafts of the two wheels are mounted in a strong frame of cast iron; not, however, in horizontal positions, but inclined at acute angles to the horizon, and in planes crossing each other, so that the teeth of one circular comb sweep with a steady obliquity over the teeth of the other, in a most ingenious manner, with the effect of combing the tresses of wool hung upon them. The proper quantity of long wool, in its ordinary state, is stuck in handfuls upon the wheel, revolving slowly, by a boy, seated upon the ground at one side of the machine. Whenever the wheel is dressed, the machine is made to revolve more rapidly, by shifting its driving-band on another pulley; and it is beautiful to observe the delicacy and precision with which it smoothes the tangled tress. When the wools are set in rapid rotation, the loose ends of the fleece, by the centrifugal force, are thrown out, in the direction of radii, upon the teeth of the other revolving comb-wheel, so as to be drawn out and made truly straight. The operation commences upon the tips of the tresses, where the wheels, by the oblique posture of their shafts, are at the greatest distance apart; but as the planes slowly approach to parallelism, the teeth enter more deeply into the wool, till they progressively comb the whole length of its fibres. The machines being then thrown out of geer, the teeth are stript of the tresses by the hand of the attendant; thenoyls, or short refuse wool, being also removed, and kept by itself.This operation being one of simple superintendence, not of handicraft effort and skill, like the old combing of long wool, is now performed by boys or girls of 13 and 14 years of age; and places in a striking point of view the influence of automatic mechanism, in so embodying dexterity and intelligence in a machine, as to render the cheap and tractable labour of children a substitute for the high-priced and often refractory exertions of workmen too prone to capricious combinations. The chief precaution to be taken with this machine, is to keep the steam-joints tight, so as not to wet the apartments, and to provide due ventilation for the operatives.Worsted spinnerThe following machine, patented by James Noble, of Halifax, worsted-spinner, in February, 1834, deserves particular notice, as its mode of operation adapts it well also for heckling flax. Infig.1205.the internal structure is exhibited. The frame-worka,a, supports the axle of a wheelb,b, in suitable bearings on each side. To the face of this wheel is affixed the eccentric or heart-wheel camc,c. On the upper part of the periphery of this cam or heart-wheel, a leverd,d, bears merely by its gravity; one end of which lever is connected by a joint to the cranke. By the rotation of the cranke, it will be perceived that the leverd, will be slidden to and fro on the upper part of the periphery of the eccentric or heart-wheel camc, the outer end of the leverd, carryingthe upper or working comb or needle-pointsf, as it moves, performing an elliptical curve, which curve will be dependent upon the position of the heart-wheel camc, that guides it. A movable frameg, carries a series of pointsh, which are to constitute the lower comb or frame of needles. Into these lower needles the rough uncombed wool is to be fed by hand, and to be drawn out and combed straight by the movements of the upper or working comb.As it is important, in order to prevent waste, that the ends of the wool should be first combed out, and that the needle-points should be made to penetrate the wool progressively, the movable frameg, is in the first instance placed as far back as possible; and the action of the leverd, during the whole operation, is so directed by the varying positions of the cam-wheel, as to allow the upper comb to enter at first a very little way only into the wool; but as the operation of combing goes on, the frame with the lower combs is made to advance gradually, and the relative positions of the revolving heart cam-wheelc, being also gradually changed, the upper or working needles are at length allowed to be drawn completely through the wool, for the purpose of combing out straight the whole length of its fibre.In order to give to the machine the necessary movements, a train of toothed wheels and pinions is mounted, mostly on studs attached to the side of the frame; which train of wheels and pinions is shown by dots in the figure, to avoid confusion. The driving power, a horse or steam-engine, is communicated by a band to a rigger on the short axlei; which axle carries a pinion, taking into one of the wheels of the train. From this wheel the cranke, that works the leverd, is driven; and also, by geer from the same pinion, the axle of the wheelb, carrying the eccentric or heart-wheel cam, is also actuated, but slower than the crank-axle.At the end of the axle of the wheelb, and camc, a bevel pinion is affixed, which geers into a corresponding bevel pinion on the end of the lateral shaftk. The reverse end of this shaft has a worm or endless screwl, taking into a toothed wheelm; and this last-mentioned toothed wheel geers into a rack at the under part of the frameg.It will hence be perceived, that by the movements of the train of wheels, a slow motion is given to the frameg, by which the lower needles carrying the wool are progressively advanced as the operation goes on; and also, that by the other wheels of the train, the heart-wheel cam is made to rotate, for the purpose of giving such varying directions to the stroke of the lever which slides upon its periphery, and to the working comb, as shall cause the comb to operate gradually upon the wool as it is brought forward. The construction of the frames which hold the needles, and the manner of fixing them in the machine, present no features of importance; it is therefore unnecessary to describe them farther, than to say, that the heckles are to be heated when used for combing wool. Instead of introducing the wool to be combed into the lower needles by hand, it is sometimes fed in, by means of an endless feeding-cloth, as shown infig.1206.This endless cloth is distended over two rollers, which are made to revolve, for the purpose of carrying the cloth with the wool forward, by means of the endless screw and pinions.Combing machinesA slight variation in the machine is shown atfig.1207., for the purpose of combing wool of long fibre, which differs from the former only in placing the combs or needle points upon a revolving cylinder or shaft. At the end of the axle of this shaft, there is a toothed wheel, which is actuated by anendless screw upon a lateral shaft. The axle of the cylinder on which the needles are fixed, is mounted in a movable frame or carriage, in order that the points of the needles may, in the first instance, be brought to act upon the ends of the wool only, and ultimately be so advanced as to enable the whole length of the fibres to be drawn through. The progressive advancement of this carriage, with the needle cylinder, is effected by the agency of the endless screw on the lateral shaft before mentioned.Some combing-machines reduce the wool into a continuous sliver, which is ready for the drawing-frame; but the short slivers produced by the hand combing, must be first joined together, by what is calledplanking. These slivers are rolled up by the combers ten or twelve together, in balls called tops, each of which weighs half a pound. At the spinning-mill these are unrolled, and the slivers are laid on a long plank or trough, with the ends lapping over, in order to splice the long end of one sliver into the short end of another. The long end is that which was drawn off first from the comb, and contains the longer fibres; the short is that which comes last from the comb, and contains the shorter. The wool-comber lays all the slivers of each ball the same way, and marks the long end of each by twisting up the end of the sliver. It is a curious circumstance, that when a top or ball of slivers is unrolled and stretched out straight, they will not separate from each other without tearing and breaking, if the separation is begun at the short ends; but if they are first parted at the long ends, they will readily separate.The machine for combing long wool, for which Messrs. Donisthorpe and Rawson obtained a patent in April, 1835, has been found to work well, and therefore merits a detailed description:—Long wool comberFigs. 1208-1210 enlarged(262 kB)Fig.1208.is an elevation;fig.1209.an end view; andfig.1210.a plan; in whicha,a, is the framing;b, the main shaft, bearing a pinion which drives the wheel and shaftc, in geer with the wheeld, on the shafte. Upon each of the wheelscandd, there are two projections or studsf, which cause the action of the combsg,g, of whichh,h, are the tables or carriages. These are capable of sliding along the upper guide rails of the framinga. Through these carriages or tablesh,h, there are openings or slits, shown by dotted lines, which act as guides to the holdersi,i, of the combsg,g, rendering the holders susceptible of motion at right angles to the course pursued by the tablesh. The combs are retained in the holdersi,i, by means of the lever handlesj,j, which move upon inclined surfaces, and are made to press on the surface of the heads of the combsg,g, so as to be retained in their places; and they are also held by studs affixed to the holders, which pass into the comb-heads. From the under side of the tables, forked projectionsi,i, stand out, which pass through the openings or slits formed in the tablesh h; these projections are worked from side to side by the framek,k, which turning on the axis or shaftl,l, is caused to vibrate, or rock to and fro, by the armsm, moved by the eccentric grooven, made fast to the shafte. The tablesh, are drawn inwards, by weights suspended on cords or strapso,o, which pass over friction pulleysp,p; whereby the weights have a constant tendency to draw the combs into the centre of the machine, as soon as it is released by the studsf, passing beyond the projecting armsg, on the tables. On the shaftc, a driving-tooth or catchr, is fixed, which takes into the ratchet wheels, and propels one of its teeth at every revolution of the shaftc. This ratchet wheel turns on an axis att; to the ratchet the pulleyvis made fast, to which the cord or bandwis secured, as also to the pulleyx, on the shafty. On the shafty, there are two other pulleysz,z, having the cords or bandsA,A, made fast to them, and also to the end of the gauge-platesB, furnished with graduated steps, against which the tablesh,h, are drawing at each operation of the machine. In proportion as these gauge-plates are raised, the nearer the carriages or tablesh, will be able to advance to the centre of the machine, and thus permit the combsg,g, to lay hold of, and comb, additional lengths of the woolly fibres. The gauge-platesB, are guided up by the barsC, which pass through openings, slots, or guides, made in the framinga, as shown byD.To the ratchet wheels, an inclined projectionE, is made fast, which in the course of the rotation of the ratchet wheel, comes under the leverF, fixed to the shaftG, that turns in bearingsH. To this shaft the leversIandJ, are also fixed;Iserving to throw out the click or catchK, from the ratchet wheel, by which the parts of the machine will be released, and restored to positions ready for starting again. The leverJ, serves to slide the drum upon the driving shaftb, out of geer, by means of the forked handleL, when the machine is to be stopped, whenever it has finished combing a certain quantity of wool. The combs which hold the wool have a motion upwards, in order to take the wool out of the way of the combsg,g, as these are drawn into the centre of the machine; while the holding combs descend to lay the wool among the points of the combsg,g. For obtaining this upward and downward motion, the combsM,M, are placed upon the frameN, and retained there just as the combsg,g, are upon the holdersi,i. The framingNis made fast to the bar or spindleO, which moves vertically through openings in the cross-headP, and the cross-framing of the machineQ; from the top of which, there is a strap passes over pulleys with a weight suspended to it; the cross-head being supported by the two guide-rodsR, fixed to the cross-framingQ. It is by the guide-rodsR, and the spindleO, that the frameNis made to move up and down; while the spindle is made to rise by the studsf, as the wheelscanddcome successively under the studss, on the spindleO.A quantity of wool is to be placed on each of the combsg,g, andM,M, the machine being in the position shown infig.1210.When the main shaftb, is set in motion, it will drive by its pinion the toothed wheelc, and therefrom the remaining parts of the machine. The first effect of the movement will be to raise the combsM,M, sufficiently high to remove the wool out of the way of the combsg,g, which will be drawn towards the centre of the machine, as soon as they are released by the studsf, passing the projecting armsq, on the tablesh; but the distance between the combsg,g, and the combsH,H, will depend on the height to which the gauge-platesB, have been raised. These plates are raised one step at each revolution of the shaftc; the combsg,g, will therefore be continually approaching more nearly to the combsM,M, till the platesB, are so much raised as to permit the tablesh, to approach the platesB, below the lowest step or graduation, when the machine will continue to work. Notwithstanding the platesB, continuing to rise, there being only parallel surfaces against which the tables come, the combsg,g, will successively come to the same position, till the inclined projectionE, on the ratchet wheels, comes under the leverF, which will stop the machine. The wool which has been combed, is then to be removed, and a fresh quantity introduced. It should be remarked, that the combsg,g, are continually moving from side to side of the machine, at the same time that they are combing out the wool. The chief object of the invention is obviously to give the above peculiar motions to the combsg,g, andM,M; which may be applied also to combing goat-hair.For the purposes of the worsted manufacture, wool should be rendered inelastic to a considerable degree, so that its fibres may form long lines, capable of being twisted into straight level yarn. Mr. Bayliffe, of Kendal, has sought to accomplish this object, first, by introducing into thedrawingmachine a rapidly revolving wheel, in contact with the front drawing roller, by whose friction the filaments are heated, and at the same time deprived of their curling elasticity; secondly, by employing a movable regulating roller, by which the extent of surface on the periphery of the wheel that the lengths ofwool is to act upon, may be increased or diminished at pleasure, and, consequently, the effect regulated or tempered as the quality of the wool may require; thirdly, the employment of steam in a rotatory drum, or hollow wheel, in place of the wheel first described, for the purpose of heating the wool, in the process of drawing, in order to facilitate the operation of straightening the fibres.Drawing wheelThese objects may be effected in several ways; that is, the machinery may be variously constructed, and still embrace the principles proposed.Fig.1211.shows one mode:—a, is the friction wheel;b, the front drawing roller, placed in the drawing frame in the same way as usual; the larger wheela, constituting the lower roller of the pair of front drawing rollers;c, andd, are the pair of back drawing rollers, which are actuated by geer connected to the front rollers, as in the ordinary construction of drawing machines, the front rollers moving very considerably faster than the back rollers, and, consequently, drawing or extending the fibres of the sliver of wool, as it passes through between them;e, is a guide roller, bearing upon the periphery of the large wheel;f, is a tension roller, which presses the fibres of the wool down upon the wheela.Now, supposing the back rollerscanddto be turned with a given velocity, and the front rollerbto be driven much faster, the effect would be, that the fibres of wool constituting the sliver, passing through the machine, would be considerably extended betweenbandd, which is precisely the effect accomplished in the ordinary drawing frame; but the wheela, introduced into the machine in place of the lower front drawing roller, being made to revolve much faster thanb, the sliver of wool extended over the upper part of its periphery fromb, to the tension rollerf, will be subjected to very considerable friction from the contact; and, consequently, the natural curl of the wool will be taken out, and its elasticity destroyed, which will enable the wool to proceed in a connected roving down to the spindle or flyerh, where it becomes twisted or spun into a worsted thread.In order to increase or diminish the extent to which the fibres of wool are spread over the periphery of the wheela, a regulating roller is adapted to the machine, as shown atg, in place of the tension rollerf. This regulating rollerg, is mounted by its pivots in bearings on the circular armsh, shown by dots. These circular arms turn loosely upon the axle of the wheela, and are raised or depressed by a rack and a winch, not shown in the figure; the rack taking into teeth on the periphery of the circular arms. It will hence be perceived, that by raising the circular arms, the rollerg, will be carried backward, and the fibres of wool pressed upon the periphery of the wheel to a greater extent. On the contrary, the depression of the circular arms will draw the rollerg, forward, and cause the wool to be acted upon by a smaller portion of the periphery of the wheela, and consequently subject it to less friction.When it is desired to employ steam for the purpose of heating the wool, the wheela, is formed as a hollow drum, and steam from a boiler, in any convenient situation, is conveyed through the hollow axle to the interior of the drum, which, becoming heated by that means, communicates heat also to the wool, and thereby destroys its curl and elasticity.Breaking-frameBreaking-frame.—Here the slivers areplanked, or spliced together, the long end of one to the short end of another; after which they are drawn out and extended by the rollers of the breaking-frame. A sketch of this machine is given infig.1212.It consists of four pairs of rollersA,B,C,D. The first pairA, receives the wool from the inclined troughE, which is the planking-table. The slivers are unrolled, parted, and hung loosely over a pin, in reach of the attendant, who takes a sliver, and lays it flat in the trough, and the end is presented to the rollersA, which being in motion, will draw the wool in; the sliver is then conducted through the other rollers, as shown in the figure: when the sliver has passed half through, the end of another sliver is placed upon the middle of the first, and they pass through together; when this second is passed half through, the end of a third is applied upon the middle of it, and in this way the short slivers produced by the combing are joined into one regular and even sliver.The lower rollerCreceives its motion from the mill, by means of a pulley upon the end of its axis, and an endless strap. The roller which is immediately over it, is borne down by a heavy weight, suspended from hooks, which are over the pivots of the upper roller. The fourth pair of rollersD, moves with the same velocity asC, being turnedby means of a small wheel upon the end of the axis of the rollerC, which turns a wheel of the same size upon the axis of the rollerD, by means of an intermediate wheeld, which makes both rollers turn the same way round. The first and second pairs of rollers,AandB, move only one-third as quick asCandD, in order to draw out the sliver betweenBandCto three times the length it was when put on the planking-table. The slow motion of the rollersA, is given by a large wheela, fixed upon the axis of the rollerA, and turned by the intermediate cog-wheelsb,c, andd; the latter communicates between the rollersCandD. The pinions on the rollersCandDbeing only one-third the size of the wheela,CandDturn three times as fast asA, forb,c, andd, are only intermediate wheels. The rollersBturn at the same rate asA. The upper rollerCis loaded with a heavy weight, similar to the rollersA; but the other rollers,BandD, are no further loaded than the weight of the rollers.The two pairs of rollersA,B, andC,D, are mounted in separate frames; and that frame which contains the third and fourth pairsC,D, slides upon the cast-iron frameF, which supports the machine, in order to increase or diminish the distance between the rollersBandC. There is a screwf, by which the frame of the rollers is moved, so as to adjust the machine according to the length of the fibres of the wool. The space betweenBandCshould be rather more than the length of the fibres of the wool. The intermediate wheelsbandc, are supported upon pieces of iron, which are movable on centres; the centre for the piece which supports the wheelbis concentric with the axis of the rollerA; and the supporting piece for the wheelcis fitted on the centre of the wheeld. By moving these pieces the intermediate wheelsbandccan be always kept in contact, although the distance between the rollers is varied at times. By means of this breaking-frame, the perpetual sliver, which is made up by planking the sliver together, is equalized, and drawn out three times in length, and delivered into the canG.Drawing-frame.—Three of these cans are removed to the drawing-frame, which is similar to the breaking-frame, except that there is no planking-tableE. There are five sets of rollers, all fixed upon one common frameF, the breaking-frame, which we have described, being the first. As fast as the sliver comes through one set of rollers, it is received into a can, and then three of these cans are put together, and passed again through another set of rollers. In the whole, the wool must pass through the breaker and four drawing-frames before the roving is begun. The draught being usually four times at each operation of drawing, and three times in the breaking, the whole will be 3 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 768; but to suit different sorts of wool, the three last drawing-frames are capable of making a greater draught, even to five times, by changing the pinions; accordingly the draught will be 3 + 4 + 5 + 5 + 5 = 1500 times.The size of the sliver is diminished by these repeated drawings, because only three slivers are put together, and they are drawn out four times; so that, in the whole, the sliver is reduced to a fourth or a ninth of its original bulk.The breaking-frame and drawing-frame which are used when the slivers are prepared by the combing-machines, are differently constructed; they have no planking-table, but receive three of the perpetual slivers of the combing-machine from as many tin cans, and draw them out from ten to twelve times. In this case, all the four rollers contribute to the operation of drawing: thus the second rollersB, move 21⁄2times as fast as the rollersA; the third rollersC, move 8 times as fast asA; and the fourth rollersE, move 101⁄2times as fast asA. In this case, the motion is given to the different rollers by means of bevelled wheels, and a horizontal axis, which extends across the ends of all the four rollers, to communicate motion from one pair of rollers to another.There are three of these systems of rollers, which are all mounted on the same frame; and the first one through which the wool passes, is called the breaking-frame;but it does not differ from the others, which are called drawing-frames. The slivers which have passed through one system of rollers, are collected four or five together, and put through the drawing-rollers. In all, the slivers pass through three drawings, and the whole extension is seldom less than 1000 times, and for some kinds of wool much greater.After the drawing of the slivers is finished, a pound weight is taken, and is measured by means of a cylinder, in order to ascertain if the drawing has been properly conducted; if the sliver does not prove of the length proposed, according to the size of worsted which is intended to be spun, the pinions of some of the drawing-frames are changed, to make the draught more or less, until it is found by experiment that one pound of the sliver measures the required length.Roving-frame.—This is provided with rollers, the same as the drawing-frames: it takes in one or two slivers together, and draws them out four times. By this extension, the sliver becomes so small, that it would break with the slightest force, and it is therefore necessary to give some twist; this is done by a spindle and flyer. SeeRoving, underCotton Manufacture.Spinning-frame.—This is so much like the roving-frame, that a short description will be sufficient. The spindles are more delicate, and there are three pairs of rollers, instead of two; the bobbins, which are taken off from the spindles of the roving-frame, when they are quite full, are stuck upon skewers, and the roving which proceeds from them is conducted between the rollers. The back pair turns round slowly; the middle pair turns about twice for once of the back rollers; and the front pair makes from twelve to seventeen turns for one turn of the back roller, according to the degree of extension which is required.The spindles must revolve very quickly in the spinning-frame, in order to give the requisite degree of twist to the worsted. The hardest twisted worsted is called tammy warp; and when the size of this worsted is such as to be 20 or 24 hanks to the pound weight, the twist is about 10 turns in each inch of length. The least twist is given to the worsted for fine hosiery, which is from 18 to 24 hanks to the pound. The twist is from 5 to 6 turns per inch. The degree of twist is regulated by the size of the whirls or pulleys upon the spindle, and by the wheel-work which communicates the motion to the front rollers from the band-wheel, which turns the spindles.It is needless to enter more minutely into the description of the spinning machinery, because thefluted rollerconstruction, invented by Sir Richard Arkwright, fully described underCotton Manufacture, is equally applicable to worsted. The difference between the two, is chiefly in the distance between the rollers, which, in the worsted-frame, is capable of being increased or diminished at pleasure, according to the length of the fibres of the wool; and the draught or extension of the roving is far greater than in the cotton.Reeling.—The bobbins of the spinning-frame are placed in a row upon wires before a long horizontal reel, and the threads from 20 bobbins are wound off together. The reel is exactly a yard in circumference, and when it has wound off 80 turns, it rings a bell; the motion of the reel is then stopped, and a thread is passed round the 80 turns or folds which each thread has made. The reeling is then continued till another 80 yards is wound off, which is also separated by interweaving the same thread; each of these separate parcels is called a ley, and when 7 such leys are reeled, it is called a hank, which contains 560 yards. When this quantity is reeled off, the ends of the binding thread are tied together, to bind each hank fast, and one of the rails of the reel is struck to loosen the hanks, and they are drawn off at the end of the reel. These hanks are next hung upon a hook, and twisted up hard by a stick; then doubled, and the two parts twisted together to make a firm bundle. In this state, the hanks are weighed by a small index-machine, which denotes what number of the hanks will weigh a pound, and they are sorted accordingly into different parcels. It is by this means that the number of the worsted is ascertained as the denomination for its fineness: thus No. 24. means, that 24 hanks, each containing 560 yards, will weigh a pound, and so on.This denomination is different from that used for cotton, because the hank of cotton contains 840 yards, instead of 560; but in some places the worsted hank is made of the same length as the cotton.To pack up the worsted for market, the proper number of hanks is collected to make a pound, according to the number which has been ascertained; these are weighed as a proof of the correctness of the sorting, then tied up in bundles of one pound each, and four of these bundles are again tied together. Then 60 such bundles are packed up in a sheet, making a bale of 240 pounds, ready for market.Of the treatment of short wool for the cloth manufacture.—Short wool resembles cotton, not a little in the structure of its filaments, and is cleaned by thewilly, as cotton is by thewillow, which opens up the matted fleece of the wool-stapler, and cleans it from accidental impurities. Sheep’s wool for working into coarse goods, must be passed repeatedlythrough this machine, both before and after it is dyed; the second last time for the purpose of blending the different sorts together, and the last for imbuing the fibres intimately with oil. The oiled wool is next subjected to a first carding operation calledscribbling, whereby it is converted into a broad thin fleece or lap, as cotton is by the breaker-cards of a cotton mill. The woollen lap is then worked by the cards proper, which deliver it in a narrow band or sliver. By this process the wool expands greatly in all its dimensions; while the broken or short filaments get entangled by crossing in every possible direction, which prepares them for the fulling operation. SeeCarding, underCotton Manufacture.
WOOLLEN MANUFACTURE. In reference to textile fabrics, sheep’s wool is of two different sorts, the short and the long stapled; each of which requires different modes of manufacture in the preparation and spinning processes, as also in the treatment of the cloth after it is woven, to fit it for the market. Each of these is, moreover, distinguished in commerce by the names of fleece wools and dead wools, according as they have been shorn at the usual annual period from the living animal, or are cut from its skin after death. The latter are comparatively harsh, weak, and incapable of imbibing the dyeing principles, more especially if the sheep has died of some malignant distemper. The annular pores, leading into the tubular cavities of the filaments, seem, in this case, to have shrunk and become obstructed. The time of year for sheep-shearing most favourable to the quality of the wool, and the comfort of the animal, is towards the end of June and beginning of July;—the period when Lord Leicester holds his celebrated rural fête for that interesting purpose.
The wool of the sheep has been surprisingly improved, by its domestic culture. Themouflon(Ovis aries), the parent stock from which our sheep is undoubtedly derived, and which is still found in a wild state upon the mountains of Sardinia, Corsica, Barbary, Greece, and Asia Minor, has a very short and coarse fleece, more like hair than wool. When this animal is brought under the fostering care of man, the rank fibres gradually disappear; while the soft wool round their roots, little conspicuous in the wild animal, becomes singularly developed. The male most speedily undergoes this change, and continues ever afterwards to possess far more power in modifying the fleece of the offspring, than the female parent. The produce of a breed from a coarse-woolled ewe, and a fine-woolled ram, is not of a mean quality between the two, but half-way nearer that of the sire. By coupling the female thus generated, with such a male as the former, another improvement of one-half will be obtained, affording a staple three-fourths finer than that of the grandam. By proceeding inversely, the wool would be as rapidly deteriorated. It is, therefore, a matter of the first consequence in wool husbandry, to exclude from the flock all coarse-fleeced rams.
Long wool is the produce of a peculiar variety of sheep, and varies in the length of its fibres from 3 to 8 inches. Such wool is not carded like cotton, but combed like flax, either by hand or appropriate machinery. Short wool is seldom longer than 3 or 4 inches; it is susceptible of carding and felting, by which processes the filaments become first convoluted, and then densely matted together. The shorter sorts of the combing wool are used principally for hosiery, though of late years the finer kinds have been extensively worked up into merino and mousseline-de-laine fabrics. The longer wools of the Leicestershire breed are manufactured into hard yarns, for worsted pieces, such as waistcoats, carpets, bombasines, poplins, crapes, &c.
The wool of which good broad cloth is made, should be not only shorter, but, generally speaking, finer and softer than the worsted wools, in order to fit them for the fulling process. Some wool-sorters and wool-staplers acquire by practice great nicety of discernment in judging of wools by the touch and traction of the fingers. Two years ago, I made a series of observations upon different wools, and published the results. The filaments of the finer qualities varied in thickness from1⁄1100to1⁄1500of an inch; their structure is very curious, exhibiting, in a good achromatic microscope, at intervals of about1⁄300of an inch, a series of serrated rings, imbricated towards each other, like the joints ofEquisetum, or rather like the scaly zones of a serpent’s skin. SeePhilosophy of Manufactures,figs.11, 12., page 91. second edition.
There are four distinct qualities of wool upon every sheep; the finest being upon the spine, from the neck to within 6 inches of the tail, including one-third of the breadth of the back; the second covers the flanks between the thighs and the shoulders; the third clothes the neck and the rump; and the fourth extends upon the lower part of the neck and breast down to the feet, as also upon a part of the shoulders and the thighs, to the bottom of the hind quarter. These should be torn asunder, and sorted, immediately after the shearing.
The harshness of wools is dependent not solely upon the breed of the animal, or the climate, but is owing to certain peculiarities in the pasture, derived from the soil. It is known, that in sheep fed upon chalky districts, wool is apt to get coarse; but in those upon a rich loamy soil, it becomes soft and silky. The ardent sun of Spain renders the fleece of the Merino breed harsher than it is in the milder climate of Saxony. Smearing sheep with a mixture of tar and butter, is deemed favourable to the softness of their wool.
All wool, in its natural state, contains a quantity of a peculiar potash-soap, secreted by the animal, called in this country theyolk; which may be washed out by water alone, with which it forms a sort of lather. It constitutes from 25 to 50 per cent. of the wool, being most abundant in the Merino breed of sheep; and however favourable to the growth of the wool on the living animal, should be taken out soon after it is shorn, lestit injure the fibres by fermentation, and cause them to become hard and brittle. After being washed in water, somewhat more than lukewarm, the wool should be well pressed, and carefully dried. England grows annually about 1,000,000 packs of wool, and imports 100,000 bags.
Wool imported into the United Kingdom, in 1836, 64,239,977 lbs.; in 1837, 48,356,121 lbs. Retained for home consumption, in 1836, 60,724,795 lbs.; in 1837, 43,148,297 lbs. Duty received, in 1836,£190,075; in 1837,£118,519.
Having premised these general observations on wool, I shall now proceed to treat of its manufacture, beginning with that of wool-combing, or
THE WORSTED MANUFACTURE.
In this branch of business, a long stapled and firm fibre is required to form a smooth level yarn, little liable to shrink, curl, or felt in weaving and finishing the cloth. It must not be entangled by carding, but stretched in lines as parallel as possible, by a suitable system ofcombing, manual or mechanical.
When the long wool is brought into the worsted factory, it is first of all washed by men with soap and water, who are paid for their labour by the piece, and are each assisted by a boy, who receives the wool as it issues from between the dryingsqueezers(seeBleaching). The boy carries off the wool in baskets, and spreads it evenly upon the floor of the drying-room, usually an apartment over the boilers of the steam-engine, which is thus economically heated to the proper temperature. The health of the boys employed in this business is found to be not at all injured.
Steel combs
The wool, when properly dried, is transferred to a machine called theplucker, which is always superintended by a boy of 12 or 14 years of age, being very light work. He lays the tresses of wool pretty evenly upon the feed-apron, or table covered with an endless moving web of canvas, which, as it advances, delivers the ends of the long tufts to a pair of fluted rollers, whence it is introduced into a fanning apparatus, somewhat similar to thewillowemployed in thecotton manufacture, which see. The filaments are turned out, at the opposite end of this winnowing machine, straightened, cleaned, and ready for the combing operation. According to the old practice of the trade, and still for the finer descriptions of the long staple, according to the present practice, the wool is carded by hand. This is far more severe labour than any subservient to machinery, and is carried on in rooms rendered close and hot by the number of stoves requisite to heat the combs, and so enable them to render the fibres soft, flexible, and elastic. This is a task at which only robust men are engaged. They use three implements: 1. a pair of combs for each person; 2. a post, to which one of the combs can be fixed; 3. a comb-pot, or small stove for heating the teeth of the combs. Each comb is composed either of two or three rows of pointed tapering steel teeth,b,fig.1203., disposed in two or three parallel planes, each row being a little longer than the preceding. They are made fast at the roots to a wooden stock or headc, which is covered with horn, and has a handled, fixed into it at right angles to the lines of the teeth. The spaces between these two or three planes of teeth, is about one-third of an inch at their bottoms, but somewhat more at their tips. The first combing, when the fibres are most entangled, is performed with the two-row toothed combs; the second or finishing combing, with the three-row toothed.
Post
In the workshop a post is planted (fig.1204.) upright, for resting the combs occasionally upon, during the operation. An iron stemg, projects from it horizontally, having its end turned up, so as to pass through a hole in the handle of the comb. Near its point of insertion into the post, there is another staple pointh, which enters into the hollow end of the handle; which, between these two catches, is firmly secured to the post. The stove is a very simple affair, consisting merely of a flat iron plate, heated by fire or steam, and surmounted with a similar plate, at an interval sufficient to allow the teeth to be inserted between them at one side, which is left open, while the space between their edges, on the other sides, is closed to confine the heat.
In combing the wool, the workman takes it up in tresses of about four ounces each, sprinkles it with oil, and rolls it about in his hands, to render all the filaments equallyunctuous. Some harsh dry wools require one-sixteenth their weight of oil, others no more than a fortieth. He next attaches a heated comb to the post, with its teeth pointed upwards, seizes one-half of the tress of wool in his hands, throws it over the teeth, then draws it through them, and thus repeatedly: leaving a few straight filaments each time upon the comb. When the comb has in this way collected all the wool, it is placed with its points inserted into the cell of the stove, with the wool hanging down outside, exposed to the influence of the heat. The other comb, just removed in a heated state from the stove, is planted upon the post, and furnished in its turn with the remaining two-ounce tress of wool; after which it supplants the preceding at the stove. Having both combs now hot, he holds one of them with his left hand over his knee, being seated upon a low stool, and seizing the other with his right hand, he combs the wool upon the first, by introducing the teeth of one comb into the wool stuck in the other, and drawing them through it. This manipulation is skilfully repeated, till the fibres are laid truly parallel, like a flat tress of hair. It is proper to begin by combing the tips of the tress, and to advance progressively, from the one end towards the other, till at length the combs are worked with their teeth as closely together as is possible, without bringing them into collision. If the workman proceeded otherwise, he would be apt to rupture the filaments, or tear their ends entirely out of one of the combs. The flocks left at the end of the process, because they are too short for the comber to grasp them in his hand, are callednoyls. They are unfit for the worsted spinner, and are reserved for the coarse cloth manufacture.
The wool finally drawn off from the comb, though it may form a uniform tress of straight filaments, must yet be combed again at a somewhat lower temperature, to prepare it perfectly for the spinning operation. From ten to twelve slivers are then arranged in one parcel.
To relieve the workman from this laborious and not very salubrious task, has been the object of many mechanical inventions. One of these, considerably employed in this country and in France, is the invention of the late Mr. John Collier, of Paris, for which a patent was obtained in England, under the name of John Platt, of Salford, in November, 1827. It consists of two comb-wheels, about ten feet in diameter, having hollow iron spokes filled with steam, in order to keep the whole apparatus at a proper combing heat. The comb forms a circle, made fast to the periphery of the wheel, the teeth being at right angles to the plane of the wheel. The shafts of the two wheels are mounted in a strong frame of cast iron; not, however, in horizontal positions, but inclined at acute angles to the horizon, and in planes crossing each other, so that the teeth of one circular comb sweep with a steady obliquity over the teeth of the other, in a most ingenious manner, with the effect of combing the tresses of wool hung upon them. The proper quantity of long wool, in its ordinary state, is stuck in handfuls upon the wheel, revolving slowly, by a boy, seated upon the ground at one side of the machine. Whenever the wheel is dressed, the machine is made to revolve more rapidly, by shifting its driving-band on another pulley; and it is beautiful to observe the delicacy and precision with which it smoothes the tangled tress. When the wools are set in rapid rotation, the loose ends of the fleece, by the centrifugal force, are thrown out, in the direction of radii, upon the teeth of the other revolving comb-wheel, so as to be drawn out and made truly straight. The operation commences upon the tips of the tresses, where the wheels, by the oblique posture of their shafts, are at the greatest distance apart; but as the planes slowly approach to parallelism, the teeth enter more deeply into the wool, till they progressively comb the whole length of its fibres. The machines being then thrown out of geer, the teeth are stript of the tresses by the hand of the attendant; thenoyls, or short refuse wool, being also removed, and kept by itself.
This operation being one of simple superintendence, not of handicraft effort and skill, like the old combing of long wool, is now performed by boys or girls of 13 and 14 years of age; and places in a striking point of view the influence of automatic mechanism, in so embodying dexterity and intelligence in a machine, as to render the cheap and tractable labour of children a substitute for the high-priced and often refractory exertions of workmen too prone to capricious combinations. The chief precaution to be taken with this machine, is to keep the steam-joints tight, so as not to wet the apartments, and to provide due ventilation for the operatives.
Worsted spinner
The following machine, patented by James Noble, of Halifax, worsted-spinner, in February, 1834, deserves particular notice, as its mode of operation adapts it well also for heckling flax. Infig.1205.the internal structure is exhibited. The frame-worka,a, supports the axle of a wheelb,b, in suitable bearings on each side. To the face of this wheel is affixed the eccentric or heart-wheel camc,c. On the upper part of the periphery of this cam or heart-wheel, a leverd,d, bears merely by its gravity; one end of which lever is connected by a joint to the cranke. By the rotation of the cranke, it will be perceived that the leverd, will be slidden to and fro on the upper part of the periphery of the eccentric or heart-wheel camc, the outer end of the leverd, carryingthe upper or working comb or needle-pointsf, as it moves, performing an elliptical curve, which curve will be dependent upon the position of the heart-wheel camc, that guides it. A movable frameg, carries a series of pointsh, which are to constitute the lower comb or frame of needles. Into these lower needles the rough uncombed wool is to be fed by hand, and to be drawn out and combed straight by the movements of the upper or working comb.
As it is important, in order to prevent waste, that the ends of the wool should be first combed out, and that the needle-points should be made to penetrate the wool progressively, the movable frameg, is in the first instance placed as far back as possible; and the action of the leverd, during the whole operation, is so directed by the varying positions of the cam-wheel, as to allow the upper comb to enter at first a very little way only into the wool; but as the operation of combing goes on, the frame with the lower combs is made to advance gradually, and the relative positions of the revolving heart cam-wheelc, being also gradually changed, the upper or working needles are at length allowed to be drawn completely through the wool, for the purpose of combing out straight the whole length of its fibre.
In order to give to the machine the necessary movements, a train of toothed wheels and pinions is mounted, mostly on studs attached to the side of the frame; which train of wheels and pinions is shown by dots in the figure, to avoid confusion. The driving power, a horse or steam-engine, is communicated by a band to a rigger on the short axlei; which axle carries a pinion, taking into one of the wheels of the train. From this wheel the cranke, that works the leverd, is driven; and also, by geer from the same pinion, the axle of the wheelb, carrying the eccentric or heart-wheel cam, is also actuated, but slower than the crank-axle.
At the end of the axle of the wheelb, and camc, a bevel pinion is affixed, which geers into a corresponding bevel pinion on the end of the lateral shaftk. The reverse end of this shaft has a worm or endless screwl, taking into a toothed wheelm; and this last-mentioned toothed wheel geers into a rack at the under part of the frameg.
It will hence be perceived, that by the movements of the train of wheels, a slow motion is given to the frameg, by which the lower needles carrying the wool are progressively advanced as the operation goes on; and also, that by the other wheels of the train, the heart-wheel cam is made to rotate, for the purpose of giving such varying directions to the stroke of the lever which slides upon its periphery, and to the working comb, as shall cause the comb to operate gradually upon the wool as it is brought forward. The construction of the frames which hold the needles, and the manner of fixing them in the machine, present no features of importance; it is therefore unnecessary to describe them farther, than to say, that the heckles are to be heated when used for combing wool. Instead of introducing the wool to be combed into the lower needles by hand, it is sometimes fed in, by means of an endless feeding-cloth, as shown infig.1206.This endless cloth is distended over two rollers, which are made to revolve, for the purpose of carrying the cloth with the wool forward, by means of the endless screw and pinions.
Combing machines
A slight variation in the machine is shown atfig.1207., for the purpose of combing wool of long fibre, which differs from the former only in placing the combs or needle points upon a revolving cylinder or shaft. At the end of the axle of this shaft, there is a toothed wheel, which is actuated by anendless screw upon a lateral shaft. The axle of the cylinder on which the needles are fixed, is mounted in a movable frame or carriage, in order that the points of the needles may, in the first instance, be brought to act upon the ends of the wool only, and ultimately be so advanced as to enable the whole length of the fibres to be drawn through. The progressive advancement of this carriage, with the needle cylinder, is effected by the agency of the endless screw on the lateral shaft before mentioned.
Some combing-machines reduce the wool into a continuous sliver, which is ready for the drawing-frame; but the short slivers produced by the hand combing, must be first joined together, by what is calledplanking. These slivers are rolled up by the combers ten or twelve together, in balls called tops, each of which weighs half a pound. At the spinning-mill these are unrolled, and the slivers are laid on a long plank or trough, with the ends lapping over, in order to splice the long end of one sliver into the short end of another. The long end is that which was drawn off first from the comb, and contains the longer fibres; the short is that which comes last from the comb, and contains the shorter. The wool-comber lays all the slivers of each ball the same way, and marks the long end of each by twisting up the end of the sliver. It is a curious circumstance, that when a top or ball of slivers is unrolled and stretched out straight, they will not separate from each other without tearing and breaking, if the separation is begun at the short ends; but if they are first parted at the long ends, they will readily separate.
The machine for combing long wool, for which Messrs. Donisthorpe and Rawson obtained a patent in April, 1835, has been found to work well, and therefore merits a detailed description:—
Long wool comberFigs. 1208-1210 enlarged(262 kB)
Figs. 1208-1210 enlarged(262 kB)
Fig.1208.is an elevation;fig.1209.an end view; andfig.1210.a plan; in whicha,a, is the framing;b, the main shaft, bearing a pinion which drives the wheel and shaftc, in geer with the wheeld, on the shafte. Upon each of the wheelscandd, there are two projections or studsf, which cause the action of the combsg,g, of whichh,h, are the tables or carriages. These are capable of sliding along the upper guide rails of the framinga. Through these carriages or tablesh,h, there are openings or slits, shown by dotted lines, which act as guides to the holdersi,i, of the combsg,g, rendering the holders susceptible of motion at right angles to the course pursued by the tablesh. The combs are retained in the holdersi,i, by means of the lever handlesj,j, which move upon inclined surfaces, and are made to press on the surface of the heads of the combsg,g, so as to be retained in their places; and they are also held by studs affixed to the holders, which pass into the comb-heads. From the under side of the tables, forked projectionsi,i, stand out, which pass through the openings or slits formed in the tablesh h; these projections are worked from side to side by the framek,k, which turning on the axis or shaftl,l, is caused to vibrate, or rock to and fro, by the armsm, moved by the eccentric grooven, made fast to the shafte. The tablesh, are drawn inwards, by weights suspended on cords or strapso,o, which pass over friction pulleysp,p; whereby the weights have a constant tendency to draw the combs into the centre of the machine, as soon as it is released by the studsf, passing beyond the projecting armsg, on the tables. On the shaftc, a driving-tooth or catchr, is fixed, which takes into the ratchet wheels, and propels one of its teeth at every revolution of the shaftc. This ratchet wheel turns on an axis att; to the ratchet the pulleyvis made fast, to which the cord or bandwis secured, as also to the pulleyx, on the shafty. On the shafty, there are two other pulleysz,z, having the cords or bandsA,A, made fast to them, and also to the end of the gauge-platesB, furnished with graduated steps, against which the tablesh,h, are drawing at each operation of the machine. In proportion as these gauge-plates are raised, the nearer the carriages or tablesh, will be able to advance to the centre of the machine, and thus permit the combsg,g, to lay hold of, and comb, additional lengths of the woolly fibres. The gauge-platesB, are guided up by the barsC, which pass through openings, slots, or guides, made in the framinga, as shown byD.
To the ratchet wheels, an inclined projectionE, is made fast, which in the course of the rotation of the ratchet wheel, comes under the leverF, fixed to the shaftG, that turns in bearingsH. To this shaft the leversIandJ, are also fixed;Iserving to throw out the click or catchK, from the ratchet wheel, by which the parts of the machine will be released, and restored to positions ready for starting again. The leverJ, serves to slide the drum upon the driving shaftb, out of geer, by means of the forked handleL, when the machine is to be stopped, whenever it has finished combing a certain quantity of wool. The combs which hold the wool have a motion upwards, in order to take the wool out of the way of the combsg,g, as these are drawn into the centre of the machine; while the holding combs descend to lay the wool among the points of the combsg,g. For obtaining this upward and downward motion, the combsM,M, are placed upon the frameN, and retained there just as the combsg,g, are upon the holdersi,i. The framingNis made fast to the bar or spindleO, which moves vertically through openings in the cross-headP, and the cross-framing of the machineQ; from the top of which, there is a strap passes over pulleys with a weight suspended to it; the cross-head being supported by the two guide-rodsR, fixed to the cross-framingQ. It is by the guide-rodsR, and the spindleO, that the frameNis made to move up and down; while the spindle is made to rise by the studsf, as the wheelscanddcome successively under the studss, on the spindleO.
A quantity of wool is to be placed on each of the combsg,g, andM,M, the machine being in the position shown infig.1210.When the main shaftb, is set in motion, it will drive by its pinion the toothed wheelc, and therefrom the remaining parts of the machine. The first effect of the movement will be to raise the combsM,M, sufficiently high to remove the wool out of the way of the combsg,g, which will be drawn towards the centre of the machine, as soon as they are released by the studsf, passing the projecting armsq, on the tablesh; but the distance between the combsg,g, and the combsH,H, will depend on the height to which the gauge-platesB, have been raised. These plates are raised one step at each revolution of the shaftc; the combsg,g, will therefore be continually approaching more nearly to the combsM,M, till the platesB, are so much raised as to permit the tablesh, to approach the platesB, below the lowest step or graduation, when the machine will continue to work. Notwithstanding the platesB, continuing to rise, there being only parallel surfaces against which the tables come, the combsg,g, will successively come to the same position, till the inclined projectionE, on the ratchet wheels, comes under the leverF, which will stop the machine. The wool which has been combed, is then to be removed, and a fresh quantity introduced. It should be remarked, that the combsg,g, are continually moving from side to side of the machine, at the same time that they are combing out the wool. The chief object of the invention is obviously to give the above peculiar motions to the combsg,g, andM,M; which may be applied also to combing goat-hair.
For the purposes of the worsted manufacture, wool should be rendered inelastic to a considerable degree, so that its fibres may form long lines, capable of being twisted into straight level yarn. Mr. Bayliffe, of Kendal, has sought to accomplish this object, first, by introducing into thedrawingmachine a rapidly revolving wheel, in contact with the front drawing roller, by whose friction the filaments are heated, and at the same time deprived of their curling elasticity; secondly, by employing a movable regulating roller, by which the extent of surface on the periphery of the wheel that the lengths ofwool is to act upon, may be increased or diminished at pleasure, and, consequently, the effect regulated or tempered as the quality of the wool may require; thirdly, the employment of steam in a rotatory drum, or hollow wheel, in place of the wheel first described, for the purpose of heating the wool, in the process of drawing, in order to facilitate the operation of straightening the fibres.
Drawing wheel
These objects may be effected in several ways; that is, the machinery may be variously constructed, and still embrace the principles proposed.Fig.1211.shows one mode:—a, is the friction wheel;b, the front drawing roller, placed in the drawing frame in the same way as usual; the larger wheela, constituting the lower roller of the pair of front drawing rollers;c, andd, are the pair of back drawing rollers, which are actuated by geer connected to the front rollers, as in the ordinary construction of drawing machines, the front rollers moving very considerably faster than the back rollers, and, consequently, drawing or extending the fibres of the sliver of wool, as it passes through between them;e, is a guide roller, bearing upon the periphery of the large wheel;f, is a tension roller, which presses the fibres of the wool down upon the wheela.
Now, supposing the back rollerscanddto be turned with a given velocity, and the front rollerbto be driven much faster, the effect would be, that the fibres of wool constituting the sliver, passing through the machine, would be considerably extended betweenbandd, which is precisely the effect accomplished in the ordinary drawing frame; but the wheela, introduced into the machine in place of the lower front drawing roller, being made to revolve much faster thanb, the sliver of wool extended over the upper part of its periphery fromb, to the tension rollerf, will be subjected to very considerable friction from the contact; and, consequently, the natural curl of the wool will be taken out, and its elasticity destroyed, which will enable the wool to proceed in a connected roving down to the spindle or flyerh, where it becomes twisted or spun into a worsted thread.
In order to increase or diminish the extent to which the fibres of wool are spread over the periphery of the wheela, a regulating roller is adapted to the machine, as shown atg, in place of the tension rollerf. This regulating rollerg, is mounted by its pivots in bearings on the circular armsh, shown by dots. These circular arms turn loosely upon the axle of the wheela, and are raised or depressed by a rack and a winch, not shown in the figure; the rack taking into teeth on the periphery of the circular arms. It will hence be perceived, that by raising the circular arms, the rollerg, will be carried backward, and the fibres of wool pressed upon the periphery of the wheel to a greater extent. On the contrary, the depression of the circular arms will draw the rollerg, forward, and cause the wool to be acted upon by a smaller portion of the periphery of the wheela, and consequently subject it to less friction.
When it is desired to employ steam for the purpose of heating the wool, the wheela, is formed as a hollow drum, and steam from a boiler, in any convenient situation, is conveyed through the hollow axle to the interior of the drum, which, becoming heated by that means, communicates heat also to the wool, and thereby destroys its curl and elasticity.
Breaking-frame
Breaking-frame.—Here the slivers areplanked, or spliced together, the long end of one to the short end of another; after which they are drawn out and extended by the rollers of the breaking-frame. A sketch of this machine is given infig.1212.It consists of four pairs of rollersA,B,C,D. The first pairA, receives the wool from the inclined troughE, which is the planking-table. The slivers are unrolled, parted, and hung loosely over a pin, in reach of the attendant, who takes a sliver, and lays it flat in the trough, and the end is presented to the rollersA, which being in motion, will draw the wool in; the sliver is then conducted through the other rollers, as shown in the figure: when the sliver has passed half through, the end of another sliver is placed upon the middle of the first, and they pass through together; when this second is passed half through, the end of a third is applied upon the middle of it, and in this way the short slivers produced by the combing are joined into one regular and even sliver.
The lower rollerCreceives its motion from the mill, by means of a pulley upon the end of its axis, and an endless strap. The roller which is immediately over it, is borne down by a heavy weight, suspended from hooks, which are over the pivots of the upper roller. The fourth pair of rollersD, moves with the same velocity asC, being turnedby means of a small wheel upon the end of the axis of the rollerC, which turns a wheel of the same size upon the axis of the rollerD, by means of an intermediate wheeld, which makes both rollers turn the same way round. The first and second pairs of rollers,AandB, move only one-third as quick asCandD, in order to draw out the sliver betweenBandCto three times the length it was when put on the planking-table. The slow motion of the rollersA, is given by a large wheela, fixed upon the axis of the rollerA, and turned by the intermediate cog-wheelsb,c, andd; the latter communicates between the rollersCandD. The pinions on the rollersCandDbeing only one-third the size of the wheela,CandDturn three times as fast asA, forb,c, andd, are only intermediate wheels. The rollersBturn at the same rate asA. The upper rollerCis loaded with a heavy weight, similar to the rollersA; but the other rollers,BandD, are no further loaded than the weight of the rollers.
The two pairs of rollersA,B, andC,D, are mounted in separate frames; and that frame which contains the third and fourth pairsC,D, slides upon the cast-iron frameF, which supports the machine, in order to increase or diminish the distance between the rollersBandC. There is a screwf, by which the frame of the rollers is moved, so as to adjust the machine according to the length of the fibres of the wool. The space betweenBandCshould be rather more than the length of the fibres of the wool. The intermediate wheelsbandc, are supported upon pieces of iron, which are movable on centres; the centre for the piece which supports the wheelbis concentric with the axis of the rollerA; and the supporting piece for the wheelcis fitted on the centre of the wheeld. By moving these pieces the intermediate wheelsbandccan be always kept in contact, although the distance between the rollers is varied at times. By means of this breaking-frame, the perpetual sliver, which is made up by planking the sliver together, is equalized, and drawn out three times in length, and delivered into the canG.
Drawing-frame.—Three of these cans are removed to the drawing-frame, which is similar to the breaking-frame, except that there is no planking-tableE. There are five sets of rollers, all fixed upon one common frameF, the breaking-frame, which we have described, being the first. As fast as the sliver comes through one set of rollers, it is received into a can, and then three of these cans are put together, and passed again through another set of rollers. In the whole, the wool must pass through the breaker and four drawing-frames before the roving is begun. The draught being usually four times at each operation of drawing, and three times in the breaking, the whole will be 3 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 768; but to suit different sorts of wool, the three last drawing-frames are capable of making a greater draught, even to five times, by changing the pinions; accordingly the draught will be 3 + 4 + 5 + 5 + 5 = 1500 times.
The size of the sliver is diminished by these repeated drawings, because only three slivers are put together, and they are drawn out four times; so that, in the whole, the sliver is reduced to a fourth or a ninth of its original bulk.
The breaking-frame and drawing-frame which are used when the slivers are prepared by the combing-machines, are differently constructed; they have no planking-table, but receive three of the perpetual slivers of the combing-machine from as many tin cans, and draw them out from ten to twelve times. In this case, all the four rollers contribute to the operation of drawing: thus the second rollersB, move 21⁄2times as fast as the rollersA; the third rollersC, move 8 times as fast asA; and the fourth rollersE, move 101⁄2times as fast asA. In this case, the motion is given to the different rollers by means of bevelled wheels, and a horizontal axis, which extends across the ends of all the four rollers, to communicate motion from one pair of rollers to another.
There are three of these systems of rollers, which are all mounted on the same frame; and the first one through which the wool passes, is called the breaking-frame;but it does not differ from the others, which are called drawing-frames. The slivers which have passed through one system of rollers, are collected four or five together, and put through the drawing-rollers. In all, the slivers pass through three drawings, and the whole extension is seldom less than 1000 times, and for some kinds of wool much greater.
After the drawing of the slivers is finished, a pound weight is taken, and is measured by means of a cylinder, in order to ascertain if the drawing has been properly conducted; if the sliver does not prove of the length proposed, according to the size of worsted which is intended to be spun, the pinions of some of the drawing-frames are changed, to make the draught more or less, until it is found by experiment that one pound of the sliver measures the required length.
Roving-frame.—This is provided with rollers, the same as the drawing-frames: it takes in one or two slivers together, and draws them out four times. By this extension, the sliver becomes so small, that it would break with the slightest force, and it is therefore necessary to give some twist; this is done by a spindle and flyer. SeeRoving, underCotton Manufacture.
Spinning-frame.—This is so much like the roving-frame, that a short description will be sufficient. The spindles are more delicate, and there are three pairs of rollers, instead of two; the bobbins, which are taken off from the spindles of the roving-frame, when they are quite full, are stuck upon skewers, and the roving which proceeds from them is conducted between the rollers. The back pair turns round slowly; the middle pair turns about twice for once of the back rollers; and the front pair makes from twelve to seventeen turns for one turn of the back roller, according to the degree of extension which is required.
The spindles must revolve very quickly in the spinning-frame, in order to give the requisite degree of twist to the worsted. The hardest twisted worsted is called tammy warp; and when the size of this worsted is such as to be 20 or 24 hanks to the pound weight, the twist is about 10 turns in each inch of length. The least twist is given to the worsted for fine hosiery, which is from 18 to 24 hanks to the pound. The twist is from 5 to 6 turns per inch. The degree of twist is regulated by the size of the whirls or pulleys upon the spindle, and by the wheel-work which communicates the motion to the front rollers from the band-wheel, which turns the spindles.
It is needless to enter more minutely into the description of the spinning machinery, because thefluted rollerconstruction, invented by Sir Richard Arkwright, fully described underCotton Manufacture, is equally applicable to worsted. The difference between the two, is chiefly in the distance between the rollers, which, in the worsted-frame, is capable of being increased or diminished at pleasure, according to the length of the fibres of the wool; and the draught or extension of the roving is far greater than in the cotton.
Reeling.—The bobbins of the spinning-frame are placed in a row upon wires before a long horizontal reel, and the threads from 20 bobbins are wound off together. The reel is exactly a yard in circumference, and when it has wound off 80 turns, it rings a bell; the motion of the reel is then stopped, and a thread is passed round the 80 turns or folds which each thread has made. The reeling is then continued till another 80 yards is wound off, which is also separated by interweaving the same thread; each of these separate parcels is called a ley, and when 7 such leys are reeled, it is called a hank, which contains 560 yards. When this quantity is reeled off, the ends of the binding thread are tied together, to bind each hank fast, and one of the rails of the reel is struck to loosen the hanks, and they are drawn off at the end of the reel. These hanks are next hung upon a hook, and twisted up hard by a stick; then doubled, and the two parts twisted together to make a firm bundle. In this state, the hanks are weighed by a small index-machine, which denotes what number of the hanks will weigh a pound, and they are sorted accordingly into different parcels. It is by this means that the number of the worsted is ascertained as the denomination for its fineness: thus No. 24. means, that 24 hanks, each containing 560 yards, will weigh a pound, and so on.
This denomination is different from that used for cotton, because the hank of cotton contains 840 yards, instead of 560; but in some places the worsted hank is made of the same length as the cotton.
To pack up the worsted for market, the proper number of hanks is collected to make a pound, according to the number which has been ascertained; these are weighed as a proof of the correctness of the sorting, then tied up in bundles of one pound each, and four of these bundles are again tied together. Then 60 such bundles are packed up in a sheet, making a bale of 240 pounds, ready for market.
Of the treatment of short wool for the cloth manufacture.—Short wool resembles cotton, not a little in the structure of its filaments, and is cleaned by thewilly, as cotton is by thewillow, which opens up the matted fleece of the wool-stapler, and cleans it from accidental impurities. Sheep’s wool for working into coarse goods, must be passed repeatedlythrough this machine, both before and after it is dyed; the second last time for the purpose of blending the different sorts together, and the last for imbuing the fibres intimately with oil. The oiled wool is next subjected to a first carding operation calledscribbling, whereby it is converted into a broad thin fleece or lap, as cotton is by the breaker-cards of a cotton mill. The woollen lap is then worked by the cards proper, which deliver it in a narrow band or sliver. By this process the wool expands greatly in all its dimensions; while the broken or short filaments get entangled by crossing in every possible direction, which prepares them for the fulling operation. SeeCarding, underCotton Manufacture.