FIRE ARMS,Manufacture of. This art is divided into two branches, that of the metallic and of the wooden work. The first includes the barrel, the lock, and the mounting, as also the bayonet and ramrod, with military arms. The second comprises the stock, and in fowling pieces, likewise the ramrod.1.The Barrel.Its interior is called the bore; its diameter, the calibre; the back end, the breech; the front end, the muzzle; and the closing of the back end, the breech pin or plug. The barrel is generally made of iron. Most military musquets and low-priced guns are fashioned out of a long slip of sheet-iron folded together edge-wise round a skewer into a cylinder, are then lapped over at the seam, and welded at a white heat. The most ductile and tenacious soft iron, free from all blemishes, must be selected for this slip. It is frequently welded at the common forge, but a proper air-furnace answers better, not being so apt to burn it. It should be covered with ashes or cinders. The shape of the bore is given by hammering the cylinder upon a steel mandril, in a groove of the anvil. Six inches of the barrel at either end are left open for forming the breech and the muzzle by a subsequent welding operation; the extremity put into the fire being stopped with clay, to prevent the introduction of cinders. For every length of two inches, there are from two to three welding operations, divided into alternating high and low heats; the latter being intended to correct the defects of the former. The breech and muzzle are not welded upon the mandril, but upon the horn of the anvil; the breech being thicker in the metal, is more highly heated, and is made somewhat wider to save labour to the borer. The barrel is finally hammered in the groove of the anvil without the mandril, during which process it receives a heat every two minutes. In welding, the barrel extends about one-third in length; and for musquets, is eventually left from 3 to 31⁄2feet long; but for cavalry pistols, only 9 inches.The best iron plates for gun-barrels are those made ofstubiron, that is of old horse-shoe nails welded together, and forged into thin bars, or rather narrow ribands. At one timedamascusbarrels were much in vogue; they were fashioned either as above described, from plates made of bars of iron and steel laid parallel, and welded together, or from ribands of the same damascus stuff coiled into a cylinder at a red heat, and then welded together at the seams. The best modern barrels for fowling pieces are constructed of stub-nail iron in this manner. The slip or fillet is only half an inch broad or sometimes less, and is left thicker at the end which is to form the breech, and thinner at the end which is to form the muzzle, than in the intermediate portion. This fillet being moderately heated to increase its pliancy, is then lapped round the mandril in a spiral direction till a proper length of cylinder is formed; the edges being made to overlap a little in order to give them a better hold in the welding process. The coilbeing taken off the mandril and again heated, is struck down vertically with its muzzle end upon the anvil, whereby the spiral junctions are made closer and more uniform. It is now welded at several successive heats, hammered by horizontal strokes, calledjumping, and brought into proper shape on the mandril. The finer barrels are made of still narrower, stub-iron slips, whence they get the name of wire twist. On the Continent, barrels are made of steel wire, welded together lengthwise, then coiled spirally into a cylinder. Barrels that are to be rifled, require to be made of thicker iron, and that of the very best quality, for they would be spoiled by the least portion of scale upon their inside. Soldiers’ musquets are thickened a little at the muzzle, to give a stout holding to the bayonet.Boring bitThe barrels thus made are annealed with a gentle heat in a proper furnace, and slowly cooled. They are now ready for the borer, which is an oblong squarebitof steel, pressed in its rotation against the barrel, by a slip of wood applied to one of its flat sides, and held in its place by a ring of metal. The boring bench works horizontally, and has a very shaky appearance, in respect at least of the bit. In some cases, however, it has been attempted to work the barrels and bits at an inclination to the horizon of 30°, in order to facilitate the discharge of the borings. The barrel is held in a slot by only one point, to allow it to humour the movements of the borer, which would otherwise be infallibly broken. The bit, as represented infig.395., has merely its square head inserted into a clamp-chuck of the lathe, and plays freely through the rest of its length.Musquet boring benchFig.396.represents in plan theboring benchfor musquet barrels;f fis the sledge or carriage frame in which the barrel is supported;ais the revolving chuck of the lathe, into which the square end of the bit,fig.. 395., is inserted;bis the barrel, clamped at its middle to the carriage, and capable of being pressed onwards against the tapering bit of the borer, by the bent leverc, worked by the left hand of the operative against fulcrum knobs atd, which stand about two inches asunder. Whenever the barrel has been thereby advanced a certain space to the right, the bent end of the lever is shifted against another knob or pin. The borer appears to a stranger to be a very awkward and unsteady mechanism, but its perpetual vibrations do not affect the accuracy of the bore. The opening broach may be of a square or pentagonal form; and either gradually tapered from its thickest part, or of uniform diameter till within two inches of the end, whence it is suddenly tapered to a point.A series of bits may be used for boring a barrel, beginning with the smallest and ending with the largest. But this multiplication of tools becomes unnecessary, by laying against the cutting part of the bit, slips of wood, called spales, of gradually increasing thickness, so that the edge is pressed by them progressively further from the axis. The bore is next polished. This is done by a bit with a very smooth edge, which is mounted as above, with a wedge of wood besmeared with a mixture of oil and emery. The inside is finished by working a cylindrical steel file quickly backwards and forwards within it, while it is revolving slowly.In boring, the bit must be well oiled or greased, and the barrel must be kept cool by letting water trickle on it; for the bit, revolving at the rate of 120 or 140 times a minute, generates a great deal of heat. If a flaw be detected in the barrel during the boring, that part is hammered in, and then the bit is employed to turn it out.Many sportsmen are of opinion that a barrel with a bore somewhat narrowed towards the muzzle serves to keep shot better together; and that roughening its inside with pounded glass has a good effect, with the same view. For this purpose, also, fine spiral lines have been made in their interior surface. The justness of its calibre is tried by means of a truly turned cylinder of steel, 3 or 4 inches long, which ought to move without friction, but with uniform contact from end to end of the barrel. Whatever irregularities appear must be immediately removed.The outer surface of the barrel is commonly polished upon a dry grindstone, but it is better finished, and less dangerously to the workman, at a turning lathe with a slide rest. If a stone be used, it should be made to revolve at the mouth of a tunnel of some kind, into which there is a good draught to carry off the ferruginous particles. A piece of moist cloth or leather should be suspended before the orifice.Rifle barrels have parallel grooves of a square or angular form cut within them, each groove being drawn in succession. These grooves run spirally, and form each an aliquot part of a revolution from the chamber to the muzzle. Rifles should not be too deeply indented; only so much as to prevent the ball turning round within the barrel.and the spires should be truly parallel, that the ball may glide along with a regular pace. Seeinfra.The Parisian gun-makers, who are reckoned very expert, draw out the iron for the barrels at hand forges, in fillets only one-ninth of an inch thick, one inch and a half broad, and four feet long. Twenty-five of these ribands are laid upon each other, between two similar ones of double thickness, and the bundle, weighing 60 pounds, bound with wire at two places, serves to make two barrels. The thicker plates are intended to protect the thinner from the violence of the fire in the numerous successive heats necessary to complete the welding, and to form the bundle into a bar two-thirds of an inch broad, by half an inch thick; the direction of the individual plates relatively to the breadth being preserved. This bar folded flat upon itself, is again wrought at the forge, till it is only half an inch broad, and a quarter of an inch thick, while the plates of the primitive ribands are now set perpendicular to the breadth of the narrow fillet; the length of which must be 15 or 16 feet French (16 or 17 English), to form a fowling piece from 28 to 30 inches long. This fillet, heated to a cherry red in successive portions, is coiled into as close a spiral as possible, upon a mandril about two-fifths of an inch in diameter. The mandril has at one end a stout head for drawing it out, by means of the hammer and the grooves of the anvil, previous to every heating. The welding is performed upon a mandril introduced after each heat; the middle of the barrel being first worked, while the fillets are forced back against each other, along the surface of the mandril, to secure their perfect union. The original plates having in the formation of the ultimate long riband become very thin, appear upon the surface of the barrel like threads of a fine screw, with blackish tints to mark the junctions. In making a double-barrelled gun, the two are formed from the same bundle of slips, the coils of the one finished fillet being turned to the right hand, and those of the other to the left.The Damascus barrels forged as above described, from a bundle of steel and iron plates laid alternately together, are twisted at the forge several times, then coiled and welded as usual. Fifteen Parisian workmen concur in one operation: six at the forge; two at the boring mill; seven at filing, turning, and adjusting; yet all together make only six pairs of barrels per week, which are sold at from 100 to 300 francs the pair, ready for putting into the stock.BreechingsThe breeching is of three kinds: the common; the chamber, plug, or mortar,fig.397.; and the patent,fig.398.The common was formerly used for soldiers’ musquets and inferior pieces. The second is a trifling improvement upon it. In the patent breeching, the screws do not interfere with the touch-hole, and the ignition is quicker in the main chamber.Percussion lockThe only locks which it is worth while to describe are those upon the percussion principle, as flint locks will certainly soon cease to be employed even in military musquets. Forsyth’s lock (fig.399.) was an ingenious contrivance. It has a magazinea, for containing the detonating powder, which revolves round a rollerb, whose end is screwed into the breech of the barrel. The priming powder passes through a small hole in the roller, which leads to a channel in communication with the chamber of the gun.The pan for holding the priming is placed immediately over the little hole in the roller. There is a steel punchc, in the magazine, whose under end stands above the pan, readyto ignite the priming when struck upon the top by the cockd, whenever the trigger is drawn. The punch immediately after being driven down into the pan is raised by the action of a spiral spring. For each explosion, the magazine must be turned so far round as to let fall a portion of the percussion powder into the pan; after which it is turned back, and the steel punch recovers its proper position for striking another blow into the pan.Percussion lockThe invention of the copper percussion cap was another great improvement upon the detonating plan.Fig.400.represents the ordinary percussion lock, which is happily divested of three awkward projections upon the flint lock, namely, the hammer, hammer spring, and the pan. Nothing now appears upon the plate of the lock, but the cock or striking hammer, which inflicts the proper blow upon the percussion cap. It is concave, with a small metallic ring or border, called a shield or fence, for the purpose of enclosing the cap, as it were, and preventing its splinters doing injury to the sportsman, as also protecting against the line of flame which may issue from the touch-hole in the cap nipple. This is screwed into the patent breech, and is perforated with a small hole.Sommerville's lockThe safety lock of Dr. Somerville is a truly humane invention. Its essential feature is a slide stop or catch, placed under the triggerA,fig.401.It is pulled forward into a notch in the trigger, by means of a springB, upon the front of the guard, which is worked by a keyC, pressing upon the spring when the piece is discharged. In another safety plan there is a small movable curved piece of iron,A, which rises through an openingB, in the lock-plateC, and prevents the cock from reaching the nipple, as represented in the figure, until it is drawn back within the plate of the lock when the piece is fired.To fire this gun, two different points must be pressed at the same time. If by accident the key which works the safety be touched, nothing happens, because the trigger is not drawn; and the trigger touched alone can produce no effect, because it is locked. The pressure must be applied to the trigger and the key at the same instant, otherwise the lock will not work.The French musquet is longer than the British, in the proportion of 44·72 inches to 42; but the French bayonet is 15 inches, whereas the British is 17.Eng.Dimensions.Fr.Dimensions.Diameter of the bore0·75 in.0·69. in.Diameter of the ball0·6760·65Weight of the ball in oz.1·060·958Weight of the firelock and bayonet in libs.12·2510·980Length of the barrel and bayonet59·0059·72de Berenger's protectorWithin these few years a great many contrivances have been brought forward, and several have been patented for fire arms. The first I shall notice is that of Charles Random, Baron de Berenger.Fig.402.shows the lock and breech of a fowling piece, with a sliding protector on one of the improved plans;ais the hammer,bthe nipple of the touch-hole,ca bent lever, turning upon a pin, fixed into the lock-plate atd. The upper end of this bent lever stands partly under the nose of the hammer, and while in that situation stops it from striking the nipple. A sliderg f h, connected with the under part of the gun-stock, is attached to the tail of the bent lever ati; and when the piece is brought to the shoulder for firing, the hand of the sportsman pressing against the bent part of the slider atg, forces this back, and thereby moves the end of the levercforwards from under the nose of the cock or hammer, as shown by the dotted lines. The trigger being now drawn, the piece will be discharged; and on removing the hand from the endg, of the sliderf, the spring athacting against the guard, will force the slider forward, and the lever into the position first described.Redford's plugMr. Redford, gun-maker of Birmingham, proposes a modification of the lock for small fire-arms, in which the application of pressure to the sear spring for discharging the piece is made by means of a plug, depressed by the thumb, instead of the force of the finger exerted against the trigger.Fig.403.represents a fowling piece partly in section. The sear spring is shown ata. It is not here connected with the trigger as in other locks; but is attached by a double-jointed piece to a leverb, which turns upon a fulcrum pin in its centre. At the reverse end of this lever an arm extends forwards, like that of an ordinary sear spring, upon which arm the lower end of the plugcis intended to bear; and when this plug is depressed by the thumb bearing upon it, that end of the leverbwill be forced downwards, and the reverse end will be raised, so as to draw up the end of the sear spring, and set off the piece. For the sake of protection, the head of the plugcis covered by a movable capd, forming part of a slidere, which moves to and fro in a groove in the stock, behind the breech end of the barrel; this slidereis acted upon by the trigger through levers, which might be attached to the other side of the lock-plate; but are not shown in this figure to avoid confusion. When the piece is brought to the shoulder for firing, the fore-finger must be applied as usual to the trigger, but merely for the purpose of drawing back the slidere, and uncovering the head of the plug; when this is done, the thumb is to be pressed upon the head of the plug, and will thus discharge the piece. A spring bearing against the lever of the slidere, will, when the finger is withdrawn from the trigger, send the slider forward again, and cover the head of the plug, as shown.It is with pleasure I again advert to the humane ingenuity of the Rev. John Somerville, of Currie. In April, 1835, he obtained a patent for a further invention to prevent the accidental discharge of fire arms. It consists in hindering the hammer from reaching the nipple of a percussion lock, or the flint reaching the steel of an ordinary one, by the interposition of movable safety studs or pins, which protrude from under the false breech before the hammers of the locks, and prevent them from descending to strike.These safety studs or pins are moved out of the way by the pressure of the right hand of the person using the gun only when in the act of firing, that is, when the force of the right hand and arm is exerted to press the butt end of the stock of the gun against the shoulder while the aim is taken and the trigger pulled. In carrying the gun at rest, the proper parts of the thumb or hand do not come over Mr. Somerville’s movable buttons or studs.Somerville's studsFig.404.is a side view of part of a double percussion gun; andfig.405.is a top or plan view, which will serve to explain these improvements, and show one, out of many, methods of carrying them into effect.Ais the stock of the gun;Bthe barrels;Cthe breech;Dthe nipples;Ethe false breech, on the under side of which the levers which work the safety studs or pins are placed;Fis the shield of the false breech;G, triggers;Hthe lock-plate; andIthe hammers: all of which are constructed as usual:a aare the safety studs or pins, which protrude before the shieldF, and work through guide pieces on the under side of the false breech. The button piece is placed in the position for the thumb of the right hand to act upon it; but when the pressure of the ball of the right thumb is to produce the movement of the safety studs, it must be placed in or near the positionK; and when the heel of the right hand is to effect the movements of the safety studs, the button piece must be placed atL, or nearly so.In these last two positions, the lever (which is acted upon by the button piece to work the safety studs through a slide) would require to be of a different shape and differently mounted. When the hammers are down upon the nipples after discharging the gun, the ends of the safety pins press against the inner sides of the hammers. When this invention is adapted to single-barrelled guns, only one pin,a, one lever and button piece will be required.Richards's percussion capMr. Richards, gun-maker, Birmingham, patented, in March, 1836, a modification of the copper cap for holding the percussion powder, as representedfig.406.; in which the powder is removed from the top of the cap, and brought nearer the mouth;abeing the top,bthe sides, andcthe position of the priming. The dotted lines show the direction of the explosion, whereby it is seen that the metal case is opened or distended only in a small degree, and not likely to burst to pieces, as in the common caps, the space betweenaandcbeing occupied by a piece of any kind of hard metald, soldered or otherwise fastened in the cap.George Lovell, Esq., director of the Royal Manufactory of Arms at Enfield, has recently made a great improvement upon the priming chamber. He forms it into a vertical double cone, joined in the middle by the common apex; the base of the upper cone being in contact with the percussion cap, presents the most extensive surface to the fulminate upon the one hand, while the base of the under one being in a line with the interior surface of the barrel, presents the largest surface to the gunpowder charge, upon the other. In the old nipple the apex of the cone being at its top, afforded very injudiciously theminimumsurface to the exploding force.Guns, Rifling of the Barrels.—The outside of rifle barrels is, in general, octagonal. After the barrel is bored, and rendered truly cylindrical, it is fixed upon the rifling machine. This instrument is formed upon a square plank of wood 7 feet long, to which is fitted a tube about an inch in diameter, with spiral grooves deeply cut internally through its whole length; and to this a circular plate is attached, about 5 inches diameter, accurately divided in concentric circles, into from 5 to 16 equal parts, and supported by two rings made fast to the plank, in which rings it revolves. An arm connected with the dividing graduated plate, and pierced with holes, through which apin is passed, regulates the change of the tube in giving the desired number of grooves to the barrel. An iron rod, with a movable handle at the one end, and a steel cutter in the other, passes through the above rifling tube. This rod is covered with a core of lead one foot long. The barrel is firmly fixed by two rings on the plank, standing in a straight line on the tube. The rod is now drawn repeatedly through the barrel, from end to end, until the cutter has formed one groove of the proper depth. The pin is then shifted to another hole in the dividing plate, and the operation of grooving is repeated till the whole number of riflings is completed. The barrel is next taken out of the machine, and finished. This is done by casting upon the end of a small iron rod a core of lead, which, when besmeared with a mixture of fine emery and oil, is drawn, for a considerable time, by the workmen, from the one end of the barrel to the other, till the inner surface has become finely polished. The best degree of spirality is found to be from a quarter to half a revolution in a length of three feet.Military Rifles.—An essential improvement in this destructive arm has lately been introduced into the British service, at the suggestion of Mr. Lovell:Barrel rifling and ballsThe intention in all rifles is to impart to the ball a rotatory or spinning motion round its axis, as it passes out through the barrel. This object was attained, to a certain degree, in the rifles of the old pattern, by cutting seven spiral grooves into the inside of the barrel, in the manner shewn byfig.407., the spherical ball,fig.408., being a little larger than the bore, was driven down with a mallet, by which the projecting ribs were forced into the surface of the ball, so as to keep it in contact with their curvatures, during its expulsion. Instead of this laborious and insecure process, the barrel being now cut with only two opposite grooves,fig.409., and the ball being formed with a projecting belt, or zone, round its equator, of the same form as the two grooves,fig.410., it enters so readily into these hollows, that little or no force is required to press it down upon the powder. So much more hold of the barrel is at the same time obtained, that instead of onequarterof a turn, which was the utmost that could be safely given in the old way, without danger of stripping the ball, awholeturn round the barrel, in its length, can be given to the two grooved rifles; whereby a far more certain and complete rotatory motion is imparted to the ball. The grand practical result is, that better practice has been performed by several companies of the Rifle Corps, at 300 yards, than could be produced with the best old military rifles at 150 yards; the soldier being meanwhile enabled to load with much greater ease and despatch. The belt is bevelled to its middle line, and not so flat as shown in the figure.This mode of rifling is not, however, new in England. In fact, it is one of the oldest upon record; and appears to have fallen into disuse from faults in the execution. The idea was revived within the last few years in Brunswick, and it was tried in Hanover also, but with a lens-shaped (Linsenförmig) ball. The judicious modifications and improvements it has finally received in Mr. Lovell’s hands, have brought out all itsadvantages, and rendered it, when skilfully used, a weapon of unerring aim, even at the prodigious distance of 700 yards.Mr. Lovell’s Lock.The locks, also, for the military service generally, are now receiving an important improvement by means of his labours, having been simplified in a remarkable manner. The action of the main spring is reversed, as shown byfig.411.; thus rendering the whole mechanism more solid, compact, and convenient; while the ignition of the charge being effected by percussion powders in a copper cap, the fire of the British line will, in future, be more murderous than ever, as a mis-fire is hardly ever experienced with the fire-arms made at the Royal manufactory, under Mr. Lovell’s skilful superintendence.
FIRE ARMS,Manufacture of. This art is divided into two branches, that of the metallic and of the wooden work. The first includes the barrel, the lock, and the mounting, as also the bayonet and ramrod, with military arms. The second comprises the stock, and in fowling pieces, likewise the ramrod.
1.The Barrel.Its interior is called the bore; its diameter, the calibre; the back end, the breech; the front end, the muzzle; and the closing of the back end, the breech pin or plug. The barrel is generally made of iron. Most military musquets and low-priced guns are fashioned out of a long slip of sheet-iron folded together edge-wise round a skewer into a cylinder, are then lapped over at the seam, and welded at a white heat. The most ductile and tenacious soft iron, free from all blemishes, must be selected for this slip. It is frequently welded at the common forge, but a proper air-furnace answers better, not being so apt to burn it. It should be covered with ashes or cinders. The shape of the bore is given by hammering the cylinder upon a steel mandril, in a groove of the anvil. Six inches of the barrel at either end are left open for forming the breech and the muzzle by a subsequent welding operation; the extremity put into the fire being stopped with clay, to prevent the introduction of cinders. For every length of two inches, there are from two to three welding operations, divided into alternating high and low heats; the latter being intended to correct the defects of the former. The breech and muzzle are not welded upon the mandril, but upon the horn of the anvil; the breech being thicker in the metal, is more highly heated, and is made somewhat wider to save labour to the borer. The barrel is finally hammered in the groove of the anvil without the mandril, during which process it receives a heat every two minutes. In welding, the barrel extends about one-third in length; and for musquets, is eventually left from 3 to 31⁄2feet long; but for cavalry pistols, only 9 inches.
The best iron plates for gun-barrels are those made ofstubiron, that is of old horse-shoe nails welded together, and forged into thin bars, or rather narrow ribands. At one timedamascusbarrels were much in vogue; they were fashioned either as above described, from plates made of bars of iron and steel laid parallel, and welded together, or from ribands of the same damascus stuff coiled into a cylinder at a red heat, and then welded together at the seams. The best modern barrels for fowling pieces are constructed of stub-nail iron in this manner. The slip or fillet is only half an inch broad or sometimes less, and is left thicker at the end which is to form the breech, and thinner at the end which is to form the muzzle, than in the intermediate portion. This fillet being moderately heated to increase its pliancy, is then lapped round the mandril in a spiral direction till a proper length of cylinder is formed; the edges being made to overlap a little in order to give them a better hold in the welding process. The coilbeing taken off the mandril and again heated, is struck down vertically with its muzzle end upon the anvil, whereby the spiral junctions are made closer and more uniform. It is now welded at several successive heats, hammered by horizontal strokes, calledjumping, and brought into proper shape on the mandril. The finer barrels are made of still narrower, stub-iron slips, whence they get the name of wire twist. On the Continent, barrels are made of steel wire, welded together lengthwise, then coiled spirally into a cylinder. Barrels that are to be rifled, require to be made of thicker iron, and that of the very best quality, for they would be spoiled by the least portion of scale upon their inside. Soldiers’ musquets are thickened a little at the muzzle, to give a stout holding to the bayonet.
Boring bit
The barrels thus made are annealed with a gentle heat in a proper furnace, and slowly cooled. They are now ready for the borer, which is an oblong squarebitof steel, pressed in its rotation against the barrel, by a slip of wood applied to one of its flat sides, and held in its place by a ring of metal. The boring bench works horizontally, and has a very shaky appearance, in respect at least of the bit. In some cases, however, it has been attempted to work the barrels and bits at an inclination to the horizon of 30°, in order to facilitate the discharge of the borings. The barrel is held in a slot by only one point, to allow it to humour the movements of the borer, which would otherwise be infallibly broken. The bit, as represented infig.395., has merely its square head inserted into a clamp-chuck of the lathe, and plays freely through the rest of its length.
Musquet boring bench
Fig.396.represents in plan theboring benchfor musquet barrels;f fis the sledge or carriage frame in which the barrel is supported;ais the revolving chuck of the lathe, into which the square end of the bit,fig.. 395., is inserted;bis the barrel, clamped at its middle to the carriage, and capable of being pressed onwards against the tapering bit of the borer, by the bent leverc, worked by the left hand of the operative against fulcrum knobs atd, which stand about two inches asunder. Whenever the barrel has been thereby advanced a certain space to the right, the bent end of the lever is shifted against another knob or pin. The borer appears to a stranger to be a very awkward and unsteady mechanism, but its perpetual vibrations do not affect the accuracy of the bore. The opening broach may be of a square or pentagonal form; and either gradually tapered from its thickest part, or of uniform diameter till within two inches of the end, whence it is suddenly tapered to a point.
A series of bits may be used for boring a barrel, beginning with the smallest and ending with the largest. But this multiplication of tools becomes unnecessary, by laying against the cutting part of the bit, slips of wood, called spales, of gradually increasing thickness, so that the edge is pressed by them progressively further from the axis. The bore is next polished. This is done by a bit with a very smooth edge, which is mounted as above, with a wedge of wood besmeared with a mixture of oil and emery. The inside is finished by working a cylindrical steel file quickly backwards and forwards within it, while it is revolving slowly.
In boring, the bit must be well oiled or greased, and the barrel must be kept cool by letting water trickle on it; for the bit, revolving at the rate of 120 or 140 times a minute, generates a great deal of heat. If a flaw be detected in the barrel during the boring, that part is hammered in, and then the bit is employed to turn it out.
Many sportsmen are of opinion that a barrel with a bore somewhat narrowed towards the muzzle serves to keep shot better together; and that roughening its inside with pounded glass has a good effect, with the same view. For this purpose, also, fine spiral lines have been made in their interior surface. The justness of its calibre is tried by means of a truly turned cylinder of steel, 3 or 4 inches long, which ought to move without friction, but with uniform contact from end to end of the barrel. Whatever irregularities appear must be immediately removed.
The outer surface of the barrel is commonly polished upon a dry grindstone, but it is better finished, and less dangerously to the workman, at a turning lathe with a slide rest. If a stone be used, it should be made to revolve at the mouth of a tunnel of some kind, into which there is a good draught to carry off the ferruginous particles. A piece of moist cloth or leather should be suspended before the orifice.
Rifle barrels have parallel grooves of a square or angular form cut within them, each groove being drawn in succession. These grooves run spirally, and form each an aliquot part of a revolution from the chamber to the muzzle. Rifles should not be too deeply indented; only so much as to prevent the ball turning round within the barrel.and the spires should be truly parallel, that the ball may glide along with a regular pace. Seeinfra.
The Parisian gun-makers, who are reckoned very expert, draw out the iron for the barrels at hand forges, in fillets only one-ninth of an inch thick, one inch and a half broad, and four feet long. Twenty-five of these ribands are laid upon each other, between two similar ones of double thickness, and the bundle, weighing 60 pounds, bound with wire at two places, serves to make two barrels. The thicker plates are intended to protect the thinner from the violence of the fire in the numerous successive heats necessary to complete the welding, and to form the bundle into a bar two-thirds of an inch broad, by half an inch thick; the direction of the individual plates relatively to the breadth being preserved. This bar folded flat upon itself, is again wrought at the forge, till it is only half an inch broad, and a quarter of an inch thick, while the plates of the primitive ribands are now set perpendicular to the breadth of the narrow fillet; the length of which must be 15 or 16 feet French (16 or 17 English), to form a fowling piece from 28 to 30 inches long. This fillet, heated to a cherry red in successive portions, is coiled into as close a spiral as possible, upon a mandril about two-fifths of an inch in diameter. The mandril has at one end a stout head for drawing it out, by means of the hammer and the grooves of the anvil, previous to every heating. The welding is performed upon a mandril introduced after each heat; the middle of the barrel being first worked, while the fillets are forced back against each other, along the surface of the mandril, to secure their perfect union. The original plates having in the formation of the ultimate long riband become very thin, appear upon the surface of the barrel like threads of a fine screw, with blackish tints to mark the junctions. In making a double-barrelled gun, the two are formed from the same bundle of slips, the coils of the one finished fillet being turned to the right hand, and those of the other to the left.
The Damascus barrels forged as above described, from a bundle of steel and iron plates laid alternately together, are twisted at the forge several times, then coiled and welded as usual. Fifteen Parisian workmen concur in one operation: six at the forge; two at the boring mill; seven at filing, turning, and adjusting; yet all together make only six pairs of barrels per week, which are sold at from 100 to 300 francs the pair, ready for putting into the stock.
Breechings
The breeching is of three kinds: the common; the chamber, plug, or mortar,fig.397.; and the patent,fig.398.The common was formerly used for soldiers’ musquets and inferior pieces. The second is a trifling improvement upon it. In the patent breeching, the screws do not interfere with the touch-hole, and the ignition is quicker in the main chamber.
Percussion lock
The only locks which it is worth while to describe are those upon the percussion principle, as flint locks will certainly soon cease to be employed even in military musquets. Forsyth’s lock (fig.399.) was an ingenious contrivance. It has a magazinea, for containing the detonating powder, which revolves round a rollerb, whose end is screwed into the breech of the barrel. The priming powder passes through a small hole in the roller, which leads to a channel in communication with the chamber of the gun.
The pan for holding the priming is placed immediately over the little hole in the roller. There is a steel punchc, in the magazine, whose under end stands above the pan, readyto ignite the priming when struck upon the top by the cockd, whenever the trigger is drawn. The punch immediately after being driven down into the pan is raised by the action of a spiral spring. For each explosion, the magazine must be turned so far round as to let fall a portion of the percussion powder into the pan; after which it is turned back, and the steel punch recovers its proper position for striking another blow into the pan.
Percussion lock
The invention of the copper percussion cap was another great improvement upon the detonating plan.Fig.400.represents the ordinary percussion lock, which is happily divested of three awkward projections upon the flint lock, namely, the hammer, hammer spring, and the pan. Nothing now appears upon the plate of the lock, but the cock or striking hammer, which inflicts the proper blow upon the percussion cap. It is concave, with a small metallic ring or border, called a shield or fence, for the purpose of enclosing the cap, as it were, and preventing its splinters doing injury to the sportsman, as also protecting against the line of flame which may issue from the touch-hole in the cap nipple. This is screwed into the patent breech, and is perforated with a small hole.
Sommerville's lock
The safety lock of Dr. Somerville is a truly humane invention. Its essential feature is a slide stop or catch, placed under the triggerA,fig.401.It is pulled forward into a notch in the trigger, by means of a springB, upon the front of the guard, which is worked by a keyC, pressing upon the spring when the piece is discharged. In another safety plan there is a small movable curved piece of iron,A, which rises through an openingB, in the lock-plateC, and prevents the cock from reaching the nipple, as represented in the figure, until it is drawn back within the plate of the lock when the piece is fired.
To fire this gun, two different points must be pressed at the same time. If by accident the key which works the safety be touched, nothing happens, because the trigger is not drawn; and the trigger touched alone can produce no effect, because it is locked. The pressure must be applied to the trigger and the key at the same instant, otherwise the lock will not work.
The French musquet is longer than the British, in the proportion of 44·72 inches to 42; but the French bayonet is 15 inches, whereas the British is 17.
de Berenger's protector
Within these few years a great many contrivances have been brought forward, and several have been patented for fire arms. The first I shall notice is that of Charles Random, Baron de Berenger.Fig.402.shows the lock and breech of a fowling piece, with a sliding protector on one of the improved plans;ais the hammer,bthe nipple of the touch-hole,ca bent lever, turning upon a pin, fixed into the lock-plate atd. The upper end of this bent lever stands partly under the nose of the hammer, and while in that situation stops it from striking the nipple. A sliderg f h, connected with the under part of the gun-stock, is attached to the tail of the bent lever ati; and when the piece is brought to the shoulder for firing, the hand of the sportsman pressing against the bent part of the slider atg, forces this back, and thereby moves the end of the levercforwards from under the nose of the cock or hammer, as shown by the dotted lines. The trigger being now drawn, the piece will be discharged; and on removing the hand from the endg, of the sliderf, the spring athacting against the guard, will force the slider forward, and the lever into the position first described.
Redford's plug
Mr. Redford, gun-maker of Birmingham, proposes a modification of the lock for small fire-arms, in which the application of pressure to the sear spring for discharging the piece is made by means of a plug, depressed by the thumb, instead of the force of the finger exerted against the trigger.Fig.403.represents a fowling piece partly in section. The sear spring is shown ata. It is not here connected with the trigger as in other locks; but is attached by a double-jointed piece to a leverb, which turns upon a fulcrum pin in its centre. At the reverse end of this lever an arm extends forwards, like that of an ordinary sear spring, upon which arm the lower end of the plugcis intended to bear; and when this plug is depressed by the thumb bearing upon it, that end of the leverbwill be forced downwards, and the reverse end will be raised, so as to draw up the end of the sear spring, and set off the piece. For the sake of protection, the head of the plugcis covered by a movable capd, forming part of a slidere, which moves to and fro in a groove in the stock, behind the breech end of the barrel; this slidereis acted upon by the trigger through levers, which might be attached to the other side of the lock-plate; but are not shown in this figure to avoid confusion. When the piece is brought to the shoulder for firing, the fore-finger must be applied as usual to the trigger, but merely for the purpose of drawing back the slidere, and uncovering the head of the plug; when this is done, the thumb is to be pressed upon the head of the plug, and will thus discharge the piece. A spring bearing against the lever of the slidere, will, when the finger is withdrawn from the trigger, send the slider forward again, and cover the head of the plug, as shown.
It is with pleasure I again advert to the humane ingenuity of the Rev. John Somerville, of Currie. In April, 1835, he obtained a patent for a further invention to prevent the accidental discharge of fire arms. It consists in hindering the hammer from reaching the nipple of a percussion lock, or the flint reaching the steel of an ordinary one, by the interposition of movable safety studs or pins, which protrude from under the false breech before the hammers of the locks, and prevent them from descending to strike.These safety studs or pins are moved out of the way by the pressure of the right hand of the person using the gun only when in the act of firing, that is, when the force of the right hand and arm is exerted to press the butt end of the stock of the gun against the shoulder while the aim is taken and the trigger pulled. In carrying the gun at rest, the proper parts of the thumb or hand do not come over Mr. Somerville’s movable buttons or studs.
Somerville's studs
Fig.404.is a side view of part of a double percussion gun; andfig.405.is a top or plan view, which will serve to explain these improvements, and show one, out of many, methods of carrying them into effect.Ais the stock of the gun;Bthe barrels;Cthe breech;Dthe nipples;Ethe false breech, on the under side of which the levers which work the safety studs or pins are placed;Fis the shield of the false breech;G, triggers;Hthe lock-plate; andIthe hammers: all of which are constructed as usual:a aare the safety studs or pins, which protrude before the shieldF, and work through guide pieces on the under side of the false breech. The button piece is placed in the position for the thumb of the right hand to act upon it; but when the pressure of the ball of the right thumb is to produce the movement of the safety studs, it must be placed in or near the positionK; and when the heel of the right hand is to effect the movements of the safety studs, the button piece must be placed atL, or nearly so.
In these last two positions, the lever (which is acted upon by the button piece to work the safety studs through a slide) would require to be of a different shape and differently mounted. When the hammers are down upon the nipples after discharging the gun, the ends of the safety pins press against the inner sides of the hammers. When this invention is adapted to single-barrelled guns, only one pin,a, one lever and button piece will be required.
Richards's percussion cap
Mr. Richards, gun-maker, Birmingham, patented, in March, 1836, a modification of the copper cap for holding the percussion powder, as representedfig.406.; in which the powder is removed from the top of the cap, and brought nearer the mouth;abeing the top,bthe sides, andcthe position of the priming. The dotted lines show the direction of the explosion, whereby it is seen that the metal case is opened or distended only in a small degree, and not likely to burst to pieces, as in the common caps, the space betweenaandcbeing occupied by a piece of any kind of hard metald, soldered or otherwise fastened in the cap.
George Lovell, Esq., director of the Royal Manufactory of Arms at Enfield, has recently made a great improvement upon the priming chamber. He forms it into a vertical double cone, joined in the middle by the common apex; the base of the upper cone being in contact with the percussion cap, presents the most extensive surface to the fulminate upon the one hand, while the base of the under one being in a line with the interior surface of the barrel, presents the largest surface to the gunpowder charge, upon the other. In the old nipple the apex of the cone being at its top, afforded very injudiciously theminimumsurface to the exploding force.
Guns, Rifling of the Barrels.—The outside of rifle barrels is, in general, octagonal. After the barrel is bored, and rendered truly cylindrical, it is fixed upon the rifling machine. This instrument is formed upon a square plank of wood 7 feet long, to which is fitted a tube about an inch in diameter, with spiral grooves deeply cut internally through its whole length; and to this a circular plate is attached, about 5 inches diameter, accurately divided in concentric circles, into from 5 to 16 equal parts, and supported by two rings made fast to the plank, in which rings it revolves. An arm connected with the dividing graduated plate, and pierced with holes, through which apin is passed, regulates the change of the tube in giving the desired number of grooves to the barrel. An iron rod, with a movable handle at the one end, and a steel cutter in the other, passes through the above rifling tube. This rod is covered with a core of lead one foot long. The barrel is firmly fixed by two rings on the plank, standing in a straight line on the tube. The rod is now drawn repeatedly through the barrel, from end to end, until the cutter has formed one groove of the proper depth. The pin is then shifted to another hole in the dividing plate, and the operation of grooving is repeated till the whole number of riflings is completed. The barrel is next taken out of the machine, and finished. This is done by casting upon the end of a small iron rod a core of lead, which, when besmeared with a mixture of fine emery and oil, is drawn, for a considerable time, by the workmen, from the one end of the barrel to the other, till the inner surface has become finely polished. The best degree of spirality is found to be from a quarter to half a revolution in a length of three feet.
Military Rifles.—An essential improvement in this destructive arm has lately been introduced into the British service, at the suggestion of Mr. Lovell:
Barrel rifling and balls
The intention in all rifles is to impart to the ball a rotatory or spinning motion round its axis, as it passes out through the barrel. This object was attained, to a certain degree, in the rifles of the old pattern, by cutting seven spiral grooves into the inside of the barrel, in the manner shewn byfig.407., the spherical ball,fig.408., being a little larger than the bore, was driven down with a mallet, by which the projecting ribs were forced into the surface of the ball, so as to keep it in contact with their curvatures, during its expulsion. Instead of this laborious and insecure process, the barrel being now cut with only two opposite grooves,fig.409., and the ball being formed with a projecting belt, or zone, round its equator, of the same form as the two grooves,fig.410., it enters so readily into these hollows, that little or no force is required to press it down upon the powder. So much more hold of the barrel is at the same time obtained, that instead of onequarterof a turn, which was the utmost that could be safely given in the old way, without danger of stripping the ball, awholeturn round the barrel, in its length, can be given to the two grooved rifles; whereby a far more certain and complete rotatory motion is imparted to the ball. The grand practical result is, that better practice has been performed by several companies of the Rifle Corps, at 300 yards, than could be produced with the best old military rifles at 150 yards; the soldier being meanwhile enabled to load with much greater ease and despatch. The belt is bevelled to its middle line, and not so flat as shown in the figure.
This mode of rifling is not, however, new in England. In fact, it is one of the oldest upon record; and appears to have fallen into disuse from faults in the execution. The idea was revived within the last few years in Brunswick, and it was tried in Hanover also, but with a lens-shaped (Linsenförmig) ball. The judicious modifications and improvements it has finally received in Mr. Lovell’s hands, have brought out all itsadvantages, and rendered it, when skilfully used, a weapon of unerring aim, even at the prodigious distance of 700 yards.
Mr. Lovell’s Lock.
Mr. Lovell’s Lock.
The locks, also, for the military service generally, are now receiving an important improvement by means of his labours, having been simplified in a remarkable manner. The action of the main spring is reversed, as shown byfig.411.; thus rendering the whole mechanism more solid, compact, and convenient; while the ignition of the charge being effected by percussion powders in a copper cap, the fire of the British line will, in future, be more murderous than ever, as a mis-fire is hardly ever experienced with the fire-arms made at the Royal manufactory, under Mr. Lovell’s skilful superintendence.
FIRE-DAMP; the explosive carburetted hydrogen of coal mines. SeePitcoal.
FIRE-DAMP; the explosive carburetted hydrogen of coal mines. SeePitcoal.
FIRE-WORKS. (Feux d’artifice, Fr.;Feuerwerke, Germ.) The composition of luminous devices with explosive combustibles, is a modern art resulting from the discovery of gunpowder. The finest inventions of this kind are due to the celebrated Ruggieri, father and son, who executed in Rome and Paris, and the principal capitals of Europe, the most brilliant and beautiful fireworks that were ever seen. The following description of their processes will probably prove interesting to many of my readers.The three prime materials of this art are, nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, along with filings of iron, steel, copper, zinc, and resin, camphor, lycopodium, &c. Gunpowder is used either in grain, half crushed, or finely ground, for different purposes. The longer the iron filings, the brighter red and white sparks they give; those being preferred which are made with a very coarse file, and quite free from rust. Steel filings and cast-iron borings contain carbon, and afford a more brilliant fire, with wavy radiations. Copper filings give a greenish tint to flame; those of zinc, a fine blue colour; the sulphuret of antimony gives a less greenish blue than zinc, but with much smoke; amber affords a yellow fire, as well as colophony, and common salt; but the last must be very dry. Lampblack produces a very red colour with gunpowder, and a pink with nitre in excess. It serves for making golden showers. The yellow sand or glistening mica, communicates to fire-works golden radiations. Verdigris imparts a pale green; sulphate of copper and sal-ammoniac, a palm-tree green. Camphor yields a very white flame and aromatic fumes, which mask the bad smell of other substances. Benzoin and storax are used also on account of their agreeable odour. Lycopodium burns with a rose colour and a magnificent flame; but it is principally employed in theatres to represent lightning, or to charge the torch of a fury.Fire-works are divided into three classes: 1. those to be set off upon the ground; 2. those which are shot up into the air; and 3. those which act upon or under water.Composition forjets of fire; the common preparation for rockets not more than3⁄4of an inch in diameter, is: gunpowder, 16 parts; charcoal, 3 parts. For those of larger diameter: gunpowder, 16; steel filings, 4.Brilliant revolving wheel; for a tube less than3⁄4of an inch: gunpowder, 16; steel filings, 3. When more than3⁄4: gunpowder, 16; filings, 4.Chinese or Jasmine fire; when less than3⁄4of an inch: gunpowder, 16; nitre, 8; charcoal (fine), 3; sulphur, 3; pounded cast-iron borings (small), 10. When wider than3⁄4: gunpowder, 16; nitre, 12; charcoal, 3; sulphur, 3; coarse borings, 12.A fixed brilliant; less than3⁄4in diameter: gunpowder, 16; steel filings, 4; or, gunpowder, 16; and finely pounded borings, 6.Fixed sunsare composed of a certain number of jets of fire distributed circularly, like the spokes of a wheel. All the fusees take fire at once through channels charged with quick matches.Gloriesare large suns with several rows of fusees.Fansare portions of a sun, being sectors of a circle. ThePatte d’oieis a fan with only three jets.Themosaicrepresents a surface covered with diamond shaped compartments, formed by two series of parallel lines crossing each other. This effect is produced by placing at each point of intersection, four jets of fire, which run into the adjoining ones. The intervals between the jets must be associated with the discharge of others, so as to keep up a succession of fires in the spaces.Palm trees.Ruggieri contrived a new kind of fire, adapted to represent all sorts of trees, and especially the palm. The following is the composition of this magnificent green fire-work: crystallized verdigris, 4 parts; sulphate of copper, 2; sal-ammoniac, 1. These ingredients are to be ground and moistened with alcohol. An artificial tree of any kind being erected, coarse cotton rovings about 2 inches in diameter, impregnated with that composition, are to be festooned round the trunk, branches, and among the leaves; and immediately kindled before the spirits have had time to evaporate.Cascades, imitate sheets or jets of water. The Chinese fire is best adapted to such decorations.Fixed stars.The bottom of a rocket is to be stuffed with clay, and one diameter in height of the first preparation being introduced, the vacant space is to be filled with the following composition, and the mouth tied up. The pasteboard must be pierced into the preparation, with five holes, for the escape of the luminous rays, which represent a star.Composition of fixed stars:—Ordinary.Brighter.Coloured.Nitre,16120Sulphur,466Gunpowder meal,41216Antimony,212Lances, are long rockets of small diameter, made with cartridge paper. Those which burn quickest should be the longest. They are charged by hand without any mould, with rods of different lengths, and are not strangled at the mouth, but merely stuffed with a quick match of tow. These lances form the figures of great decorations; they are fixed with sprigs upon large wooden frame works, representing temples, palaces, pagodas, &c. The whole are placed in communication byconduits, or small paper cartridges like the lances, but somewhat conical, that they may fit endwise into one another to any extent that may be desired. Each is furnished with a match thread fully 11⁄2inches long, at its two ends.Composition for thewhite lances: nitre, 16; sulphur, 8; gunpowder, 4 or 3. For abluish-white: nitre, 16; sulphur, 8; antimony, 4. Forblue lances: nitre, 16; antimony, 8. Foryellow: nitre, 16; gunpowder, 16; sulphur, 8; amber, 8. Foryellowerones: nitre, 16; gunpowder, 16; sulphur, 4; colophony, 3; amber, 4. Forgreenishones: nitre, 16; sulphur, 6; antimony, 6; verdigris, 6. Forpink lances; nitre, 16; gunpowder, 3; lampblack, 1. Others less vivid are made with: nitre, 16; colophony, 3; amber, 3; lycopodium, 3.Cordage is represented in fire-works, by imbuing soft ropes with a mixture of, nitre, 2; sulphur, 16; antimony, 1; resin of juniper, 1.The Bengal flames rival the light of day. They consist of, nitre, 7; sulphur, 2; antimony, 1. This mixture is pressed strongly into earthen porringers, with some bits of quick match strewed over the surface. These flames have a fine theatrical effect for conflagrations.Revolving suns, are wheels upon whose circumference rockets of different styles are fixed, and which communicate byconduits, so that one is lighted up in succession after another. The composition of their common fire is, for sizes below3⁄4of an inch: gunpowder meal, 16; charcoal, not too fine, 3. For larger sizes: gunpowder, 20; charcoal, not too fine, 4. Forfiery radiations: gunpowder, 16; yellow micaceous sand, 2 or 3. Formixed radiations: gunpowder, 16; pitcoal, 1; yellow sand, 1 or 2.Thewaving or double Catherine wheels, are two suns turning about the same axis in opposite directions. The fusees are fixed obliquely and not tangentially to their peripheries. The wheel spokes are charged with a great number of fusees; two of the four wings revolve in the one direction, and the other two in the opposite; but always in a vertical plane.Thegirandoles,caprices,spirals, and some others have on the contrary a horizontal rotation. The fire-worker may diversify their effects greatly by the arrangement and colour of the jets of flame. Let us take for an example theglobe of light. Imagine a large sphere turning freely upon its axis, along with a hollow hemisphere, which revolves also upon a vertical axis passing through its under pole. If the two pieces be covered with coloured lances or cordage, a fixed luminous globe will be formed, but if horizontal fusees be added upon the hemisphere, and vertical fusees upon the sphere, the first will have a relative horizontal movement, the second a vertical movement, which being combined with the first, will cause it to describe a species of curve, whose effect will be an agreeable contrast with the regular movement of the hemisphere. Upon the surface of a revolving sun, smaller suns might be placed, to revolve like satellites round their primaries.Ruggieri exhibited a luminous serpent pursuing with a rapid winding pace, a butterfly which flew continually before it. This extraordinary effect was produced in the following way. Upon the summits of an octagon he fixed eight equal wheels turning freely upon their axles, in the vertical plane of the octagon. An endless chain passed round their circumference, going from the interior to the exterior, covering the outside semi-circumference of the first, the inside of the second, and so in succession; whence arose the appearance of a great festooned circular line. The chain, like that of a watch, carried upon a portion of its length a sort of scales pierced with holes for receiving coloured lances, in order to represent a fiery serpent. At a little distance there was a butterfly constructed with white lances. The piece was kindled commonly by other fireworks, which seemed to end their play, by projecting the serpent from the bosom of the flames. The motion was communicated to the chain by one of the wheels, which received it like a clock from the action of a weight. This remarkably curious mechanism was called by the artists asalamander.The rockets which rise into the airwith a prodigious velocity, are among the mostcommon, but not least interesting fire-works. When employed profusely they form those rich volleys of fire which are the crowning ornaments of a public fête. The cartridge is similar to that of the other jets, except in regard to its length, and the necessity of pasting it strongly, and planing it well; but it is charged in a different manner. As the sky-rockets must fly off with rapidity, their composition should be such as to kindle instantly throughout their length, and extricate a vast volume of elastic fluids. To effect this purpose, a small cylindric space is left vacant round the axis; that is, the central line is tubular. The fire-workers call this space the soul of the rocket (ame de la fusée). On account of its somewhat conical form, hollow rods, adjustable to different sizes of broaches or skewers, are required in packing the charge; which must be done while the cartridge is sustained by its outside mould, or copper cylinder. The composition of sky-rockets is as follows:—When the bore is3⁄4ofan inch;3⁄4to 11⁄4;12⁄3;Nitre161616Charcoal789Sulphur444Brilliant Fire.Nitre161616Charcoal678Sulphur444Fine steel filings345Chinese Fire.Nitre161616Charcoal456Sulphur334Fine borings of cast iron3coarser4mixed5The cartridge being charged as above described, thepotmust be adjusted to it, with thegarniture; that is, the serpents, the crackers, the stars, the showers of fire, &c. The pot is a tube of pasteboard wider than the body of the rocket, and about one third of its length. After being strangled at the bottom like the mouth of a phial, it is attached to the end of the fusee by means of twine and paste. These are afterwards covered with paper. The garniture is introduced by the neck, and a paper plug is laid over it. The whole is inclosed within a tube of pasteboard terminating in a cone, which is firmly pasted to the pot. The quick-match is now finally inserted into thesoulof the rocket. The rod attached to the end of the sky-rockets to direct their flight, is made of willow or any other light wood. M. Ruggieri replaced the rod by conical wings containing explosive materials, and thereby made them fly further and straighter.Thegarnituresof the sky-rocket pots are the following:—1.Starsare small, round, or cubic solids, made with one of the following compositions, and soaked in spirits.White stars, nitre, 16; sulphur, 8; gunpowder, 3. Others more vivid consist of nitre, 16; sulphur, 7; gunpowder, 4.Stars for golden showers, nitre, 16; sulphur, 10; charcoal, 4; gunpowder, 16; lamp-black, 2. Others yellower are made with nitre, 16; sulphur, 8; charcoal, 2; lamp-black, 2; gunpowder, 8.Theserpentsare small fusees made with one or two playing cards; their bore being less than half an inch. Thelardonsare a little larger, and have three cards; thevetillesare smaller. Their composition is, nitre, 16; charcoal, not too fine, 2; gunpowder, 4; sulphur, 4; fine steel filings, 6.Thepetardsare cartridges filled with gunpowder and strangled.Thesaxonsare cartridges clayed at each end, charged with the brilliant turning fire, and perforated with one or two holes at the extremity of the same diameter.Thecrackeris a round or square box of pasteboard, filled with granulated gunpowder, and hooped all round with twine.Roman candlesare fusees which throw out very bright stars in succession. With the composition (as under) imbued with spirits and gum-water, small cylindric masses are made, pierced with a hole in their centre. These bodies, when kindled and projected into the air, form the stars. There is first put into the cartridge a charge of fine gunpowder of the size of the star; above this charge a star is placed; then a charge of composition for the Roman candles.Thestars, when less than3⁄4of an inch, consist of nitre, 16; sulphur, 7; gunpowder, 5. When larger, of nitre, 16; sulphur, 8; gunpowder, 8.Roman candles, nitre, 16; charcoal, 6; sulphur, 3. When above3⁄4of an inch nitre, 16; charcoal, 8; sulphur, 6.Thegirandes, or bouquets, are those beautiful pieces which usually conclude a fire-workexhibition; when a multitude of jets seem to emblazon the sky in every direction, and then fall in golden showers. This effect is produced by distributing a number of cases open at top, each containing 140 sky-rockets, communicating with one another by quick-match strings planted among them. The several cases communicate with each other byconduits, whereby they take fire simultaneously, and produce a volcanic display.The water fire-worksare prepared like the rest; but they must be floated either by wooden bowls, or by discs and hollow cartridges fitted to them.Blue fire for lancesmay be made with nitre, 16; antimony, 8; very fine zinc filings, 4. Chinese paste for the stars of Roman candles, bombs, &c.:—Sulphur, 16; nitre, 4; gunpowder meal, 12; camphor, 1; linseed oil, 1; the mixture being moistened with spirits.Thefeu grégoisof Ruggieri, the son:—Nitre, 4; sulphur, 2; naphtha, 1. SeePyrotechnyandRockets.The red fire composition is made by mixing 40 parts of nitrate of strontia, 13 of flowers of sulphur, 5 of chlorate of potash, and 4 of sulphuret of antimony.White fire is produced by igniting a mixture of 48 parts nitre; 131⁄4sulphur; 71⁄4sulphuret of antimony; or, 24 nitre, 7 sulphur, 2 realgar; or, 75 nitre, 24 sulphur, 1 charcoal; or, finally, 100 of gunpowder meal, and 25 of cast-iron fine borings.The blue fire composition is, 4 parts of gunpowder meal; 2 of nitre; sulphur and zinc, each 3 parts.
FIRE-WORKS. (Feux d’artifice, Fr.;Feuerwerke, Germ.) The composition of luminous devices with explosive combustibles, is a modern art resulting from the discovery of gunpowder. The finest inventions of this kind are due to the celebrated Ruggieri, father and son, who executed in Rome and Paris, and the principal capitals of Europe, the most brilliant and beautiful fireworks that were ever seen. The following description of their processes will probably prove interesting to many of my readers.
The three prime materials of this art are, nitre, sulphur, and charcoal, along with filings of iron, steel, copper, zinc, and resin, camphor, lycopodium, &c. Gunpowder is used either in grain, half crushed, or finely ground, for different purposes. The longer the iron filings, the brighter red and white sparks they give; those being preferred which are made with a very coarse file, and quite free from rust. Steel filings and cast-iron borings contain carbon, and afford a more brilliant fire, with wavy radiations. Copper filings give a greenish tint to flame; those of zinc, a fine blue colour; the sulphuret of antimony gives a less greenish blue than zinc, but with much smoke; amber affords a yellow fire, as well as colophony, and common salt; but the last must be very dry. Lampblack produces a very red colour with gunpowder, and a pink with nitre in excess. It serves for making golden showers. The yellow sand or glistening mica, communicates to fire-works golden radiations. Verdigris imparts a pale green; sulphate of copper and sal-ammoniac, a palm-tree green. Camphor yields a very white flame and aromatic fumes, which mask the bad smell of other substances. Benzoin and storax are used also on account of their agreeable odour. Lycopodium burns with a rose colour and a magnificent flame; but it is principally employed in theatres to represent lightning, or to charge the torch of a fury.
Fire-works are divided into three classes: 1. those to be set off upon the ground; 2. those which are shot up into the air; and 3. those which act upon or under water.
Composition forjets of fire; the common preparation for rockets not more than3⁄4of an inch in diameter, is: gunpowder, 16 parts; charcoal, 3 parts. For those of larger diameter: gunpowder, 16; steel filings, 4.
Brilliant revolving wheel; for a tube less than3⁄4of an inch: gunpowder, 16; steel filings, 3. When more than3⁄4: gunpowder, 16; filings, 4.
Chinese or Jasmine fire; when less than3⁄4of an inch: gunpowder, 16; nitre, 8; charcoal (fine), 3; sulphur, 3; pounded cast-iron borings (small), 10. When wider than3⁄4: gunpowder, 16; nitre, 12; charcoal, 3; sulphur, 3; coarse borings, 12.
A fixed brilliant; less than3⁄4in diameter: gunpowder, 16; steel filings, 4; or, gunpowder, 16; and finely pounded borings, 6.
Fixed sunsare composed of a certain number of jets of fire distributed circularly, like the spokes of a wheel. All the fusees take fire at once through channels charged with quick matches.Gloriesare large suns with several rows of fusees.Fansare portions of a sun, being sectors of a circle. ThePatte d’oieis a fan with only three jets.
Themosaicrepresents a surface covered with diamond shaped compartments, formed by two series of parallel lines crossing each other. This effect is produced by placing at each point of intersection, four jets of fire, which run into the adjoining ones. The intervals between the jets must be associated with the discharge of others, so as to keep up a succession of fires in the spaces.
Palm trees.Ruggieri contrived a new kind of fire, adapted to represent all sorts of trees, and especially the palm. The following is the composition of this magnificent green fire-work: crystallized verdigris, 4 parts; sulphate of copper, 2; sal-ammoniac, 1. These ingredients are to be ground and moistened with alcohol. An artificial tree of any kind being erected, coarse cotton rovings about 2 inches in diameter, impregnated with that composition, are to be festooned round the trunk, branches, and among the leaves; and immediately kindled before the spirits have had time to evaporate.
Cascades, imitate sheets or jets of water. The Chinese fire is best adapted to such decorations.
Fixed stars.The bottom of a rocket is to be stuffed with clay, and one diameter in height of the first preparation being introduced, the vacant space is to be filled with the following composition, and the mouth tied up. The pasteboard must be pierced into the preparation, with five holes, for the escape of the luminous rays, which represent a star.
Composition of fixed stars:—
Lances, are long rockets of small diameter, made with cartridge paper. Those which burn quickest should be the longest. They are charged by hand without any mould, with rods of different lengths, and are not strangled at the mouth, but merely stuffed with a quick match of tow. These lances form the figures of great decorations; they are fixed with sprigs upon large wooden frame works, representing temples, palaces, pagodas, &c. The whole are placed in communication byconduits, or small paper cartridges like the lances, but somewhat conical, that they may fit endwise into one another to any extent that may be desired. Each is furnished with a match thread fully 11⁄2inches long, at its two ends.
Composition for thewhite lances: nitre, 16; sulphur, 8; gunpowder, 4 or 3. For abluish-white: nitre, 16; sulphur, 8; antimony, 4. Forblue lances: nitre, 16; antimony, 8. Foryellow: nitre, 16; gunpowder, 16; sulphur, 8; amber, 8. Foryellowerones: nitre, 16; gunpowder, 16; sulphur, 4; colophony, 3; amber, 4. Forgreenishones: nitre, 16; sulphur, 6; antimony, 6; verdigris, 6. Forpink lances; nitre, 16; gunpowder, 3; lampblack, 1. Others less vivid are made with: nitre, 16; colophony, 3; amber, 3; lycopodium, 3.
Cordage is represented in fire-works, by imbuing soft ropes with a mixture of, nitre, 2; sulphur, 16; antimony, 1; resin of juniper, 1.
The Bengal flames rival the light of day. They consist of, nitre, 7; sulphur, 2; antimony, 1. This mixture is pressed strongly into earthen porringers, with some bits of quick match strewed over the surface. These flames have a fine theatrical effect for conflagrations.
Revolving suns, are wheels upon whose circumference rockets of different styles are fixed, and which communicate byconduits, so that one is lighted up in succession after another. The composition of their common fire is, for sizes below3⁄4of an inch: gunpowder meal, 16; charcoal, not too fine, 3. For larger sizes: gunpowder, 20; charcoal, not too fine, 4. Forfiery radiations: gunpowder, 16; yellow micaceous sand, 2 or 3. Formixed radiations: gunpowder, 16; pitcoal, 1; yellow sand, 1 or 2.
Thewaving or double Catherine wheels, are two suns turning about the same axis in opposite directions. The fusees are fixed obliquely and not tangentially to their peripheries. The wheel spokes are charged with a great number of fusees; two of the four wings revolve in the one direction, and the other two in the opposite; but always in a vertical plane.
Thegirandoles,caprices,spirals, and some others have on the contrary a horizontal rotation. The fire-worker may diversify their effects greatly by the arrangement and colour of the jets of flame. Let us take for an example theglobe of light. Imagine a large sphere turning freely upon its axis, along with a hollow hemisphere, which revolves also upon a vertical axis passing through its under pole. If the two pieces be covered with coloured lances or cordage, a fixed luminous globe will be formed, but if horizontal fusees be added upon the hemisphere, and vertical fusees upon the sphere, the first will have a relative horizontal movement, the second a vertical movement, which being combined with the first, will cause it to describe a species of curve, whose effect will be an agreeable contrast with the regular movement of the hemisphere. Upon the surface of a revolving sun, smaller suns might be placed, to revolve like satellites round their primaries.
Ruggieri exhibited a luminous serpent pursuing with a rapid winding pace, a butterfly which flew continually before it. This extraordinary effect was produced in the following way. Upon the summits of an octagon he fixed eight equal wheels turning freely upon their axles, in the vertical plane of the octagon. An endless chain passed round their circumference, going from the interior to the exterior, covering the outside semi-circumference of the first, the inside of the second, and so in succession; whence arose the appearance of a great festooned circular line. The chain, like that of a watch, carried upon a portion of its length a sort of scales pierced with holes for receiving coloured lances, in order to represent a fiery serpent. At a little distance there was a butterfly constructed with white lances. The piece was kindled commonly by other fireworks, which seemed to end their play, by projecting the serpent from the bosom of the flames. The motion was communicated to the chain by one of the wheels, which received it like a clock from the action of a weight. This remarkably curious mechanism was called by the artists asalamander.
The rockets which rise into the airwith a prodigious velocity, are among the mostcommon, but not least interesting fire-works. When employed profusely they form those rich volleys of fire which are the crowning ornaments of a public fête. The cartridge is similar to that of the other jets, except in regard to its length, and the necessity of pasting it strongly, and planing it well; but it is charged in a different manner. As the sky-rockets must fly off with rapidity, their composition should be such as to kindle instantly throughout their length, and extricate a vast volume of elastic fluids. To effect this purpose, a small cylindric space is left vacant round the axis; that is, the central line is tubular. The fire-workers call this space the soul of the rocket (ame de la fusée). On account of its somewhat conical form, hollow rods, adjustable to different sizes of broaches or skewers, are required in packing the charge; which must be done while the cartridge is sustained by its outside mould, or copper cylinder. The composition of sky-rockets is as follows:—
The cartridge being charged as above described, thepotmust be adjusted to it, with thegarniture; that is, the serpents, the crackers, the stars, the showers of fire, &c. The pot is a tube of pasteboard wider than the body of the rocket, and about one third of its length. After being strangled at the bottom like the mouth of a phial, it is attached to the end of the fusee by means of twine and paste. These are afterwards covered with paper. The garniture is introduced by the neck, and a paper plug is laid over it. The whole is inclosed within a tube of pasteboard terminating in a cone, which is firmly pasted to the pot. The quick-match is now finally inserted into thesoulof the rocket. The rod attached to the end of the sky-rockets to direct their flight, is made of willow or any other light wood. M. Ruggieri replaced the rod by conical wings containing explosive materials, and thereby made them fly further and straighter.
Thegarnituresof the sky-rocket pots are the following:—
1.Starsare small, round, or cubic solids, made with one of the following compositions, and soaked in spirits.White stars, nitre, 16; sulphur, 8; gunpowder, 3. Others more vivid consist of nitre, 16; sulphur, 7; gunpowder, 4.
Stars for golden showers, nitre, 16; sulphur, 10; charcoal, 4; gunpowder, 16; lamp-black, 2. Others yellower are made with nitre, 16; sulphur, 8; charcoal, 2; lamp-black, 2; gunpowder, 8.
Theserpentsare small fusees made with one or two playing cards; their bore being less than half an inch. Thelardonsare a little larger, and have three cards; thevetillesare smaller. Their composition is, nitre, 16; charcoal, not too fine, 2; gunpowder, 4; sulphur, 4; fine steel filings, 6.
Thepetardsare cartridges filled with gunpowder and strangled.
Thesaxonsare cartridges clayed at each end, charged with the brilliant turning fire, and perforated with one or two holes at the extremity of the same diameter.
Thecrackeris a round or square box of pasteboard, filled with granulated gunpowder, and hooped all round with twine.
Roman candlesare fusees which throw out very bright stars in succession. With the composition (as under) imbued with spirits and gum-water, small cylindric masses are made, pierced with a hole in their centre. These bodies, when kindled and projected into the air, form the stars. There is first put into the cartridge a charge of fine gunpowder of the size of the star; above this charge a star is placed; then a charge of composition for the Roman candles.
Thestars, when less than3⁄4of an inch, consist of nitre, 16; sulphur, 7; gunpowder, 5. When larger, of nitre, 16; sulphur, 8; gunpowder, 8.
Roman candles, nitre, 16; charcoal, 6; sulphur, 3. When above3⁄4of an inch nitre, 16; charcoal, 8; sulphur, 6.
Thegirandes, or bouquets, are those beautiful pieces which usually conclude a fire-workexhibition; when a multitude of jets seem to emblazon the sky in every direction, and then fall in golden showers. This effect is produced by distributing a number of cases open at top, each containing 140 sky-rockets, communicating with one another by quick-match strings planted among them. The several cases communicate with each other byconduits, whereby they take fire simultaneously, and produce a volcanic display.
The water fire-worksare prepared like the rest; but they must be floated either by wooden bowls, or by discs and hollow cartridges fitted to them.
Blue fire for lancesmay be made with nitre, 16; antimony, 8; very fine zinc filings, 4. Chinese paste for the stars of Roman candles, bombs, &c.:—Sulphur, 16; nitre, 4; gunpowder meal, 12; camphor, 1; linseed oil, 1; the mixture being moistened with spirits.
Thefeu grégoisof Ruggieri, the son:—Nitre, 4; sulphur, 2; naphtha, 1. SeePyrotechnyandRockets.
The red fire composition is made by mixing 40 parts of nitrate of strontia, 13 of flowers of sulphur, 5 of chlorate of potash, and 4 of sulphuret of antimony.
White fire is produced by igniting a mixture of 48 parts nitre; 131⁄4sulphur; 71⁄4sulphuret of antimony; or, 24 nitre, 7 sulphur, 2 realgar; or, 75 nitre, 24 sulphur, 1 charcoal; or, finally, 100 of gunpowder meal, and 25 of cast-iron fine borings.
The blue fire composition is, 4 parts of gunpowder meal; 2 of nitre; sulphur and zinc, each 3 parts.