FLINT. (Pierre à fusil, Fr;Feuerstein, Germ.) The fracture of this fossil is perfectly conchoidal, sometimes glossy, and sometimes dull on the surface. It is very hard, but breaks easily, and affords very sharp-edged splintery fragments; whence it is a stone which strikes most copious sparks with steel. It is feebly translucid, has so fine and homogeneous a texture as to bear polishing, but possesses little lustre. Its colours are very various, but never vivid. The blackish-brown flint is that usually found in the white chalk. It is nearly black and opaque, loses its colour in the fire, and becomes grayish-white, and perfectly opaque. Flints occur almost always in nodules or tubercular concretions of various and very irregular forms. These nodules, distributed in strata among the chalk, alongside of one another and almost in contact, form extensive beds; interrupted, indeed, by a multitude of void spaces, so as to present, if freed from the earthy matter in which they are imbedded, a species of network with meshes, very irregular both in form and dimension.The nodules of silex, especially those found in the chalk, are not always homogeneous and solid. Sometimes there is remarked an organic form towards their centre, as a madrepore or a shell, which seems to have served as their nucleus; occasionally the centre is hollow, and its sides are studded over with crystals of quartz, carbonate of iron, pyrites, concretionary silex or calcedony, filled with pulverulent silica nearly pure, or silex mixed with sulphur; a very singular circumstance.Flints are observed to be generally humid when broken immediately after being dug out of the ground; a property which disappears after a short exposure to the air. When dried they become more brittle and more splintery, and sometimes their surfaces get covered at old fractures with a thin film or crust of opaque silex.Flints calcined and ground to a powder enter into the composition of all sorts of fine pottery ware.The next important application of this siliceous substance is in the formation of gun-flints, for which purpose it must be cut in a peculiar manner. The following characters distinguish good flint nodules from such as are less fit for being manufactured. The best are somewhat convex, approaching to globular; those which are very irregular, knobbed, branched and tuberose, are generally full of imperfections. Good nodules seldom weigh more than 20 pounds; when less than 2, they are not worth the working. They should have a greasy lustre, and be particularly smooth and fine grained. The colour may vary from honey-yellow to blackish-brown, but it should be uniform throughout the lump, and the translucency should be so great as to render letters legible through a slice about one-fiftieth of an inch thick, laid down upon the paper. The fracture should be perfectly smooth, uniform, and slightly conchoidal; the last property being essential to the cutting out of perfect gun-flints.Four tools are employed by the gun-flint makers.First, a hammer or mace of iron with a square head, from 1 to 2 pounds weight, with a handle 7 or 8 inches long. This tool is not made of steel, because so hard a metal would render the strokes too harsh, or dry as the workmen say, and would shatter the nodules irregularly, instead of cutting them with a clean conchoidal fracture.Second, a hammer with 2 points, made of good steel well hardened, and weighing from 10 to 16 ounces, with a handle 7 inches long passing through it in such a way that the points of the hammer are nearer the hand of the workman than the centre of gravity of the mass.Third, the disc hammer or roller, a small solid wheel, or flat segment of a cylinder, parallel to its base, only two inches and a third in diameter, and not more than 12 ounces in weight. It is formed of steel not hardened, and is fixed upon a handle 6 inches long, which passes through a square hole in its centre.Fourth, a chisel tapering and bevelled at both extremities, 7 or 8 inches long, and 2 inches broad, made of steel not hardened; this is set on a block of wood, which serves also for a bench to the workmen. To these 4 tools a file must be added, for the purpose of restoring the edge of the chisel from time to time.After selecting a good mass of flint, the workman executes the following four operations on it.1.He breaks the block.Being seated upon the ground, he places the nodule of flint onhis left thigh, and applies slight strokes with the square hammer to divide it into smaller pieces of about a pound and a half each, with broad surfaces and almost even fractures. The blows should be moderate, lest the lump crack and split in the wrong direction.2.He cleaves or chips the flint.The principal point is to split the flint well, or to chip off scales of the length, thickness, and shape adapted for the subsequent formation of gun flints. Here the greatest dexterity and steadiness of manipulation are necessary; but the fracture of the flint is not restricted to any particular direction, for it may be chipped in all parts with equal facility.The workman holds the lump of flint in his left hand, and strikes with the pointed hammer upon the edges of the great planes produced by the first breaking, whereby the white coating of the flint is removed in small scales, and the interior body of the flint is laid bare; after which he continues to detach similar scaly portions from the clean mass.These scaly portions are nearly an inch and a half broad, two inches and a half long, and about one-sixth of an inch thick in the middle. They are slightly convex below, and consequently leave in the part of the lump from which they were separated a space slightly concave, longitudinally bordered by two somewhat projecting straight lines or ridges. The ridges produced by the separation of the first scales must naturally constitute nearly the middle of the subsequent pieces; and such scales alone as have their ridges thus placed in the middle are fit to be made into gun-flints. In this manner the workman continues to split or chip the mass of flint in various directions, until the defects usually found in the interior render it impossible to make the requisite fractures, or until the piece is too-much reduced to sustain the smart blows by which the flint is divided.3.He fashions the gun-flints.Five different parts may be distinguished in a gun-flint. 1. The sloping facet or bevel part, which is impelled against the hammer of the lock. Its thickness should be from two to three twelfths of an inch; for if it were thicker it would be too liable to break; and if more obtuse, the scintillations would be less vivid. 2. The sides, or lateral edges, which are always somewhat irregular. 3. The back or thick part opposite the tapering edge. 4. The under surface, which is smooth and rather concave. And 5. The upper face, which has a small square plane between the tapering edge and the back, for entering into the upper claw of the cock.In order to fashion the flint, those scales are selected which have at least one of the above mentioned longitudinal ridges; the workman fixes on one of the two tapering borders to form the striking edge, after which the two sides of the stone that are to form the lateral edges, as well as the part that is to form the back, are successively placed on the edge of the chisel in such a manner that the convex surface of the flint, which rests on the forefinger of the left hand, is turned towards that tool. Then with the disc hammer he applies some slight strokes to the flint just opposite the edge of the chisel underneath, and thereby breaks it exactly along the edge of the chisel.4. The finishing operation is thetrimming, or the process of giving the flint a smooth and equal edge; this is done by turning up the stone and placing the edge of its tapering end upon the chisel, in which position it is completed by 5 or 6 slight strokes of the disc hammer. The whole operation of making a gun-flint, which I have used so many words to describe, is performed in less than one minute. A good workman is able to manufacture 1000 good chips or scales in a day (if the flint-balls be of good quality), or 500 gun-flints. Hence, in the space of 3 days, he can easily cleave and finish 1000 gun-flints without any assistance.A great quantity of refuse matter is left, for scarcely more than half the scales are good, and nearly half the mass in the best flints is incapable of being chipped out; so that it seldom happens that the largest nodules furnish more than 50 gun-flints.Flints form excellent building materials; because they give a firm hold to the mortar by their irregularly rough surfaces, and resist, by their nature, every vicissitude of weather. The counties of Kent, Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk contain many substantial specimens of flint-masonry.
FLINT. (Pierre à fusil, Fr;Feuerstein, Germ.) The fracture of this fossil is perfectly conchoidal, sometimes glossy, and sometimes dull on the surface. It is very hard, but breaks easily, and affords very sharp-edged splintery fragments; whence it is a stone which strikes most copious sparks with steel. It is feebly translucid, has so fine and homogeneous a texture as to bear polishing, but possesses little lustre. Its colours are very various, but never vivid. The blackish-brown flint is that usually found in the white chalk. It is nearly black and opaque, loses its colour in the fire, and becomes grayish-white, and perfectly opaque. Flints occur almost always in nodules or tubercular concretions of various and very irregular forms. These nodules, distributed in strata among the chalk, alongside of one another and almost in contact, form extensive beds; interrupted, indeed, by a multitude of void spaces, so as to present, if freed from the earthy matter in which they are imbedded, a species of network with meshes, very irregular both in form and dimension.
The nodules of silex, especially those found in the chalk, are not always homogeneous and solid. Sometimes there is remarked an organic form towards their centre, as a madrepore or a shell, which seems to have served as their nucleus; occasionally the centre is hollow, and its sides are studded over with crystals of quartz, carbonate of iron, pyrites, concretionary silex or calcedony, filled with pulverulent silica nearly pure, or silex mixed with sulphur; a very singular circumstance.
Flints are observed to be generally humid when broken immediately after being dug out of the ground; a property which disappears after a short exposure to the air. When dried they become more brittle and more splintery, and sometimes their surfaces get covered at old fractures with a thin film or crust of opaque silex.
Flints calcined and ground to a powder enter into the composition of all sorts of fine pottery ware.
The next important application of this siliceous substance is in the formation of gun-flints, for which purpose it must be cut in a peculiar manner. The following characters distinguish good flint nodules from such as are less fit for being manufactured. The best are somewhat convex, approaching to globular; those which are very irregular, knobbed, branched and tuberose, are generally full of imperfections. Good nodules seldom weigh more than 20 pounds; when less than 2, they are not worth the working. They should have a greasy lustre, and be particularly smooth and fine grained. The colour may vary from honey-yellow to blackish-brown, but it should be uniform throughout the lump, and the translucency should be so great as to render letters legible through a slice about one-fiftieth of an inch thick, laid down upon the paper. The fracture should be perfectly smooth, uniform, and slightly conchoidal; the last property being essential to the cutting out of perfect gun-flints.
Four tools are employed by the gun-flint makers.
First, a hammer or mace of iron with a square head, from 1 to 2 pounds weight, with a handle 7 or 8 inches long. This tool is not made of steel, because so hard a metal would render the strokes too harsh, or dry as the workmen say, and would shatter the nodules irregularly, instead of cutting them with a clean conchoidal fracture.
Second, a hammer with 2 points, made of good steel well hardened, and weighing from 10 to 16 ounces, with a handle 7 inches long passing through it in such a way that the points of the hammer are nearer the hand of the workman than the centre of gravity of the mass.
Third, the disc hammer or roller, a small solid wheel, or flat segment of a cylinder, parallel to its base, only two inches and a third in diameter, and not more than 12 ounces in weight. It is formed of steel not hardened, and is fixed upon a handle 6 inches long, which passes through a square hole in its centre.
Fourth, a chisel tapering and bevelled at both extremities, 7 or 8 inches long, and 2 inches broad, made of steel not hardened; this is set on a block of wood, which serves also for a bench to the workmen. To these 4 tools a file must be added, for the purpose of restoring the edge of the chisel from time to time.
After selecting a good mass of flint, the workman executes the following four operations on it.
1.He breaks the block.Being seated upon the ground, he places the nodule of flint onhis left thigh, and applies slight strokes with the square hammer to divide it into smaller pieces of about a pound and a half each, with broad surfaces and almost even fractures. The blows should be moderate, lest the lump crack and split in the wrong direction.
2.He cleaves or chips the flint.The principal point is to split the flint well, or to chip off scales of the length, thickness, and shape adapted for the subsequent formation of gun flints. Here the greatest dexterity and steadiness of manipulation are necessary; but the fracture of the flint is not restricted to any particular direction, for it may be chipped in all parts with equal facility.
The workman holds the lump of flint in his left hand, and strikes with the pointed hammer upon the edges of the great planes produced by the first breaking, whereby the white coating of the flint is removed in small scales, and the interior body of the flint is laid bare; after which he continues to detach similar scaly portions from the clean mass.
These scaly portions are nearly an inch and a half broad, two inches and a half long, and about one-sixth of an inch thick in the middle. They are slightly convex below, and consequently leave in the part of the lump from which they were separated a space slightly concave, longitudinally bordered by two somewhat projecting straight lines or ridges. The ridges produced by the separation of the first scales must naturally constitute nearly the middle of the subsequent pieces; and such scales alone as have their ridges thus placed in the middle are fit to be made into gun-flints. In this manner the workman continues to split or chip the mass of flint in various directions, until the defects usually found in the interior render it impossible to make the requisite fractures, or until the piece is too-much reduced to sustain the smart blows by which the flint is divided.
3.He fashions the gun-flints.Five different parts may be distinguished in a gun-flint. 1. The sloping facet or bevel part, which is impelled against the hammer of the lock. Its thickness should be from two to three twelfths of an inch; for if it were thicker it would be too liable to break; and if more obtuse, the scintillations would be less vivid. 2. The sides, or lateral edges, which are always somewhat irregular. 3. The back or thick part opposite the tapering edge. 4. The under surface, which is smooth and rather concave. And 5. The upper face, which has a small square plane between the tapering edge and the back, for entering into the upper claw of the cock.
In order to fashion the flint, those scales are selected which have at least one of the above mentioned longitudinal ridges; the workman fixes on one of the two tapering borders to form the striking edge, after which the two sides of the stone that are to form the lateral edges, as well as the part that is to form the back, are successively placed on the edge of the chisel in such a manner that the convex surface of the flint, which rests on the forefinger of the left hand, is turned towards that tool. Then with the disc hammer he applies some slight strokes to the flint just opposite the edge of the chisel underneath, and thereby breaks it exactly along the edge of the chisel.
4. The finishing operation is thetrimming, or the process of giving the flint a smooth and equal edge; this is done by turning up the stone and placing the edge of its tapering end upon the chisel, in which position it is completed by 5 or 6 slight strokes of the disc hammer. The whole operation of making a gun-flint, which I have used so many words to describe, is performed in less than one minute. A good workman is able to manufacture 1000 good chips or scales in a day (if the flint-balls be of good quality), or 500 gun-flints. Hence, in the space of 3 days, he can easily cleave and finish 1000 gun-flints without any assistance.
A great quantity of refuse matter is left, for scarcely more than half the scales are good, and nearly half the mass in the best flints is incapable of being chipped out; so that it seldom happens that the largest nodules furnish more than 50 gun-flints.
Flints form excellent building materials; because they give a firm hold to the mortar by their irregularly rough surfaces, and resist, by their nature, every vicissitude of weather. The counties of Kent, Essex, Suffolk, and Norfolk contain many substantial specimens of flint-masonry.
FLOSS, of the puddling furnace, is the fluid glass floating upon the iron produced by the vitrification of the oxides and earths which are present.
FLOSS, of the puddling furnace, is the fluid glass floating upon the iron produced by the vitrification of the oxides and earths which are present.
FLOSS-SILK (Filoselle,Bourre de soie, orfleuret, Fr.); is the name given to the portions of ravelled silk broken off in the filature of the cocoons, which is carded like cotton or wool, and spun into a soft coarse yarn or thread, for making bands, shawls, socks, and other common silk fabrics. The floss or fleuret, as first obtained, must be steeped in water, and then subjected to pressure, in order to extract the gummy matter, which renders it too harsh and short for the spinning wheel. After being dried it is made still more pliant by working a little oil into it with the hands. It is now ready to be submitted to the carding engine. SeeCotton Manufacture. It is spun upon the flax wheel.The female peasants of Lombardy generally wear clothes of homespun floss silk. Of late years, by improved processes, pretty fine fabrics of this material have been producedboth in England and France. M. Ajac, of Lyons, presented at one of the French national exhibitions of the objects of industry, a great variety of scarfs and square shawls, ofbourre de sole, closely resembling those ofcachemere.
FLOSS-SILK (Filoselle,Bourre de soie, orfleuret, Fr.); is the name given to the portions of ravelled silk broken off in the filature of the cocoons, which is carded like cotton or wool, and spun into a soft coarse yarn or thread, for making bands, shawls, socks, and other common silk fabrics. The floss or fleuret, as first obtained, must be steeped in water, and then subjected to pressure, in order to extract the gummy matter, which renders it too harsh and short for the spinning wheel. After being dried it is made still more pliant by working a little oil into it with the hands. It is now ready to be submitted to the carding engine. SeeCotton Manufacture. It is spun upon the flax wheel.
The female peasants of Lombardy generally wear clothes of homespun floss silk. Of late years, by improved processes, pretty fine fabrics of this material have been producedboth in England and France. M. Ajac, of Lyons, presented at one of the French national exhibitions of the objects of industry, a great variety of scarfs and square shawls, ofbourre de sole, closely resembling those ofcachemere.
FLOUR; the finely ground meal of wheat, and of any other corns orcerealia. SeeBread.
FLOUR; the finely ground meal of wheat, and of any other corns orcerealia. SeeBread.
FLOUR OF WHEAT,Adulterations of,to detect.The first method is by specific gravity. If potato flour be added, which is frequently done in France, since a vessel which contains one pound of wheat flour will contain one pound and a half of the fecula, the proportion of this adulteration may be easily estimated. If gypsum or ground bones be mixed with the flour, they will not only increase its density still more; but they will remain after burning away the meal.The second method is by ascertaining the quantity of gluten which the suspected sample will afford, by the process prescribed under the articleBread. The two following chemical criteria may also be employed.1st. Nitric acid has the property of colouring wheat flour of a fine orange yellow, whereas it affects the colour neither of fecula nor starch.2nd. Pure muriatic acid colours good wheat flour of a deep violet, but dissolves fecula or starch, and forms with it a light, colourless, viscous fluid, decomposable by alkalis. It may also be observed, that as fecula absorbs less water than flour, this affords a ready means of detection.The adulteration with bean or pea flour may be detected by pouring boiling water upon it, which developes the peculiar smell of these two substances.
FLOUR OF WHEAT,Adulterations of,to detect.
The first method is by specific gravity. If potato flour be added, which is frequently done in France, since a vessel which contains one pound of wheat flour will contain one pound and a half of the fecula, the proportion of this adulteration may be easily estimated. If gypsum or ground bones be mixed with the flour, they will not only increase its density still more; but they will remain after burning away the meal.
The second method is by ascertaining the quantity of gluten which the suspected sample will afford, by the process prescribed under the articleBread. The two following chemical criteria may also be employed.
1st. Nitric acid has the property of colouring wheat flour of a fine orange yellow, whereas it affects the colour neither of fecula nor starch.
2nd. Pure muriatic acid colours good wheat flour of a deep violet, but dissolves fecula or starch, and forms with it a light, colourless, viscous fluid, decomposable by alkalis. It may also be observed, that as fecula absorbs less water than flour, this affords a ready means of detection.
The adulteration with bean or pea flour may be detected by pouring boiling water upon it, which developes the peculiar smell of these two substances.
FLOWERS (Fleurs, Fr.;Blumen, Germ.) of benzoin, of sulphur, of zinc, &c., is the appellation given by the older chemists to such substances as were obtained in a pulverulent or rather minutely crystalline form by the process of sublimation.
FLOWERS (Fleurs, Fr.;Blumen, Germ.) of benzoin, of sulphur, of zinc, &c., is the appellation given by the older chemists to such substances as were obtained in a pulverulent or rather minutely crystalline form by the process of sublimation.
FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL, MANUFACTURE OF. The art of representing by flowers, leaves, plants, &c., vegetable nature in her ornamental productions, constitutes the business of the artificial florist. The Italians appear to have been the first people in Europe who excelled in the art of making artificial flowers; but of late years the French have been most ingenious in this branch of industry.Ribbons folded in different forms and of different colours were originally employed for imitating flowers, by being attached to wire stems. This imitation soon gave way to that by feathers, which are more delicate in texture, and more capable of assuming a variety of flower-like figures. But a great difficulty was encountered in dyeing them with due vivacity. The savages of South America manufacture perfect feather flowers, derived from the brilliant plumage of their birds, which closely resemble the products of vegetation. The blossoms and leaves are admirable, while the colours never fade.The Italians employ frequently the cocoons of the silkworm for this purpose; these take a brilliant dye, preserve their colour, and possess a transparent velvety appearance, suitable for petals. Of late years, the French have adopted the finest cambric for making petals, and the taffeta of Florence for the leaves. M. de Bernardière employs whalebone in very thin leaves for artificial flowers; and by bleaching and dyeing them of various hues, he has succeeded in making his imitations of nature to be very remarkable.The colouring matters used in flower dyeing are the following:—For red; carmine dissolved in a solution of salt of tartar.For blue; indigo dissolved in sulphuric acid, diluted and neutralized in part by Spanish whitening.For bright yellow; a solution of turmeric in spirit of wine. Cream of tartar brightens all these colours.For violet; archil, and a blue bath.For lilac; archil.Some petals are made of velvet, and are coloured merely by the application of the finger dipped in the dye.
FLOWERS, ARTIFICIAL, MANUFACTURE OF. The art of representing by flowers, leaves, plants, &c., vegetable nature in her ornamental productions, constitutes the business of the artificial florist. The Italians appear to have been the first people in Europe who excelled in the art of making artificial flowers; but of late years the French have been most ingenious in this branch of industry.
Ribbons folded in different forms and of different colours were originally employed for imitating flowers, by being attached to wire stems. This imitation soon gave way to that by feathers, which are more delicate in texture, and more capable of assuming a variety of flower-like figures. But a great difficulty was encountered in dyeing them with due vivacity. The savages of South America manufacture perfect feather flowers, derived from the brilliant plumage of their birds, which closely resemble the products of vegetation. The blossoms and leaves are admirable, while the colours never fade.
The Italians employ frequently the cocoons of the silkworm for this purpose; these take a brilliant dye, preserve their colour, and possess a transparent velvety appearance, suitable for petals. Of late years, the French have adopted the finest cambric for making petals, and the taffeta of Florence for the leaves. M. de Bernardière employs whalebone in very thin leaves for artificial flowers; and by bleaching and dyeing them of various hues, he has succeeded in making his imitations of nature to be very remarkable.
The colouring matters used in flower dyeing are the following:—
For red; carmine dissolved in a solution of salt of tartar.
For blue; indigo dissolved in sulphuric acid, diluted and neutralized in part by Spanish whitening.
For bright yellow; a solution of turmeric in spirit of wine. Cream of tartar brightens all these colours.
For violet; archil, and a blue bath.
For lilac; archil.
Some petals are made of velvet, and are coloured merely by the application of the finger dipped in the dye.
FLUATES, more properlyfluorides(Eng. and Fr.;Flusssäure, Germ.); compounds of fluorine and the metals; as fluor spar, for example, which consists of fluorine and calcium.
FLUATES, more properlyfluorides(Eng. and Fr.;Flusssäure, Germ.); compounds of fluorine and the metals; as fluor spar, for example, which consists of fluorine and calcium.
FLUOR SPAR. (Chaux fluatée, Fr.;Spath fluor, Germ.) This mineral often exhibits a variety of vivid colours. It crystallizes in the cubic system; with regular octahedral and tetrahedral cleavages; spec. grav. 3·1 to 3·2; scratches calc spar, but is scratched by a steel point; usually phosphorescent with heat; fusible at the blowpipe into an opaque bead; acted on by the acids, with disengagement of a vapour which corrodes glass; its solution affords precipitates with the oxalates, but not with ammonia. Its constituents are, fluorine, 48·13; calcium, 51·87 in 100.Fluor spar occurs subordinate to metallic veins; as to those of lead, in Derbyshire; of tin, in Saxony and Bohemia; but it is found also in masses or veins, either in crystalline rocks, associated with quartz, heavy spar, &c., as in Auvergne, Forez, Vosges, Norberg in Sweden; Norway; Petersburg; near Hall; Gourock, in Scotland, &c.; oramong secondary limestones, slates, and sandstones, in Derbyshire, Cumberland, Cornwall, and New Jersey. It exists also in the amygdaloids of Scotland, and in the volcanic products of Monte Somma at Vesuvius. The variously coloured specimens, called Derbyshire spar, are worked upon the turning lathe into vases and other ornamental objects.
FLUOR SPAR. (Chaux fluatée, Fr.;Spath fluor, Germ.) This mineral often exhibits a variety of vivid colours. It crystallizes in the cubic system; with regular octahedral and tetrahedral cleavages; spec. grav. 3·1 to 3·2; scratches calc spar, but is scratched by a steel point; usually phosphorescent with heat; fusible at the blowpipe into an opaque bead; acted on by the acids, with disengagement of a vapour which corrodes glass; its solution affords precipitates with the oxalates, but not with ammonia. Its constituents are, fluorine, 48·13; calcium, 51·87 in 100.
Fluor spar occurs subordinate to metallic veins; as to those of lead, in Derbyshire; of tin, in Saxony and Bohemia; but it is found also in masses or veins, either in crystalline rocks, associated with quartz, heavy spar, &c., as in Auvergne, Forez, Vosges, Norberg in Sweden; Norway; Petersburg; near Hall; Gourock, in Scotland, &c.; oramong secondary limestones, slates, and sandstones, in Derbyshire, Cumberland, Cornwall, and New Jersey. It exists also in the amygdaloids of Scotland, and in the volcanic products of Monte Somma at Vesuvius. The variously coloured specimens, called Derbyshire spar, are worked upon the turning lathe into vases and other ornamental objects.
FLUX, (Eng. and Fr.;Fluss, Germ.) signifies any substance capable of promoting the fusion of earths or metallic ores by heat. White flux is the residuum of the deflagration in a red hot crucible, of a mixture of two parts of nitre, and one of cream of tartar. It is in fact merely a carbonate of potash. Black flux is obtained when equal parts of nitre and tartar are deflagrated. It owes its colour to the carbonaceous matter of the tartaric acid, which remains unconsumed; the quantity of nitre being too small for that purpose. The presence of the charcoal renders this preparation a convenient flux for reducing calcined or oxidized ores to the metallic state. Limestone, fluor-spar, borax, and several earthy or metallic oxides are employed as fluxes in metallurgy.
FLUX, (Eng. and Fr.;Fluss, Germ.) signifies any substance capable of promoting the fusion of earths or metallic ores by heat. White flux is the residuum of the deflagration in a red hot crucible, of a mixture of two parts of nitre, and one of cream of tartar. It is in fact merely a carbonate of potash. Black flux is obtained when equal parts of nitre and tartar are deflagrated. It owes its colour to the carbonaceous matter of the tartaric acid, which remains unconsumed; the quantity of nitre being too small for that purpose. The presence of the charcoal renders this preparation a convenient flux for reducing calcined or oxidized ores to the metallic state. Limestone, fluor-spar, borax, and several earthy or metallic oxides are employed as fluxes in metallurgy.
FLY POWDER; the black coloured powder obtained by the spontaneous oxidizement of metallic arsenic in the air.
FLY POWDER; the black coloured powder obtained by the spontaneous oxidizement of metallic arsenic in the air.
FODDER; is the name of a weight by which lead and some other metals are sold in this country. It varies in its amount in different parts of the kingdom; being in Northumberland estimated at 21 cwts., and in other counties 22, 23 or even more cwts.
FODDER; is the name of a weight by which lead and some other metals are sold in this country. It varies in its amount in different parts of the kingdom; being in Northumberland estimated at 21 cwts., and in other counties 22, 23 or even more cwts.
FONDUS; is the name given by the French to a particular style of calico printing resembling the rainbow, in which the colours are graduated or melted (fondus) into one another, as in the prismatic spectrum. SeePaper hangings, for a description of the process.
FONDUS; is the name given by the French to a particular style of calico printing resembling the rainbow, in which the colours are graduated or melted (fondus) into one another, as in the prismatic spectrum. SeePaper hangings, for a description of the process.
FORGE; (Eng. and Fr.;Feuer, Germ.) is the name either of the furnace, where wrought iron is hammered and fashioned with the aid of heat, or the great workshop where iron is made malleable. The former is called a smith’s forge, the latter a shingling mill. SeeIron.ForgeFig.466.represents a portable truck forge of a very commodious construction.Ais the cylindric leather bellows, pressed down by a helical spring, and worked by means of the handle atB, which moves the horizontal shaftC, with its two attached semicircular levers and chains.D, is the pipe which conducts the blast to the nozzle atE. The hearth may be covered with a thin fire-tile or with cinders.Fis a vice fixed to the strong rectangular frame. This apparatus answers all the ordinary purposes of a smith’s forge; and is peculiarly adapted to ships, and to the execution of engineering jobs upon railways, or in the country. The height is 2 feet 6 inches; the length is 2 feet 9 inches; the width 2 feet. Weight about 2 cwt.
FORGE; (Eng. and Fr.;Feuer, Germ.) is the name either of the furnace, where wrought iron is hammered and fashioned with the aid of heat, or the great workshop where iron is made malleable. The former is called a smith’s forge, the latter a shingling mill. SeeIron.
Forge
Fig.466.represents a portable truck forge of a very commodious construction.Ais the cylindric leather bellows, pressed down by a helical spring, and worked by means of the handle atB, which moves the horizontal shaftC, with its two attached semicircular levers and chains.D, is the pipe which conducts the blast to the nozzle atE. The hearth may be covered with a thin fire-tile or with cinders.Fis a vice fixed to the strong rectangular frame. This apparatus answers all the ordinary purposes of a smith’s forge; and is peculiarly adapted to ships, and to the execution of engineering jobs upon railways, or in the country. The height is 2 feet 6 inches; the length is 2 feet 9 inches; the width 2 feet. Weight about 2 cwt.
FORMIATES; are compounds offormic acid, with the salifiable bases. Many of them are susceptible of crystallization.
FORMIATES; are compounds offormic acid, with the salifiable bases. Many of them are susceptible of crystallization.
FORMIC ACID; (Acide Formique, Fr.;Ameisensäure, Germ.) exists in the bodies of wood ants, associated with the malic or acid of apples. The artificial formation of this animal secretion, is one of the most remarkable triumphs of modern chemistry. If 10 parts of tartaric acid, 14 of black oxide of manganese, 15 of concentrated sulphuric acid, and from 20 to 30 of water be mixed and distilled in a retort, formic acid will be the liquid product; while carbonic acid will be disengaged. It may also be generated from other mixtures. This acid is transparent and colourless, of a pungent sour smell, a strongly acid taste, of specific gravity 1·1168 at 60° F., and may be re-distilled without suffering any change. It contains in its most concentrated form 193⁄4per cent. of water. The dry acid, as it exists in theformiates, is composed of 32·54 carbon, 2·68 hydrogen, and 64·78 oxygen; or of two volumes carbonic oxide gas, and one volume of vapour of water. It reduces the oxides of mercury and silver to the metallic state. It has not hitherto been applied to any use in the arts.
FORMIC ACID; (Acide Formique, Fr.;Ameisensäure, Germ.) exists in the bodies of wood ants, associated with the malic or acid of apples. The artificial formation of this animal secretion, is one of the most remarkable triumphs of modern chemistry. If 10 parts of tartaric acid, 14 of black oxide of manganese, 15 of concentrated sulphuric acid, and from 20 to 30 of water be mixed and distilled in a retort, formic acid will be the liquid product; while carbonic acid will be disengaged. It may also be generated from other mixtures. This acid is transparent and colourless, of a pungent sour smell, a strongly acid taste, of specific gravity 1·1168 at 60° F., and may be re-distilled without suffering any change. It contains in its most concentrated form 193⁄4per cent. of water. The dry acid, as it exists in theformiates, is composed of 32·54 carbon, 2·68 hydrogen, and 64·78 oxygen; or of two volumes carbonic oxide gas, and one volume of vapour of water. It reduces the oxides of mercury and silver to the metallic state. It has not hitherto been applied to any use in the arts.
FORMULÆ, CHEMICAL, are symbols representing the different substances, simple and compound.Name.Formula.Oxygen= 100.Hydrogen= 1.OxygenO100·00016·026HydrogenH6·23981·0002H12·47962·000NitrogenN88·51814·1862N177·08628·372PhosphorusP196·15531·4362P392·31068·872ChlorineCl221·32535·4702Cl442·65070·940IodineI768·781123·2062I1537·562246·412CarbonC76·43712·2502C152·87524·500BoronB135·98321·7932B271·96643·586SiliconSi277·47844·469SeleniumSe494·58279·263ArsenicAs470·04275·3292As940·084150·659ChromiumCr351·81956·3832Cr703·638112·766MolybdenumMo598·52595·920TungsteniumTu or W1183·200189·621AntimonySb806·452129·2432Sb1612·904258·486TelluriumTe806·452129·243TantalumTa1153·715184·8962Ta2307·430369·792TitaniumTi389·09262·356Gold (aurum)Au1243·013199·2072Au2486·026398·415PlatinaPt1215·220194·753RhodiumR750·680120·3052R1501·360240·610PalladiumPd714·618114·526Silver (argentum)Ag1351·607216·611Mercury (hydrargyrus)Hg1265·822202·8632Hg2531·645405·725Copper (cuprum)Cu395·69563·4152Cu791·390126·829UraniumU2711·360434·5272U5422·720869·154BismuthBi1330·376213·2082Bi2660·752426·416Tin (stannum)Sn735·294117·839Lead (plumbum)Pb1294·498207·4582Pb2588·996414·917CadmiumCd696·767111·665ZincZn403·22664·621NickelNi369·67559·245CobaltCo368·99159·1352Co737·982118·270Iron (ferrum)Fe339·21354·3632Fe678·426108·725ManganeseMn355·78757·0192Mn711·575114·038CeriumCe574·71892·1052Ce1149·436184·210ZirconiumZr420·23867·3482Zr840·476134·696YttriumY401·84064·395Beryllium (glucinum)Be331·47953·1232Be662·958106·247AluminumAl171·16727·4312Al342·23454·863MagnesiumMg158·35325·378CalciumCa256·01941·030StrontiumSr547·28587·709BaryumBa856·88137·325LithiumL127·75720·474Natrium (sodium)Na290·89746·6202Na581·79493·239Kalium (potassium)K489·91678·515Ammonia2N 2H3214·47434·372Cyanogen2NC329·91152·872Sulphuretted hydrogen2HS213·64434·239Hydrochloric acid2HCl455·12972·940Hydrocyanic acid2HNC342·39054·872Water2.112·47918·0262HProtoxide of nitrogen2.277·03644·3982NDeutoxide of nitrogen.188·51830·212NNitrous acid2...477·03676·4492NNitric acid.·.·.677·036108·5032NHyposulphurous acid.301·16548·265SSulphurous acid..401·16564·291SHyposulphuric acid.·.·.902·330144·6092SSulphuric acid...501·16580·317SPhosphoric acid.·.·.892·310143·0032PChloric acid.·.·.942·650151·0712ClPerchloric acid:::1042·650167·0972ClIodic acid.·.·.2037·562326·5432ICarbonic acid..276·43744·302COxalic acid2...452·87572·5782CBoracic acid2:::871·966139·7432BSilicic acid...577·47892·548SiSelenic acid..694·582111·315SeArsenic acid.·.·.1440·084230·7902AsProtoxide of chrome2...1003·638160·8402CrChromic acid...651·819104·462CrMolybdic acid...898·525143·999MoTungstic, or wolfram acid...1483·200237·700WOxide of antimony2...1912·904306·5652SbAntimonious acid..1006·452161·296Sb....2012·904322·5912SbAntimonic acid2.·.·.2112·904338·6172SbOxide of tellurium..1006·452161·296TeTantalic acid...2607·430417·8712TaTitanic acid..589·09294·409TiProtoxide of gold.2586·026414·4412AuPeroxide of gold...2786·026446·4932AuOxide of platina..1415·220226·086PtOxide of rhodium2...1801·360228·6892ROxide of palladium.814·618130·552PdOxide of silver.1451·607232·637AgProtoxide of mercury.2631·645421·7522HgPeroxide of mercury.1365·822218·889HgProtoxide of copper.801·390142·8562CuPeroxide of copper.495·69579·441CuProtoxide of uranium.2811·360450·553UPeroxide of uranium2...5722·720917·1322UOxide of bismuth2...2960·752474·492BiProtoxide of tin.835·294133·866SnPeroxide of tin..935·294149·892SnOxide of lead.1394·498223·484PbMinium...2888·996462·9952PbBrown oxide of lead..1494·498239·511PbOxide of cadmium.796·767127·691CdOxide of zinc.503·22680·649ZnOxide of nickel.469·67575·271NiOxide of cobalt.468·99175·161CoPeroxide of cobalt...1037·982166·3492CoProtoxide of iron.439·21370·389FePeroxide of iron...978·426156·8042FeProtoxide of manganese.455·78773·045MnOxide of manganese...1011·575162·1172MnPeroxide of manganese..555·78789·071MnManganesic acid.·.·.1211·575194·1692MnProtoxide of cerium.674·718108·132CeOxide of cerium...1449·436232·2892CeZirconia...1140·476182·7752ZrYttria.501·84080·425YGlucina, or berryllia...962·958154·3252BeAlumina...642·334109·9422AlMagnesia.258·35341·404MgLime.356·01957·056CaStrontia.647·285103·735SrBaryta.956·880153·351BaLithia.227·75736·501LNatron, or soda.390·89762·646NaPeroxide of sodium...881·794141·3182NaKali, or potassa.589·91694·541KPeroxide of potassium...789·916126·593KSulphate of potassa. ...1091·081174·859K SProtosulphate of iron. ...940·378150·706Fe SPersulphate of iron... ...2481·906397·7542Fe S3Protochloride of ironFe 2Cl781·863125·303Perchloride of iron2Fe 2Cl32006·376321·545Protochloride of mercury2Hg 2Cl2974·295476·666Perchloride of mercuryHg 2Cl1708·472273·803Ferrocyanide of ironFe2NC + 2K2NC2308·778370·008Alum. ...+ 2... ...+ 24 2.5936·406951·378K S + 2Al S3+ 24 2HFelspar. ...+ 2... ...3542·162567·673K Si + 2Al Si3
FORMULÆ, CHEMICAL, are symbols representing the different substances, simple and compound.