Flint glass makingFig.512.represents a flint glass house for 6 pots, with the arch or leer on one side for annealing the crystal ware. Infig.513., the base of the cone is seen, and the glass potsin situon their platform ranged round the central fire grate. The dotted line denotes the contour of the furnace,fig.512.Whenever the glass appears fine, and is freed from its air bubbles, which it usually is in about 36 hours, the heat is suffered to fall a little by closing the bottom valves, &c., that the pot may settle; but prior to working the metal, the heat issomewhat raisedagain.It would be useless to describe the manual operations of fashioning the various articles of the flint-glass manufacture, because they are indefinitely varied to suit the conveniences and caprices of human society.Every different flint-house has a peculiar proportion of glass materials. The following have been offered as good practical mixtures.1.Fine white sand300parts.Red lead or litharge200Refined pearl ashes80Nitre20Arsenic and manganese, a minute quantity.In my opinion, the proportion of lead is too great in the above recipe, which is given on the authority of Mr. James Geddes, of Leith. The glass made with it would be probably yellowish, and dull.2.Fine sand50·5Litharge27·2Refined pearl ashes (carbonate of potash, with 5 per cent. of water)17·5Nitre4·8100·0To these quantities from 30 to 50 parts of broken glass or cullet are added; with about a two-thousandth part of manganese, and a three-thousandth part of arsenic. But manganese varies so extremely in its purity, and contains often so much oxide of iron, that nothing can be predicated as to its quantity previously to trial.M. Payen, an eminent manufacturing chemist in France, says that the composition of crystal does not deviate much from the following proportions:—Woodfire.Coalfire.Siliceous sand33Minium221⁄4Carbonate of potash11⁄212⁄3I conceive that this glass contains too much lead and potash. Such a mixture will produce a dull metal, very attractive of moisture: defects to which the French crown-glass also is subject.The flint-glassleerfor annealing glass, is an arched gallery or large flue, about 36 feet long, 3 feet high, 4 wide; having its floor raised above 2 feet above the ground of the glass-house. The hot air and smoke of a fire-place at one end pass along this gallery, and are discharged by a chimney 8 or 10 feet short of the other end. On the floor of the vault, large iron trays are laid and hooked to each other in a series, which are drawn from the fire end towards the other by a chain, wound about a cylinder by a winch-handle projecting through the side. The flint-glass articles are placed in their hot state into the tray next the fire, which is moved onwards to a cooler station whenever it is filled, and an empty tray is set in its place. Thus, in the course of about 20 hours, the glass advances to the cool end thoroughly annealed.Besides colourless transparent glass, which forms the most important part of this manufacture, various coloured glasses are made to suit the taste of the public. The taste at Paris was lately for opaline crystal; which may be prepared by adding to the above composition (No. 2.) phosphate of lime, or well burnt bone-ash in fine powder, washed, and dried. The article must be as uniform in thickness as possible, and speedily worked into shape, with a moderate heat. Oxide of tin,putty, was formerly used for making opalescent glass, but the lustre of the body was always impaired by its means.Crystal vessels have been made recently of which the inner surface is colourless, and all the external facets coloured. Such works are easily executed. The end of the blowing-rod must be dipped first in the pot containing colourless glass, to form a bulb of a certain size, which being cooled a little is then dipped for an instant into the pot of coloured glass. The two layers are associated without intermixture; and when the article is finished in its form, it is white within and coloured without. Fluted lines somewhat deeply cut, pass through the coloured coat, and enter the colourless one; so that when they cross, their ends alone are coloured.For some time past, likewise, various crystal articles have been exhibited in the market with coloured enamel-figures on their surface, or with white incrustations of a silvery lustre in their interior. The former are prepared by placing the enamel object in the brass mould, at the place where it is sought to be attached. The bulb of glass being put into the mould, and blown while very hot, the small plate of enamel gets cemented to the surface. For making the white argentine incrustations, small figures are prepared with an impalpable powder of dry porcelain paste, cemented into a solid by means of a little gypsum plaster. When these pieces are thoroughly dried, they are laid on the glass while it is red hot, and a large patch of very liquid glass is placed above it, so as to encase it and form one body with the whole. In this way the incrustation is completely enclosed; and the polished surface of the crystal which scarcely touches it, gives a brilliant aspect, pleasing to the eye.An uniform flint-glass, free from striæ, orwreath, is much in demand for the optician. It would appear that such an article was much more commonly made by the English manufacturers many years ago, than at present; and that in improving the brilliancy of crystal-glass they have injured its fitness for constructing optical lenses, which depends not so much on its whiteness and lustre as on the layers of different densities being parallel to each other. The oxide of lead existing in certain parts of a potful of glass in greater proportion than in other parts, increases the density unequally in the same mass, so that the adjoining strata are often very different in this respect. Even a potful of pretty uniform glass, when it stands some time liquid, becomes eventually unequable by the subsidence of the denser portions; so that striæ and gelatinous appearances begin to manifest themselves, and the glass becomes of little value. Glass allowed to cool slowly in mass in the pot is particularly full of wreath; and if quickly refrigerated, that is in two or three hours, it is apt to split into a multitude of minute splinters, of which no use can be made. For optical purposes, the glass must be taken out in its liquid state, being gathered on the end of the iron rod from the central portion of a recently skimmed pot, after the upper layers have been worked off in general articles.M. Guinand, of Brennets near Geneva, appears to have hit upon processes that furnished almost certainly pieces of flint-glass capable of forming good lenses of remarkable dimensions, even of 11 inches diameter; of adequate density and transparency, and nearly free fromstriæ. M. Cauchoix, the eminent French optician, says, that out of ten object glasses, 4 inches in diameter, made with M. Guinand’s flint-glass, eight or nine turned out very good, while out of an equal number of object glasses made of the flint-glass of the English and French manufactories, only one, or two at most, were found serviceable. The means by which M. Guinand arrived at these results have not been published. He has lately died, and it is not known whether his son be in possession of his secret.An achromatic object glass for telescopes and microscopes consists of at least two lenses; the one made with glass of lead, or flint glass, and the other with crown glass; the former possessing a power of dispersing the coloured rays relatively to its mean refractive power, much greater than the latter; upon which principle, the achromatism of the image is produced, by re-uniting the different coloured rays into one focus. Flint glass to be fit for this delicate purpose must be perfectly homogeneous, or of uniform density throughout its substance, and free from wavy veins or wreathes; for every such inequality would occasion a corresponding inequality in the refraction and dispersion of the light; like what is perceived in looking through a thick and thin solution of gum Arabic imperfectly mixed. Three plans have been prescribed for obtaining homogeneous pieces of optical glass: 1. to lift a mass of it in large ladles, and let it cool in them; 2. to pour it out from the pots into moulds; 3. to allow it to cool in the pots, and afterwards to cut it off in horizontal strata. The last method, which is the most plausible, seldom affords pieces of uniform density, unless peculiar precautions have been adopted to settle the flint glass in uniform strata; because its materials are of such unequal density, the oxide of lead having a specific gravity of 8, and silica of 2·7, that they are apt to stand at irregular heights in the pots.One main cause of these inequalities lies in the construction of the furnace, whereby the bottom of the pot is usually much less heated than the upper part. In a plate glass furnace the temperature of the top of the pot has been found to be 130° Wedgew., while that of the bottom was only 110°, constituting a difference of no less than 2610° F. The necessary consequence is that the denser particles which subside to the bottom, during the fusion of the materials, and after the first extrication of the gases, must remain there, not being duly agitated by the expansive force of caloric, acting from below upwards.The preparation of the best optical glass is now made a great mystery by one or two proficients. The following suggestions, deduced from a consideration of principles, may probably lead to some improvements, if judiciously applied. The great object is to counteract the tendency of the glass of lead to distribute itself into strata of different densities; which may be effected either by mechanical agitation or by applying the greatest heat to the bottom of the pot. But however homogeneous the glass may be thereby made, its subsequent separation into strata of different densities must be prevented by rapid cooling and solidification. As the deeper the pots, the greater is the chance of unequal specific gravity in their contents, it would be advisable to make them wider and shallower than those in use for making ordinary glass. The intermixture may be effected either by lading the glass out of one pot into another in the furnace, and back again, with copper ladles, or by stirring it up with a rouser, then allowing it to settle for a short time, till it becomes clear and free from air bubbles. The pot may now be removed from the furnace, in order to solidify its contents in their homogeneous state; after which the glass may be broken in pieces, and be perfected by subjecting it to a second fusion; or what is easier and quicker, we may form suitable discs of glass without breaking down the potful, by lifting it out in flat copper ladles with iron shanks, and transferring the lumps after a little while into the annealing leer.To render a potful of glass homogeneous by agitation, is a more difficult task, as an iron rod would discolour it, and a copper rod would be apt to melt. An iron rod sheathed in laminated platinum would answer well, but for its expense. A stone-ware tube supported within by a rod of iron, might also be employed for the purpose in careful hands; the stirring being repeated several times, till at last the glass is suffered to stiffen a little by decrease of temperature. It must be then allowed to settle and cool, after which the pot, being of small dimensions, may be drawn out of the fire.Glass furnace2. The second method of producing the desired uniformity of mixture, consists in applying a greater heat to the bottom than to the upper part of the melting pot.Fig.514.represents in section a furnace contrived to effect this object. It is cylindrical, and of a diameter no greater than to allow the flames to play round the pot, containing from three to four cwts. of vitreous materials.Ais the pot, resting upon the arched gridb a, built of fire-bricks, whose apertures are wide enough to let the flames rise freely, and strike the bottom and sides of the vessel. From 11⁄2to 2 feet under that arch, the fuel gratec dis placed.B Care the two working openings for introducing the materials, and inspecting the progress of the fusion; they must be closed with fire-tiles and luted with fire-clay at the beginning of the process. At the back of the furnace, opposite the mouthof the fire-place, there is a door-way, which is bricked up, except upon occasion of putting in and taking out the pot. The draught is regulated by means of a slide-plate upon the mouth of the ash-pitf. The pot being heated to the proper pitch, some purified pearl ash, mixed with fully twice its weight of colourless quartz sand, is to be thrown into it, and after the complete fusion of this mixture, the remaining part of the sand along with the oxide of lead (fine litharge) is to be strown upon the surface. These siliceous particles in their descent serve to extricate the air from the mass. Whenever the whole is fused, the heat must be strongly urged to ensure a complete uniformity of combination by the internal motions of the particles. As soon as the glass has been found by making test phials to be perfectly fine, the fire must be withdrawn, the two working holes must be opened, as well as the mouths of the fire-place and ash-pit, to admit free ingress to cooling currents of air, so as to congeal the liquid mass as quickly as possible; a condition essential to the uniformity of the glass. It may be worth while to stir it a little with the pottery rod at the commencement of the cooling process. The solidified glass may be afterwards detached by a hammer in conchoidal discs, which after chipping off their edges, are to be placed in proper porcelain or stone-ware dishes, and exposed to a softening heat, in order to give them a lenticular shape. Great care must be taken that the heat thus applied by the muffle furnace be very equable, for otherwise wreathes might be very readily re-produced in the discs. A small oven upon the plan of a baker’s, is best fitted for this purpose, which being heated to dull redness, and then extinguished, is ready to soften and afterwards anneal the conchoidal pieces.Guinand’s dense optical flint glass, of specific gravity 3·616, consists by analysis, of oxide of lead 43·05; silica 44·3; and potash 11·75; but requires for its formation the following ingredients: 100 pounds of ground quartz; 100 pounds of fine red lead; 35 pounds of purified potash; and from 2 to 4 pounds of saltpetre. As this species of glass is injured by an excess of potash, it should be compounded with rather a defect of it, and melted by a proportionally higher or longer heat. A good optical glass has been made in Germany with 7 parts of pure red lead, 3 parts of finely ground quartz, and 2 parts of calcined borax.5. Plate glass.This, like English crown-glass, has a soda flux, whereas flint-glass requires potash, and is never of good quality when made with soda. We shall distribute our account of this manufacture under two heads.1. The different furnaces and principal machines, without whose knowledge it would be impossible to understand the several processes of a plate-glass factory.2. The materials which enter into the composition of this kind of glass, and the series of operations which they undergo; devoting our chief attention to the changes and improvements which long experience, enlightened by modern chemistry, has introduced into the great manufactory of Saint-Gobin in France, under the direction of M. Tassaert. It may however be remarked that the English plate-glass manufacture derives peculiar advantages from the excellence of its grinding and polishing machinery.The clay for making the bricks and pots should be free from lime and iron, and very refractory. It is mixed with the powder of old pots passed through a silk sieve. If the clay be very plastic it will bear its own weight of the powder, but if shorter in quality, it will take only three-fifths. But before mingling it with the cement of old pots, it must be dried, bruised, then picked, ground, and finally elutriated by agitation with water, decantation through a hair sieve, and subsidence. The clay fluid after passing the sieve is calledslip(coulis.)The furnace is built of dry bricks, cemented with slip, and has at each of its four angles a peculiar annealing arch, which communicates with the furnace interiorly, and thence derives sufficient heat to effect in part, if not wholly, the annealing of the pots, which are always deposited there a long time before they are used. Three of these arches exclusively appropriated to this purpose, are called pot-arches. The fourth is called thearch of the materials, because it serves for drying them before they are founded. Each arch has, moreover, a principal opening called the throat, another calledbonnard, by the French workmen, through which fire may be kindled in the arch itself, when it was thought to be necessary for the annealing of the pots; a practice now abandoned. The duration of a furnace is commonly a year, or at most 14 months; that of the arches is 30 years or upwards, as they are not exposed to so strong a heat.In the manufacture of plate-glass two sorts of crucibles are employed, called the pots and the basins, (cuvettes). The first serve for containing the materials to be founded, and for keeping them a long time in the melted state. Thecuvettesreceive the melted glass after it is refined, and decant it out on the table to be rolled into a plate. Three pots hold liquid glass for six small basins, or for three large ones, the latter being employed for making mirrors of great dimensions, that is, 100 inches long and upwards.Furnaces have been lately constructed with 6 pots, and 12 cuvettes, 8 of which are small, and 4 large; and cuvettes of three sizes are made, calledsmall,middling, andlarge. The small are perfect cubes, the middling and the large ones are oblong parallelopipeds. Towards the middle of their height, a notch or groove, two or three inches broad, and an inch deep, is left, called the girdle of the cuvette, by which part they are grasped with the tongs, or rather are clamped in the iron frame. This frame goes round the four sides of the small cuvettes, and may be placed indifferently upon all their sides; in the other cuvettes, the girdle extends only over the two large sides, because they cannot be turned up. SeemT,fig.515.,p. 590.The pot is an inverted truncated cone, like a crown glass pot. It is about 30 inches high, and from 30 to 32 inches wide, including its thickness. There is only a few inches of difference between the diameter of the top and that of the bottom. The bottom is 3 inches thick, and the body turns gradually thinner till it is an inch at the mouth of the pot.The large building or factory, of which the melting furnace occupies the middle space, is called thehallein French. At Ravenhead in Lancashire it is called the foundry, and is of magnificent dimensions, being probably the largest apartment under one roof in Great Britain, since its length is 339 feet, and its breadth 155. The famoushalleof St. Gobin is 174 feet by 120. Along the two side walls of thehalle, which are solidly constructed of hewn stone, there are openings like those of common ovens. These ovens, destined for the annealing of the newly cast plates, bear the name ofcarquaises. Their soles are raised two feet and a half above the level of the ground, in order to bring them into the same horizontal plane with the casting tables. Their length, amounting sometimes to 30 feet, and their breadth to 20, are required in order to accommodate 6, 8, or even 10 plates of glass, alongside of each other. The front aperture is called the throat, and the back door the little throat (gueulette). The carquaise is heated by means of a fire-place of a square form called atisar, which extends along its side.The founding or melting furnace is a square brick building laid on solid foundations, being from 8 to 10 feet in each of its fronts, and rising inside into a vault or crown about 10 feet high. At each angle of this square, a small oven or arch is constructed, likewise vaulted within, and communicating with the melting furnace by square flues, calledlunettes, through which it receives a powerful heat, though much inferior to that round the pots. The arches are so distributed as that two of the exterior sides of the furnace stand wholly free, while the two other sides, on which the arches encroach, offer a free space of only 3 feet. In this interjacent space, two principal openings of the furnace, of equal size in each side, are left in the building. These are called tunnels. They are destined for the introduction of the pots and the fuel.On looking through the tunnels into the inside of the furnace, we perceive to the right hand and the left, along the twofreesides, two low platforms orsieges, at least 30 inches in height and breadth. Seefigs.506.508.Thesesieges(seats) being intended to support the pots and the cuvettes filled with heavy materials, are terminated by a slope, which ensures the solidity of the fire-clay mound. The slopes of the two sieges extend towards the middle of the furnace so near as to leave a space of only from 6 to 10 inches between them for the hearth. The end of this is perforated with a hole sufficiently large to give passage to the liquid glass of a broken pot, while the rest is preserved by lading it from the mouth into the adjoining cuvette.In the two large parallel sides of the furnace, other apertures are left much smaller than the tunnels, which are calledouvreaux(peep holes). The lower ones, or theouvreaux en bas, calledcuvetteopenings, because being allotted to the admission of these vessels, they are exactly on a level with the surface of thesieges, and with the floor of thehalle.Plates of cast iron form the thresholds of these openings, and facilitate the ingress and egress of the cuvettes. The apertures are arched at top, with hewn stone like the tunnels, and are 18 inches wide when the cuvettes are 16 inches broad.The upper and smaller apertures, or the higherouvreauxcalled theladingholes, because they serve for transvasing the liquid glass, are three in number, and are placed 31 or 32 inches above the surface of thesieges. As the pots are only 30 inches high, it becomes easy to work through these openings either in the pots or thecuvettes. The pots stand opposite to the two pillars which separate the openings, so that a space is left between them for one or morecuvettesaccording to the size of the latter. It is obvious that if the tunnels andouvreauxwere left open, the furnace would not draw or take the requisite founding heat. Hence the openings are shut by means of fire-tiles. These are put in their places, and removed by means of two holes left in them, in correspondence with the two prongs of a large iron fork supported by an axle and two iron wheels, and terminated by two handles which the workmen lay hold of when they wish to move the tile.The closing of the tunnel is more complex. When it is shut or ready for the firing,the aperture appears built up with bricks and mortar from the top of the arch to the middle of the tunnel. The remainder of the door-way is closed; 1. on the two sides down to the bottom, by a small upright wall, likewise of bricks, and 8 inches broad, called walls of theglaye; 2. by an assemblage of pieces called pieces of theglaye, because the whole of the closure of the tunnel bears the name ofglaye. The upper hole, 4 inches square, is called thetisar, through which billets of wood are tossed into the fire. Fuel is also introduced into the posterior openings. The fire is always kept up on the hearth of the tunnel, which is, on this account, 4 inches higher than the furnace-hearth, in order that the glass which may accidentally fall down on it, and which does not flow off by the bottom hole, may not impede the combustion. Should a body of glass, however, at any time obstruct the grate, it must be removed with rakes, by opening the tunnel and dismounting the fire-tile stoppers of theglaye.Formerly wood fuel alone was employed for heating the melting-furnaces of the mirror-plate manufactory of Saint-Gobin; but within these few years, the Director of the works makes use with nearly equal advantage of pit-coal. In the same establishment, two melting furnaces may be seen, one of which is fixed with wood, and the other with coals, without any difference being perceptible in the quality of the glass furnished by either. It is not true, as has been stated, that the introduction of pit-coal has made it necessary to work with covered pots in order to avoid the discoloration of the materials, or that more alkali was required to compensate for the diminished heat in the covered pots. They are not now covered when pit-coal is used, and the same success is obtained as heretofore by leaving the materials two or three hours longer in the pots and the cuvettes. The construction of the furnaces in which coal is burned, is the same as that with wood, with slight modifications. Instead of the close bottomed hearth of the wood furnace, there is an iron grate in the coal-hearth through which the air enters, and the waste ashes descend.When billets of wood were used as fuel, they were well dried beforehand, by being placed a few days on a frame work of wood called the wheel, placed two feet above the furnace and its arches, and supported on four pillars at some distance from the angles of the building.Composition of plate-glass.—This is not made now, as formerly, by random trials. The progress of chemistry, the discovery of a good process for the manufacture of soda from sea salt, which furnishes a pure alkali of uniform power, and the certain methods of ascertaining its purity, have rendered this department of glass-making almost entirely new, in France. At Saint-Gobin no alkali is employed at present except artificial crystals of soda, prepared at the manufactory of Chauny, subsidiary to that establishment. Leaden chambers are also erected there for the production of sulphuric acid from sulphur. The first crop of soda crystals is reserved for the plate-glass manufacture, the other crystals and the mother-water salts are sold to the makers of inferior glass.At the mirror-plate works of Ravenhead, near St. Helen’s in Lancashire, soda crystals, from the decomposition of the sulphate of soda by chalk and coal, have been also tried, but without equal success as at Saint-Gobin; the failure being unquestionably due to the impurity of the alkali. Hence, in the English establishment the soda is obtained by treating sea-salt with pearl-ash, whence carbonate of soda and muriate of potash result. The latter salt is crystallized out of the mingled solution, by evaporation at a moderate heat, for the carbonate of soda does not readily crystallize till the temperature of the solution fall below 60° Fahr. When the muriate of potash is thus removed, the alkaline carbonate is evaporated to dryness.Long experience at Saint-Gobin has proved that one part of dry carbonate of soda is adequate to vitrify perfectly three parts of fine siliceous sand, as that of the mound of Aumont near Senlis, of Alum Bay in the Isle of Wight, or of Lynn in Norfolk. It is also known that the degree of heat has a great influence upon the vitrification, and that increase of temperature will compensate for a certain deficiency of alkali; for it is certain that a very strong fire always dissipates a good deal of the soda, and yet the glass is not less beautiful. The most perfect mirror-plate has constantly afforded to M. Vauquelin in analysis, a portion of soda inferior to what had been employed in its formation. Hence, it has become the practice to add for every 100 parts of cullet or broken plate that is mixed with the glass composition, one part of alkali, to make up for the loss that the old glass must have experienced.To the above mentioned proportions of sand and alkali independently of the cullet which may be used, dry slaked lime carefully sifted is to be added to the amount of one seventh of the sand; or the proportion will be, sand 7 cwt.; quicklime 1 cwt.; dry carbonate of soda 2 cwt. and 37 lbs.; besides cullet. The lime improves the quality of the glass, rendering it less brittle and less liable to change. The preceding quantities of materials suitably blended, have been uniformly found to afford most advantageous results. The practice formerly was to dry that mixture, as soon as it was made, in thearch for the materials, but it has been ascertained that this step may be dispensed with, and the small portion of humidity present is dissipated almost instantly after they are thrown into the furnace. The coat of glaze previously applied to the inside of the pot, prevents the moisture from doing them any harm. For this reason, when the demand for glass at Saint-Gobin is very great, the materials are neither fritted nor even dried, but shovelled directly into the pot; this is called foundingraw. Six workmen are employed in shovelling-in the materials either fritted or otherwise, for the sake of expedition, and to prevent the furnace getting cooled. One-third of the mixture is introduced at first; whenever this is melted, the second third is thrown in, and then the last. These three stages are called the first, second, and third fusion or founding.According to the ancient practice, the founding and refining were both executed in the pots, and it was not till the glass was refined, that it was laded into the cuvettes, where it remained only 3 hours, the time necessary for the disengagement of the air bubbles introduced by the transvasion, and for giving themetalthe proper consistence for casting. At present, the period requisite for founding and refining, is equally divided between the pots and thecuvettes. The materials are left 16 hours in the pots, and as many in thecuvettes; so that in 32 hours, the glass is ready to be cast. During the last two or three hours, the fireman ortiseurceases to add fuel; all the openings are shut, and the glass is allowed to assume the requisite fluidity; an operation calledstoppingthe glass, orperforming the ceremony.The transfer of the glass into thecuvettes, is calledlading, (tréjetage). Before this is done, the cuvettes are cleared out, that is, the glass remaining on their bottom, is removed, and the ashes of the firing. They are lifted red hot out of the furnace by the method presently to be described, and placed on an iron plate, near a tub filled with water. The workmen, by means of iron paddles 6 feet long, flattened at one end and hammered to an edge, scoop out the fluid glass expeditiously, and throw it into water; thecuvettesare now returned to the furnace, and a few minutes afterwards the lading begins.In this operation, ladles of wrought iron are employed, furnished with long handles, which are plunged into the pots through the upper openings or lading holes, and immediately transfer their charge of glass into the buckets. Each workman dips his ladle only three times, and empties its contents into the cuvette. By these three immersions (whence the termtréjeteris derived), the large iron spoon is heated so much that when plunged into a tub full of water, it makes a noise like the roaring of a lion, which may be heard to a very great distance.The founding, refining, andceremony, being finished, they next try whether the glass be ready for casting. With this view, the end of a rod is dipped into the bucket, which is calleddrawing the glass, the portion taken up being allowed to run off, naturally assumes a pear-shape, from the appearance of which, they can judge if the consistence be proper, and if any air bubbles remain. If all be right, thecuvettesare taken out of the furnace, and conveyed to the part of thehallewhere their contents are to be poured out. This process requires peculiar instruments and manipulations.Casting.—While the glass is refining, that is, coming to its highest point of perfection, preparation is made for the most important process, the casting of the plate, whose success crowns all the preliminary labours and cares. The oven orcarquaisedestined to receive and anneal the plate, is now heated by its small fire ortisar, to such a pitch that its sole may have the same temperature as that of the plates, being nearly red-hot at the moment of their being introduced. An unequal degree of heat in thecarquaisewould cause breakage of the glass. The casting table is then rolled towards the front door or throat, by means of levers, and its surface is brought exactly to the level of the sole of the oven.The tableT,fig.515., is a mass of bronze, or now preferably cast-iron, about 10 feet long, 5 feet broad, and from 6 to 7 inches thick, supported by a frame of carpentry, which rests on three cast-iron wheels. At the end of the table opposite to that next to the front of the oven, is a very strong frame of timber-work, called the puppet or standard, upon which the bronze roller which spreads the glass is laid, before and after the casting. This is 5 feet long by 1 foot in diameter; it is thick in the metal but hollow in the axis. The same roller can serve only for two plates at one casting, when another is put in its place, and the first is laid aside to cool; for otherwise the hot roller would at a third casting, make the plate expand unequally, and cause it to crack. When the rollers are not in action, they are laid aside in strong wooden trestles, like those employed by sawyers. On the two sides of the table in the line of its length, are two parallel bars of bronze,t,t, destined to support the roller during its passage from end to end; the thickness of these bars determines that of the plate. The table being thus arranged, a crane is had recourse to for lifting the cuvette, and keeping it suspended, till it be emptied upon the table. This raising and suspension are effected by means of an iron gib, furnished with pullies, held horizontally, and which turns with them.Casting tableThe tongsT,fig.515., are made of four iron bars, bent into a square frame in their middle, for embracing the bucket. Four chains proceeding from the corners of the frameV, are united at their other ends into a ring which fits into the hook of the crane.Things being thus arranged, all the workmen of the foundry co-operate in the manipulations of the casting. Two of them fetch, and place quickly in front of one of the lower openings, the small cuvette-carriage, which bears a forked bar of iron, having two prongs corresponding to the two holes left in the fire-tile door. This fork mounted on the axle of two cast-iron wheels, extends at its other end into two branches terminated by handles, by which the workmen move the fork, lift out the tile stopper, and set it down against the outer wall of the furnace.The instant these men retire, two others push forward into the opening the extremity of the tongs-carriage, so as to seize the bucket by the girdle, or rather to clamp it. At the same time, a third workman is busy with an iron pinch or long chisel, detaching the bucket from its seat, to which it often adheres by some spilt glass; whenever it is free, he withdraws it from the furnace. Two powerful branches of iron united by a bolt, like two scissor blades, which open, come together, and join by a quadrant near the other end, form the tongs-carriage, which is mounted upon two wheels like a truck.The same description will apply almost wholly to the iron-plate carriage, on which the bucket is laid the moment it is taken out of the furnace; the only difference in its construction is, that on the bent iron bars which form the tail or lower steps of this carriage (in place of the tongs) is permanently fastened an iron plate, on which the bucket is placed and carried for the casting.Whenever thecuvetteis set upon its carriage, it must be rapidly wheeled to its station near the crane. The tongsTabove described are now applied to the girdle, and are then hooked upon the crane by the suspension chains. In this position the bucket is skimmed by means of a copper tool called a sabre, because it has nearly the shape of that weapon. Every portion of the matter removed by the sabre is thrown into a copper ladle (poche de gamin), which is emptied from time to time into a cistern of water. After being skimmed, the bucket is lifted up, and brushed very clean on its sides and bottom; then by the double handles of the suspension-tongs it is swung round to the table, where it is seized by the workmen appointed to turn it over; the roller having been previously laid on its ruler-bars, near the end of the table which is in contact with the annealing oven. Thecuvette-men begin to pour out towards the right extremityEof the roller, and terminate when it has arrived at the left extremityD. While preparing to do so, and at the instant of casting, two men place within the ruler-bar on each side, that is between the bar and the liquid glass, two iron instruments calledhands,m,m,m,m, which prevent the glass from spreading beyond the rulers, whilst another draws along the table the wiping barc,c, wrapped in linen, to remove dust, or any small objects which may interpose between the table and the liquid glass.Whenever the melted glass is poured out, two men spread it over the table, guiding the roller slowly and steadily along, beyond the limits of the glass, and then run it smartly into the wooden standard prepared for its reception, in place of the trestlesV,V.The empty bucket, while still red-hot, is hung again upon the crane, set on its plate-iron carriage, freed from its tongs, and replaced in the furnace, to be speedily cleared out anew, and charged with fresh fluid from the pots. If while the roller glides along, the two workmen who stand by with picking tools, perceivetearsin the matter in advance of the roller, and can dexterously snatch them out, they are suitably rewarded, according to the spot where the blemish lay, whether in the centre, where it would have proved most detrimental, or near the edge. These tears proceed usually fromsmall portions of semi-vitrified matter which fall from the vault of the furnace, and from their density occupy the bottom of thecuvettes.While the plate is still red-hot and ductile, about 2 inches of its end opposite to thecarquaisedoor is turned up with a tool; this portion is called thehead of the mirror; against the outside of this head, the shovel, in the shape of a rake without teeth, is applied, with which the plate is eventually pushed into the oven, while two other workmen press upon the upper part of the head with a wooden pole, eight feet long, to preserve the plate in its horizontal position, and prevent its being warped. The plate is now left for a few moments near the throat of thecarquaise, to give it solidity; after which it is pushed further in by means of a very long iron tool, whose extremity is forked like the letter y, and hence bears that name; and is thereby arranged in the most suitable spot for allowing other plates to be introduced.However numerous the manipulations executed from the moment of withdrawing thecuvettefrom the furnace, till the cast-plate is pushed into the annealing oven, I have seen them all performed in less than five minutes; such silence, order, regularity, and despatch prevail in the establishment of Saint-Gobin.When all the plates of the same casting have been placed in thecarquaise, it is sealed up, that is to say, all its orifices are closed with sheets of iron, surrounded and made tight with plastic loam. With this precaution, the cooling goes on slowly and equably in every part, for no cooling current can have access to the interior of the oven.After they are perfectly cooled, the plates are carefully withdrawn one after another, keeping them all the while in a horizontal position, till they are entirely out of thecarquaise.As soon as each plate is taken out, one set of workmen lower quickly and steadily the edge which they hold, while another set raise the opposite edge, till the glass be placed upright on two cushions stuffed with straw, and covered with canvas. In this vertical position they pass through, beneath the lower edge of the plate, three girths or straps each four feet long, thickened with leather in their middle, and ending in wooden handles; so that one embraces the middle of the plate, and the other two, the ends. The workmen, six in number, now seize the handles of the straps, lift up the glass closely to their bodies, and convey it with a regular step to the warehouse. Here the head of the plate is first cut off with a diamond square, and then the whole is attentively examined, in reference to its defects and imperfections, to determine the sections which must be made of it, and the eventual size of the pieces. The pairings and small cuttings detached are set aside, in order to be ground and mixed with the raw materials of another glass-pot.The apartment in which the roughing-down and smoothing of the plates is performed, is furnished with a considerable number of stone tables, truly hewn and placed apart like billiard tables, in a horizontal position, about 2 feet above the ground. They are rectangular, and of different sizes proportional to the dimensions of the plates, which they ought always to exceed a little. These tables are supported either on stone pillars or wooden frames, and are surrounded with a wooden board whose upper edge stands somewhat below their level, and leaves in the space between it and the stone all round an interval of 3 or 4 inches, of which we shall presently see the use.A cast plate, unless formed on a table quite new, has always one of its faces, the one next the table, rougher than the other; and with this face the roughing-down begins. With this view, the smoother face is cemented on the stone table with Paris-plaster. But often instead of one plate, several are cemented alongside of each other, those of the same thickness being carefully selected. They then take one or more crude plates of about one-third or one-fourth the surface of the plate fixed to the table, and fix it on them with liquid gypsum to the large base of a quadrangular truncated pyramid of stone; of a weight proportioned to its extent, or about a pound to the square inch. This pyramidal muller, if small sized, bears at each of its angles of the upper face a peg or ball, which the grinders lay hold of in working it; but when of greater dimension, there is adapted to it horizontally a wheel of slight construction, 8 or 10 feet in diameter, whose circumference is made of wood rounded so as to be seized with the hand. The upper plate is now rubbed over the lower ones, with moistened sand applied between.This operation is however performed by machinery. The under plate being fixed or imbedded in stucco, on a solid table, the upper one likewise imbedded by the same cement in a cast-iron frame, has a motion of circum-rotation given to it closely resembling that communicated by the human hand and arm, moist sand being supplied between them. While an excentric mechanism imparts this double rotatory movement to the upper plate round its own centre, and of that centre round a point in the lower plate, this plate placed on a moveable platform changes its position by a slow horizontal motion, both in the direction of its length and its breadth. By this ingenious contrivance, which pervades the whole of the grinding and polishing machinery, a remarkable regularity of friction and truth of surface is produced. When the plates are sufficiently worked on one face, they are reversed in the frames, and worked together onthe other. The Paris plaster is usually coloured red, in order to shew any defects in the glass.The smoothing of the plates is effected on the same principles by the use of moist emery washed to successive degrees of fineness, for the successive stages of the operation; and the polishing process is performed by rubbers of hat-felt and a thin paste of colcothar and water. The colcothar, called also crocus, is red oxide of iron prepared by the ignition of copperas, with grinding and elutriation of the residuum.The last part of the polishing process is performed by hand. This is managed by females, who slide one plate over another, while a little moistened putty of tin finely levigated is thrown between.Large mirror-plates are now the indispensable ornaments of every large and sumptuous apartment; they diffuse lustre and gaiety round them, by reflecting the rays of light in a thousand lines, and by multiplying indefinitely the images of objects placed between opposite parallel planes.Thesilveringofplanemirrors consists in applying a layer of tin-foil alloyed with mercury to their posterior surface. The workshop for executing this operation is provided with a great many smooth tables of fine freestone or marble, truly levelled, having round their contour a rising ledge, within which there is a gutter or groove which terminates by a slight slope in a spout at one of the corners. These tables rest upon an axis of wood or iron which runs along the middle of their length; so that they may be inclined easily into an angle with the horizon of 12 or 13 degrees, by means of a hand-screw fixed below. They are also furnished with brushes, with glass rules, with rolls of woollen stuff, several pieces of flannel, and a great many weights of stone or cast-iron.The glass-tinner, standing towards one angle of his table, sweeps and wipes its surface with the greatest care, along the whole surface to be occupied by the mirror-plate; then taking a sheet of tin-foil adapted to his purpose, he spreads it on the table, and applies it closely with a brush, which removes any folds or wrinkles. The table being horizontal, he pours over the tin a small quantity of quicksilver, and spreads it with a roll of woollen stuff; so that the tin-foil is penetrated and apparently dissolved by the mercury. Placing now two rules, to the right and to the left, on the borders of the sheet, he pours on the middle a quantity of mercury sufficient to form every where a layer about the thickness of a crown piece; then removing with a linen rag the oxide or other impurities, he applies to it the edge of a sheet of paper, and advances it about half an inch. Meanwhile another workman is occupied in drying very nicely the surface of the glass that is to be silvered, and then hands it to the master workman, who, laying it flat, places its anterior edge first on the table, and then on the slip of paper; now pushing the glass forwards, he takes care to slide it along so that neither air nor any coat of oxide on the mercury can remain beneath the plate. When this has reached its position, he fixes it there by a weight applied on its side, and gives the table a gentle slope, to run off all the loose quicksilver by the gutter and spout. At the end of five minutes he covers the mirror with a piece of flannel, and loads it with a great many weights, which are left upon it for 24 hours, under a gradually increased inclination of the table. By this time the plate is ready to be taken off the marble table, and laid on a wooden one sloped like a reading desk, with its under edge resting on the ground, while the upper is raised successively to different elevations by means of a cord passing over a pulley in the ceiling of the room. Thus the mirror has its slope graduated from day to day, till it finally arrives at a vertical position. About a month is required for draining out the superfluous mercury from large mirrors; and from 18 to 20 days from those of moderate size. The sheets of tin-foil being always somewhat larger than the glass-plate, their edges must be pared smooth off, before the plate is lifted off the marble table.Process for silvering concave mirrors.—Having prepared some very fine Paris plaster by passing it through a silk sieve, and some a little coarser passed through hair-cloth, the first is to be made into a creamy liquor with water, and after smearing the concave surface of the glass with a film of olive oil, the fine plaster is to be poured into it, and spread by turning about, till a layer of plaster be formed about a tenth of an inch thick. The second or coarse plaster, being now made into a thin paste, poured over the first, and moved about, readily incorporates with it, in its imperfectly hardened state. Thus an exact mould is obtained of the concave surface of the glass, which lies about three-quarters of an inch thick upon it, but is not allowed to rise above its outer edge.The mould being perfectly dried, must be marked with a point of coincidence on the glass, in order to permit of its being exactly replaced in the same position, after it has been lifted out. The mould is now removed, and a round sheet of tin-foil is applied to it, so large that an inch of its edge may project beyond the plaster all round; this border being necessary for fixing the tin to the contour of the mould by pellets of white wax softened a little with some Venice turpentine. Before fixing the tin-foil, however, it must be properly spread over the mould, so as to remove every wrinkle; which thepliancy of the foil easily admits of, by uniform and well-directed pressure with the fingers.The glass being placed in the hollow bed of a tight sack filled with fine sand, set in a well-jointed box capable of retaining quicksilver, its concave surface must be dusted with sifted wood-ashes, or Spanish white contained in a small cotton bag, and then well wiped with clean linen rags, to free it from all adhering impurity, and particularly the moisture of the breath. The concavity must be now filled with quicksilver to the very lip, and the mould being dipped a little way into it, is withdrawn, and the adhering mercury is spread over the tin with a soft flannel roll, so as to amalgamate and brighten its whole surface, taking every precaution against breathing on it. Whenever this brightening seems complete, the mould is to be immersed, not vertically, but one edge at first, and thus obliquely downwards till the centres coincide; the mercury meanwhile being slowly displaced, and the mark on the mould being brought finally into coincidence with the mark on the glass. The mould is now left to operate by its own weight, in expelling the superfluous mercury, which runs out upon the sand-bag and thence into a groove in the bottom of the box, whence it overflows by a spout into a leather bag of reception. After half an hour’s repose, the whole is cautiously inverted, to drain off the quicksilver more completely. For this purpose, a box like the first is provided with a central support rising an inch above its edges; the upper surface of the support being nearly equal in diameter to that of the mould. Two workmen are required to execute the following operation. Each steadies the mould with the one hand, and raises the box with the other, taking care not to let the mould be deranged, which they rest on the (convex) support of the second box. Before inverting the first apparatus, however, the reception bag must be removed, for fear of spilling its mercury. The redundant quicksilver now drains off; and if the weight of the sand-bag is not thought sufficient, supplementary weights are added at pleasure. The whole is left in this position for two or three days. Before separating the mirror from its mould, the border of tin-foil, fixed to it with wax, must be pared off with a knife. Then the weight and sand-bag being removed, the glass is lifted up with its interior coating of tin-amalgam.For silvering a convex surface.—A concave plaster mould is made on the convex glass, and their points of coincidence are defined by marks. This mould is to be lined with tin-foil, with the precautions above described; and the tin surface being first brightened with a little mercury, the mould is then filled with the liquid metal. The glass is to be well cleaned, and immersed in the quicksilver bath, which will expel the greater part of the metal. A sand-bag is now to be laid on the glass, and the whole is to be inverted as in the former case on a support; when weights are to be applied to the mould, and the mercury is left to drain off for several days.If the glass be of large dimensions, 30 or 40 inches, for example, another method is adopted. A circular frame or hollow ring of wood or iron is prepared, of twice the diameter of the mirror, supported on three feet. A circular piece of new linen cloth of close texture is cut out, of equal diameter to the ring, which is hemmed stoutly at the border, and furnished round the edge with a row of small holes, for lacing the cloth to the ring, so as to leave no folds in it, but without bracing it so tightly as to deprive it of the elasticity necessary for making it into a mould. This apparatus being set horizontally, a leaf of tin-foil is spread over it, of sufficient size to cover the surface of the glass; the tin is first brightened with mercury, and then as much of the liquid metal is poured on as a plane mirror requires. The convex glass, well cleaned, is now set down on the cloth, and its own weight, joined to some additional weights, gradually presses down the cloth, and causes it to assume the form of the glass which thus comes into close contact with the tin submersed under the quicksilver. The redundant quicksilver is afterwards drained off by inversion, as in common cases.The following recipe has been given for silvering the inside of glass globes. Melt in an iron ladle or a crucible, equal parts of tin and lead, adding to the fused alloy one part of bruised bismuth. Stir the mixture well and pour into it as it cools two parts of dry mercury; agitating anew and skimming off the drossy film from the surface of the amalgam. The inside of the glass globe being freed from all adhering dust and humidity, is to be gently heated, while a little of the semi-fluid amalgam is introduced. The liquidity being increased by the slight degree of heat, the metallic coating is applied to all the points of the glass, by turning round the globe in every direction, but so slowly as to favour the adhesion of the alloy. This silvering is not so substantial as that of plane mirrors: but the form of the vessel, whether a globe, an ovoid, or a cylinder, conceals or palliates the defects by counter reflection from the opposite surfaces.Coloured Glasses and Artificial Gems.—The general vitreous body preferred by Fontanieu in his treatise on this subject, which he calls the Mayence base, is prepared in the following manner. Eight ounces of pure rock-crystal or flint in powder, mixed with 24 ounces of salt of tartar, are baked and left to cool. This is afterwards pouredinto a basin of hot water, and treated with dilute nitric acid till it ceases to effervesce; when the frit is to be washed till the water comes off tasteless. The frit is now dried and mixed with 12 ounces of fine white lead, and the mixture is to be levigated and elutriated with a little distilled water. An ounce of calcined borax is to be added to about 12 ounces of the preceding mixture in a dry state, the whole rubbed together in a porcelain mortar, then melted in a clean crucible, and poured out into cold water. This vitreous matter must be dried, and melted a second and a third time, always in a new crucible, and after each melting poured into cold water as at first, taking care to separate the lead that may be revived. To the last glass ground to powder, five drachms of nitre are to be added, and the mixture being melted for the last time, a mass of crystal will be found in the crucible with a beautiful lustre. The diamond is well imitated by this Mayence base. Another very fine white crystal may be obtained, according to M. Fontanieu, from eight ounces of white lead, two ounces of powdered borax, half a grain of manganese, and three ounces of rock-crystal treated as above.The colours of artificial gems are obtained from metallic oxides. Theoriental topazis prepared by adding oxide of antimony to the base; the amethyst from manganese with a little purple precipitate of Cassius; the beryl from antimony and a very little cobalt; yellow artificial diamond and opal, from horn-silver (chloride of silver); blue stone from cobalt. SeePastesandPigments Vitrifiable.The following are recipes for making the different kinds of glass.1.Bottle glass.—11 pounds of dry glauber salts; 12 pounds of soaper salts; a half bushel of waste soap ashes; 56 pounds of sand; 22 pounds of glass skimmings; 1 cwt. of green broken glass; 25 pounds of basalt. This mixture affords a dark green glass.2. Yellow or white sand 100 parts; kelp 30 to 40; lixiviated wood ashes from 160 to 170 parts; fresh wood ashes 30 to 40 parts; potter’s clay 80 to 100 parts; cullet or broken glass 100. If basalt be used, the proportion of kelp may be diminished.In two bottle-glass houses in the neighbourhood of Valenciennes, an unknown ingredient, sold by a Belgian, was employed, which he calledspar. This was discovered by chemical analysis to be sulphate of baryta. The glass-makers observed that the bottles which contained some of this substance were denser, more homogeneous, more fusible, and worked more kindly, than those formed of the common materials. When one prime equivalent of the silicate of baryta = 123, is mixed with three primes of the silicate of soda = (3 × 77·6) = 232·8, and exposed in a proper furnace, vitrification readily ensues, and the glass may be worked a little under a cherry-red heat, with as much ease as a glass of lead, and has nearly the same lustre. Since the ordinary run of glass-makers are not familiar with atomic proportions, they should have recourse to a scientific chemist, to guide them in using such a proportion of sulphate of baryta as may suit their other vitreous ingredients; for an excess or defect of any of them will injure the quality of the glass.3.Green window glass, or broad glass.—11 pounds of dry glauber salt; 10 pounds of soaper salts; half a bushel of lixiviated soap waste; 50 pounds of sand; 22 pounds of glass pot skimmings; 1 cwt. of broken green glass.4.Crown glass.—300 parts of fine sand; 200 of good soda ash; 33 of lime; from 250 to 300 of broken glass; 60 of white sand; 30 of purified potash; 15 of saltpetre (1 of borax),1⁄2of arsenious acid.5.Nearly white table glass.—20 pounds of potashes; 11 pounds of dry glauber salts; 16 of soaper salt; 55 of sand; 140 of cullet of the same kind. Another.—100 of sand; 235 of kelp; 60 of wood ashes; 11⁄3of manganese; 100 of broken glass.6.White table glass.—40 pounds of potashes; 11 of chalk; 76 of sand;1⁄2of manganese; 95 of white cullet.Another.—50 of purified potashes; 100 of sand; 20 of chalk; and 2 of saltpetre.Bohemian table or plate glass is made with 63 parts of quartz; 26 of purified potashes; 11 of sifted slaked lime, and some cullet.7.Crystal glass.—60 parts of purified potashes; 120 of sand; 24 of chalk; 2 of saltpetre; 2 of arsenious acid;1⁄16of manganese.Another.—70 of purified pearl ashes; 120 of white sand; 10 of saltpetre;1⁄2of arsenious acid;1⁄3of manganese.A third.—67 of sand; 23 of purified pearl ashes; 10 of sifted slaked lime;1⁄4of manganese; (5 to 8 of red lead).A fourth.—120 of white sand; 50 of red lead; 40 of purified pearl ash; 20 of saltpetre;1⁄3of manganese.A fifth.—120 of white sand; 40 of pearl ash purified; 35 of red lead; 13 of saltpetre;1⁄12of manganese.A sixth.—30 of the finest sand; 20 of red lead; 8 of pearl ash purified; 2 of saltpetre; a little arsenious acid and manganese.A seventh.—100 of sand; 45 of red lead; 35 of purified pearl ashes;1⁄7of manganese;1⁄3of arsenious acid.8.Plate glass.—Very white sand 300 parts; dry purified soda 100 parts; carbonate of lime 43 parts; manganese 1; cullet 300.Another.—Finest sand 720; purified soda 450; quicklime 80 parts; saltpetre 25 parts; cullet 425.A little borax has also been prescribed; much of it communicates an exfoliating property to glass.Tabular view of the composition of several kinds of Glass.No. 1.No. 2.No. 3.No. 4.No. 5.No. 6.No. 7.No. 8.No. 9.Silica71·769·262·869·260·453·5559·251·9342·5Potash12·715·822·18·03·25·489·013·7711·7Soda2·53·03·0S. pot.Lime10·37·612·513·020·729·220·5Alumina0·41·23·610·46·011·8Magnesia2·0-2·60·60·6Oxide of iron0·30·51·63·85·740·4— manganese0·21·0— lead28·233·2843·5Baryta0·9No. 1.No. 2.No. 3.No. 4.No. 5.No. 6.No. 7.No. 8.No. 9.Silica71·769·262·869·260·453·5559·251·9342·5Potash12·715·822·18·03·25·489·013·7711·7Soda2·53·03·0S. pot.Lime10·37·612·513·020·729·220·5Alumina0·41·23·610·46·011·8Magnesia2·0-2·60·60·6Oxide of iron0·30·51·63·85·740·4— manganese0·21·0— lead28·233·2843·5Baryta0·9No. 1. is a very beautiful white wine glass of Neuwelt in Bohemia.No. 2. Glass tubes, much more fusible than common wine glasses.No. 3. Crown glass of Bohemia.No. 4. Green glass, for medicinal phials and retorts.No. 5. Flask glass of St. Etienne, for which some heavy spar is used.No. 6. Glass of Sèvres.No. 7. London glass employed for chemical and physical purposes.No. 8. English flint glass.No. 9. Guinand’s flint glass.The manufacture ofGlass beadsat Murano near Venice, is most ingeniously simple. Tubes of glass of every colour, are drawn out to great lengths in a gallery adjoining the glass-house pots, in the same way as the more moderate lengths of thermometer and barometer tubes are drawn in our glass-houses. These tubes are chopped into very small pieces of nearly uniform length on the upright edge of a fixed chisel. These elementary cylinders being then put in a heap into a mixture of fine sand and wood ashes, are stirred about with an iron spatula till their cavities get filled. This curious mixture is now transferred to an iron pan suspended over a moderate fire, and continually stirred about as before, whereby the cylindrical bits assume a smooth rounded form; so that when removed from the fire and cleared out in the bore, they constitute beads, which are packed in casks, and exported in prodigious quantities to almost every country, especially to Africa and Spain.
Flint glass making
Fig.512.represents a flint glass house for 6 pots, with the arch or leer on one side for annealing the crystal ware. Infig.513., the base of the cone is seen, and the glass potsin situon their platform ranged round the central fire grate. The dotted line denotes the contour of the furnace,fig.512.
Whenever the glass appears fine, and is freed from its air bubbles, which it usually is in about 36 hours, the heat is suffered to fall a little by closing the bottom valves, &c., that the pot may settle; but prior to working the metal, the heat issomewhat raisedagain.
It would be useless to describe the manual operations of fashioning the various articles of the flint-glass manufacture, because they are indefinitely varied to suit the conveniences and caprices of human society.
Every different flint-house has a peculiar proportion of glass materials. The following have been offered as good practical mixtures.
In my opinion, the proportion of lead is too great in the above recipe, which is given on the authority of Mr. James Geddes, of Leith. The glass made with it would be probably yellowish, and dull.
To these quantities from 30 to 50 parts of broken glass or cullet are added; with about a two-thousandth part of manganese, and a three-thousandth part of arsenic. But manganese varies so extremely in its purity, and contains often so much oxide of iron, that nothing can be predicated as to its quantity previously to trial.
M. Payen, an eminent manufacturing chemist in France, says that the composition of crystal does not deviate much from the following proportions:—
I conceive that this glass contains too much lead and potash. Such a mixture will produce a dull metal, very attractive of moisture: defects to which the French crown-glass also is subject.
The flint-glassleerfor annealing glass, is an arched gallery or large flue, about 36 feet long, 3 feet high, 4 wide; having its floor raised above 2 feet above the ground of the glass-house. The hot air and smoke of a fire-place at one end pass along this gallery, and are discharged by a chimney 8 or 10 feet short of the other end. On the floor of the vault, large iron trays are laid and hooked to each other in a series, which are drawn from the fire end towards the other by a chain, wound about a cylinder by a winch-handle projecting through the side. The flint-glass articles are placed in their hot state into the tray next the fire, which is moved onwards to a cooler station whenever it is filled, and an empty tray is set in its place. Thus, in the course of about 20 hours, the glass advances to the cool end thoroughly annealed.
Besides colourless transparent glass, which forms the most important part of this manufacture, various coloured glasses are made to suit the taste of the public. The taste at Paris was lately for opaline crystal; which may be prepared by adding to the above composition (No. 2.) phosphate of lime, or well burnt bone-ash in fine powder, washed, and dried. The article must be as uniform in thickness as possible, and speedily worked into shape, with a moderate heat. Oxide of tin,putty, was formerly used for making opalescent glass, but the lustre of the body was always impaired by its means.
Crystal vessels have been made recently of which the inner surface is colourless, and all the external facets coloured. Such works are easily executed. The end of the blowing-rod must be dipped first in the pot containing colourless glass, to form a bulb of a certain size, which being cooled a little is then dipped for an instant into the pot of coloured glass. The two layers are associated without intermixture; and when the article is finished in its form, it is white within and coloured without. Fluted lines somewhat deeply cut, pass through the coloured coat, and enter the colourless one; so that when they cross, their ends alone are coloured.
For some time past, likewise, various crystal articles have been exhibited in the market with coloured enamel-figures on their surface, or with white incrustations of a silvery lustre in their interior. The former are prepared by placing the enamel object in the brass mould, at the place where it is sought to be attached. The bulb of glass being put into the mould, and blown while very hot, the small plate of enamel gets cemented to the surface. For making the white argentine incrustations, small figures are prepared with an impalpable powder of dry porcelain paste, cemented into a solid by means of a little gypsum plaster. When these pieces are thoroughly dried, they are laid on the glass while it is red hot, and a large patch of very liquid glass is placed above it, so as to encase it and form one body with the whole. In this way the incrustation is completely enclosed; and the polished surface of the crystal which scarcely touches it, gives a brilliant aspect, pleasing to the eye.
An uniform flint-glass, free from striæ, orwreath, is much in demand for the optician. It would appear that such an article was much more commonly made by the English manufacturers many years ago, than at present; and that in improving the brilliancy of crystal-glass they have injured its fitness for constructing optical lenses, which depends not so much on its whiteness and lustre as on the layers of different densities being parallel to each other. The oxide of lead existing in certain parts of a potful of glass in greater proportion than in other parts, increases the density unequally in the same mass, so that the adjoining strata are often very different in this respect. Even a potful of pretty uniform glass, when it stands some time liquid, becomes eventually unequable by the subsidence of the denser portions; so that striæ and gelatinous appearances begin to manifest themselves, and the glass becomes of little value. Glass allowed to cool slowly in mass in the pot is particularly full of wreath; and if quickly refrigerated, that is in two or three hours, it is apt to split into a multitude of minute splinters, of which no use can be made. For optical purposes, the glass must be taken out in its liquid state, being gathered on the end of the iron rod from the central portion of a recently skimmed pot, after the upper layers have been worked off in general articles.
M. Guinand, of Brennets near Geneva, appears to have hit upon processes that furnished almost certainly pieces of flint-glass capable of forming good lenses of remarkable dimensions, even of 11 inches diameter; of adequate density and transparency, and nearly free fromstriæ. M. Cauchoix, the eminent French optician, says, that out of ten object glasses, 4 inches in diameter, made with M. Guinand’s flint-glass, eight or nine turned out very good, while out of an equal number of object glasses made of the flint-glass of the English and French manufactories, only one, or two at most, were found serviceable. The means by which M. Guinand arrived at these results have not been published. He has lately died, and it is not known whether his son be in possession of his secret.
An achromatic object glass for telescopes and microscopes consists of at least two lenses; the one made with glass of lead, or flint glass, and the other with crown glass; the former possessing a power of dispersing the coloured rays relatively to its mean refractive power, much greater than the latter; upon which principle, the achromatism of the image is produced, by re-uniting the different coloured rays into one focus. Flint glass to be fit for this delicate purpose must be perfectly homogeneous, or of uniform density throughout its substance, and free from wavy veins or wreathes; for every such inequality would occasion a corresponding inequality in the refraction and dispersion of the light; like what is perceived in looking through a thick and thin solution of gum Arabic imperfectly mixed. Three plans have been prescribed for obtaining homogeneous pieces of optical glass: 1. to lift a mass of it in large ladles, and let it cool in them; 2. to pour it out from the pots into moulds; 3. to allow it to cool in the pots, and afterwards to cut it off in horizontal strata. The last method, which is the most plausible, seldom affords pieces of uniform density, unless peculiar precautions have been adopted to settle the flint glass in uniform strata; because its materials are of such unequal density, the oxide of lead having a specific gravity of 8, and silica of 2·7, that they are apt to stand at irregular heights in the pots.
One main cause of these inequalities lies in the construction of the furnace, whereby the bottom of the pot is usually much less heated than the upper part. In a plate glass furnace the temperature of the top of the pot has been found to be 130° Wedgew., while that of the bottom was only 110°, constituting a difference of no less than 2610° F. The necessary consequence is that the denser particles which subside to the bottom, during the fusion of the materials, and after the first extrication of the gases, must remain there, not being duly agitated by the expansive force of caloric, acting from below upwards.
The preparation of the best optical glass is now made a great mystery by one or two proficients. The following suggestions, deduced from a consideration of principles, may probably lead to some improvements, if judiciously applied. The great object is to counteract the tendency of the glass of lead to distribute itself into strata of different densities; which may be effected either by mechanical agitation or by applying the greatest heat to the bottom of the pot. But however homogeneous the glass may be thereby made, its subsequent separation into strata of different densities must be prevented by rapid cooling and solidification. As the deeper the pots, the greater is the chance of unequal specific gravity in their contents, it would be advisable to make them wider and shallower than those in use for making ordinary glass. The intermixture may be effected either by lading the glass out of one pot into another in the furnace, and back again, with copper ladles, or by stirring it up with a rouser, then allowing it to settle for a short time, till it becomes clear and free from air bubbles. The pot may now be removed from the furnace, in order to solidify its contents in their homogeneous state; after which the glass may be broken in pieces, and be perfected by subjecting it to a second fusion; or what is easier and quicker, we may form suitable discs of glass without breaking down the potful, by lifting it out in flat copper ladles with iron shanks, and transferring the lumps after a little while into the annealing leer.
To render a potful of glass homogeneous by agitation, is a more difficult task, as an iron rod would discolour it, and a copper rod would be apt to melt. An iron rod sheathed in laminated platinum would answer well, but for its expense. A stone-ware tube supported within by a rod of iron, might also be employed for the purpose in careful hands; the stirring being repeated several times, till at last the glass is suffered to stiffen a little by decrease of temperature. It must be then allowed to settle and cool, after which the pot, being of small dimensions, may be drawn out of the fire.
Glass furnace
2. The second method of producing the desired uniformity of mixture, consists in applying a greater heat to the bottom than to the upper part of the melting pot.Fig.514.represents in section a furnace contrived to effect this object. It is cylindrical, and of a diameter no greater than to allow the flames to play round the pot, containing from three to four cwts. of vitreous materials.Ais the pot, resting upon the arched gridb a, built of fire-bricks, whose apertures are wide enough to let the flames rise freely, and strike the bottom and sides of the vessel. From 11⁄2to 2 feet under that arch, the fuel gratec dis placed.B Care the two working openings for introducing the materials, and inspecting the progress of the fusion; they must be closed with fire-tiles and luted with fire-clay at the beginning of the process. At the back of the furnace, opposite the mouthof the fire-place, there is a door-way, which is bricked up, except upon occasion of putting in and taking out the pot. The draught is regulated by means of a slide-plate upon the mouth of the ash-pitf. The pot being heated to the proper pitch, some purified pearl ash, mixed with fully twice its weight of colourless quartz sand, is to be thrown into it, and after the complete fusion of this mixture, the remaining part of the sand along with the oxide of lead (fine litharge) is to be strown upon the surface. These siliceous particles in their descent serve to extricate the air from the mass. Whenever the whole is fused, the heat must be strongly urged to ensure a complete uniformity of combination by the internal motions of the particles. As soon as the glass has been found by making test phials to be perfectly fine, the fire must be withdrawn, the two working holes must be opened, as well as the mouths of the fire-place and ash-pit, to admit free ingress to cooling currents of air, so as to congeal the liquid mass as quickly as possible; a condition essential to the uniformity of the glass. It may be worth while to stir it a little with the pottery rod at the commencement of the cooling process. The solidified glass may be afterwards detached by a hammer in conchoidal discs, which after chipping off their edges, are to be placed in proper porcelain or stone-ware dishes, and exposed to a softening heat, in order to give them a lenticular shape. Great care must be taken that the heat thus applied by the muffle furnace be very equable, for otherwise wreathes might be very readily re-produced in the discs. A small oven upon the plan of a baker’s, is best fitted for this purpose, which being heated to dull redness, and then extinguished, is ready to soften and afterwards anneal the conchoidal pieces.
Guinand’s dense optical flint glass, of specific gravity 3·616, consists by analysis, of oxide of lead 43·05; silica 44·3; and potash 11·75; but requires for its formation the following ingredients: 100 pounds of ground quartz; 100 pounds of fine red lead; 35 pounds of purified potash; and from 2 to 4 pounds of saltpetre. As this species of glass is injured by an excess of potash, it should be compounded with rather a defect of it, and melted by a proportionally higher or longer heat. A good optical glass has been made in Germany with 7 parts of pure red lead, 3 parts of finely ground quartz, and 2 parts of calcined borax.
5. Plate glass.
This, like English crown-glass, has a soda flux, whereas flint-glass requires potash, and is never of good quality when made with soda. We shall distribute our account of this manufacture under two heads.
1. The different furnaces and principal machines, without whose knowledge it would be impossible to understand the several processes of a plate-glass factory.
2. The materials which enter into the composition of this kind of glass, and the series of operations which they undergo; devoting our chief attention to the changes and improvements which long experience, enlightened by modern chemistry, has introduced into the great manufactory of Saint-Gobin in France, under the direction of M. Tassaert. It may however be remarked that the English plate-glass manufacture derives peculiar advantages from the excellence of its grinding and polishing machinery.
The clay for making the bricks and pots should be free from lime and iron, and very refractory. It is mixed with the powder of old pots passed through a silk sieve. If the clay be very plastic it will bear its own weight of the powder, but if shorter in quality, it will take only three-fifths. But before mingling it with the cement of old pots, it must be dried, bruised, then picked, ground, and finally elutriated by agitation with water, decantation through a hair sieve, and subsidence. The clay fluid after passing the sieve is calledslip(coulis.)
The furnace is built of dry bricks, cemented with slip, and has at each of its four angles a peculiar annealing arch, which communicates with the furnace interiorly, and thence derives sufficient heat to effect in part, if not wholly, the annealing of the pots, which are always deposited there a long time before they are used. Three of these arches exclusively appropriated to this purpose, are called pot-arches. The fourth is called thearch of the materials, because it serves for drying them before they are founded. Each arch has, moreover, a principal opening called the throat, another calledbonnard, by the French workmen, through which fire may be kindled in the arch itself, when it was thought to be necessary for the annealing of the pots; a practice now abandoned. The duration of a furnace is commonly a year, or at most 14 months; that of the arches is 30 years or upwards, as they are not exposed to so strong a heat.
In the manufacture of plate-glass two sorts of crucibles are employed, called the pots and the basins, (cuvettes). The first serve for containing the materials to be founded, and for keeping them a long time in the melted state. Thecuvettesreceive the melted glass after it is refined, and decant it out on the table to be rolled into a plate. Three pots hold liquid glass for six small basins, or for three large ones, the latter being employed for making mirrors of great dimensions, that is, 100 inches long and upwards.Furnaces have been lately constructed with 6 pots, and 12 cuvettes, 8 of which are small, and 4 large; and cuvettes of three sizes are made, calledsmall,middling, andlarge. The small are perfect cubes, the middling and the large ones are oblong parallelopipeds. Towards the middle of their height, a notch or groove, two or three inches broad, and an inch deep, is left, called the girdle of the cuvette, by which part they are grasped with the tongs, or rather are clamped in the iron frame. This frame goes round the four sides of the small cuvettes, and may be placed indifferently upon all their sides; in the other cuvettes, the girdle extends only over the two large sides, because they cannot be turned up. SeemT,fig.515.,p. 590.
The pot is an inverted truncated cone, like a crown glass pot. It is about 30 inches high, and from 30 to 32 inches wide, including its thickness. There is only a few inches of difference between the diameter of the top and that of the bottom. The bottom is 3 inches thick, and the body turns gradually thinner till it is an inch at the mouth of the pot.
The large building or factory, of which the melting furnace occupies the middle space, is called thehallein French. At Ravenhead in Lancashire it is called the foundry, and is of magnificent dimensions, being probably the largest apartment under one roof in Great Britain, since its length is 339 feet, and its breadth 155. The famoushalleof St. Gobin is 174 feet by 120. Along the two side walls of thehalle, which are solidly constructed of hewn stone, there are openings like those of common ovens. These ovens, destined for the annealing of the newly cast plates, bear the name ofcarquaises. Their soles are raised two feet and a half above the level of the ground, in order to bring them into the same horizontal plane with the casting tables. Their length, amounting sometimes to 30 feet, and their breadth to 20, are required in order to accommodate 6, 8, or even 10 plates of glass, alongside of each other. The front aperture is called the throat, and the back door the little throat (gueulette). The carquaise is heated by means of a fire-place of a square form called atisar, which extends along its side.
The founding or melting furnace is a square brick building laid on solid foundations, being from 8 to 10 feet in each of its fronts, and rising inside into a vault or crown about 10 feet high. At each angle of this square, a small oven or arch is constructed, likewise vaulted within, and communicating with the melting furnace by square flues, calledlunettes, through which it receives a powerful heat, though much inferior to that round the pots. The arches are so distributed as that two of the exterior sides of the furnace stand wholly free, while the two other sides, on which the arches encroach, offer a free space of only 3 feet. In this interjacent space, two principal openings of the furnace, of equal size in each side, are left in the building. These are called tunnels. They are destined for the introduction of the pots and the fuel.
On looking through the tunnels into the inside of the furnace, we perceive to the right hand and the left, along the twofreesides, two low platforms orsieges, at least 30 inches in height and breadth. Seefigs.506.508.
Thesesieges(seats) being intended to support the pots and the cuvettes filled with heavy materials, are terminated by a slope, which ensures the solidity of the fire-clay mound. The slopes of the two sieges extend towards the middle of the furnace so near as to leave a space of only from 6 to 10 inches between them for the hearth. The end of this is perforated with a hole sufficiently large to give passage to the liquid glass of a broken pot, while the rest is preserved by lading it from the mouth into the adjoining cuvette.
In the two large parallel sides of the furnace, other apertures are left much smaller than the tunnels, which are calledouvreaux(peep holes). The lower ones, or theouvreaux en bas, calledcuvetteopenings, because being allotted to the admission of these vessels, they are exactly on a level with the surface of thesieges, and with the floor of thehalle.Plates of cast iron form the thresholds of these openings, and facilitate the ingress and egress of the cuvettes. The apertures are arched at top, with hewn stone like the tunnels, and are 18 inches wide when the cuvettes are 16 inches broad.
The upper and smaller apertures, or the higherouvreauxcalled theladingholes, because they serve for transvasing the liquid glass, are three in number, and are placed 31 or 32 inches above the surface of thesieges. As the pots are only 30 inches high, it becomes easy to work through these openings either in the pots or thecuvettes. The pots stand opposite to the two pillars which separate the openings, so that a space is left between them for one or morecuvettesaccording to the size of the latter. It is obvious that if the tunnels andouvreauxwere left open, the furnace would not draw or take the requisite founding heat. Hence the openings are shut by means of fire-tiles. These are put in their places, and removed by means of two holes left in them, in correspondence with the two prongs of a large iron fork supported by an axle and two iron wheels, and terminated by two handles which the workmen lay hold of when they wish to move the tile.
The closing of the tunnel is more complex. When it is shut or ready for the firing,the aperture appears built up with bricks and mortar from the top of the arch to the middle of the tunnel. The remainder of the door-way is closed; 1. on the two sides down to the bottom, by a small upright wall, likewise of bricks, and 8 inches broad, called walls of theglaye; 2. by an assemblage of pieces called pieces of theglaye, because the whole of the closure of the tunnel bears the name ofglaye. The upper hole, 4 inches square, is called thetisar, through which billets of wood are tossed into the fire. Fuel is also introduced into the posterior openings. The fire is always kept up on the hearth of the tunnel, which is, on this account, 4 inches higher than the furnace-hearth, in order that the glass which may accidentally fall down on it, and which does not flow off by the bottom hole, may not impede the combustion. Should a body of glass, however, at any time obstruct the grate, it must be removed with rakes, by opening the tunnel and dismounting the fire-tile stoppers of theglaye.
Formerly wood fuel alone was employed for heating the melting-furnaces of the mirror-plate manufactory of Saint-Gobin; but within these few years, the Director of the works makes use with nearly equal advantage of pit-coal. In the same establishment, two melting furnaces may be seen, one of which is fixed with wood, and the other with coals, without any difference being perceptible in the quality of the glass furnished by either. It is not true, as has been stated, that the introduction of pit-coal has made it necessary to work with covered pots in order to avoid the discoloration of the materials, or that more alkali was required to compensate for the diminished heat in the covered pots. They are not now covered when pit-coal is used, and the same success is obtained as heretofore by leaving the materials two or three hours longer in the pots and the cuvettes. The construction of the furnaces in which coal is burned, is the same as that with wood, with slight modifications. Instead of the close bottomed hearth of the wood furnace, there is an iron grate in the coal-hearth through which the air enters, and the waste ashes descend.
When billets of wood were used as fuel, they were well dried beforehand, by being placed a few days on a frame work of wood called the wheel, placed two feet above the furnace and its arches, and supported on four pillars at some distance from the angles of the building.
Composition of plate-glass.—This is not made now, as formerly, by random trials. The progress of chemistry, the discovery of a good process for the manufacture of soda from sea salt, which furnishes a pure alkali of uniform power, and the certain methods of ascertaining its purity, have rendered this department of glass-making almost entirely new, in France. At Saint-Gobin no alkali is employed at present except artificial crystals of soda, prepared at the manufactory of Chauny, subsidiary to that establishment. Leaden chambers are also erected there for the production of sulphuric acid from sulphur. The first crop of soda crystals is reserved for the plate-glass manufacture, the other crystals and the mother-water salts are sold to the makers of inferior glass.
At the mirror-plate works of Ravenhead, near St. Helen’s in Lancashire, soda crystals, from the decomposition of the sulphate of soda by chalk and coal, have been also tried, but without equal success as at Saint-Gobin; the failure being unquestionably due to the impurity of the alkali. Hence, in the English establishment the soda is obtained by treating sea-salt with pearl-ash, whence carbonate of soda and muriate of potash result. The latter salt is crystallized out of the mingled solution, by evaporation at a moderate heat, for the carbonate of soda does not readily crystallize till the temperature of the solution fall below 60° Fahr. When the muriate of potash is thus removed, the alkaline carbonate is evaporated to dryness.
Long experience at Saint-Gobin has proved that one part of dry carbonate of soda is adequate to vitrify perfectly three parts of fine siliceous sand, as that of the mound of Aumont near Senlis, of Alum Bay in the Isle of Wight, or of Lynn in Norfolk. It is also known that the degree of heat has a great influence upon the vitrification, and that increase of temperature will compensate for a certain deficiency of alkali; for it is certain that a very strong fire always dissipates a good deal of the soda, and yet the glass is not less beautiful. The most perfect mirror-plate has constantly afforded to M. Vauquelin in analysis, a portion of soda inferior to what had been employed in its formation. Hence, it has become the practice to add for every 100 parts of cullet or broken plate that is mixed with the glass composition, one part of alkali, to make up for the loss that the old glass must have experienced.
To the above mentioned proportions of sand and alkali independently of the cullet which may be used, dry slaked lime carefully sifted is to be added to the amount of one seventh of the sand; or the proportion will be, sand 7 cwt.; quicklime 1 cwt.; dry carbonate of soda 2 cwt. and 37 lbs.; besides cullet. The lime improves the quality of the glass, rendering it less brittle and less liable to change. The preceding quantities of materials suitably blended, have been uniformly found to afford most advantageous results. The practice formerly was to dry that mixture, as soon as it was made, in thearch for the materials, but it has been ascertained that this step may be dispensed with, and the small portion of humidity present is dissipated almost instantly after they are thrown into the furnace. The coat of glaze previously applied to the inside of the pot, prevents the moisture from doing them any harm. For this reason, when the demand for glass at Saint-Gobin is very great, the materials are neither fritted nor even dried, but shovelled directly into the pot; this is called foundingraw. Six workmen are employed in shovelling-in the materials either fritted or otherwise, for the sake of expedition, and to prevent the furnace getting cooled. One-third of the mixture is introduced at first; whenever this is melted, the second third is thrown in, and then the last. These three stages are called the first, second, and third fusion or founding.
According to the ancient practice, the founding and refining were both executed in the pots, and it was not till the glass was refined, that it was laded into the cuvettes, where it remained only 3 hours, the time necessary for the disengagement of the air bubbles introduced by the transvasion, and for giving themetalthe proper consistence for casting. At present, the period requisite for founding and refining, is equally divided between the pots and thecuvettes. The materials are left 16 hours in the pots, and as many in thecuvettes; so that in 32 hours, the glass is ready to be cast. During the last two or three hours, the fireman ortiseurceases to add fuel; all the openings are shut, and the glass is allowed to assume the requisite fluidity; an operation calledstoppingthe glass, orperforming the ceremony.
The transfer of the glass into thecuvettes, is calledlading, (tréjetage). Before this is done, the cuvettes are cleared out, that is, the glass remaining on their bottom, is removed, and the ashes of the firing. They are lifted red hot out of the furnace by the method presently to be described, and placed on an iron plate, near a tub filled with water. The workmen, by means of iron paddles 6 feet long, flattened at one end and hammered to an edge, scoop out the fluid glass expeditiously, and throw it into water; thecuvettesare now returned to the furnace, and a few minutes afterwards the lading begins.
In this operation, ladles of wrought iron are employed, furnished with long handles, which are plunged into the pots through the upper openings or lading holes, and immediately transfer their charge of glass into the buckets. Each workman dips his ladle only three times, and empties its contents into the cuvette. By these three immersions (whence the termtréjeteris derived), the large iron spoon is heated so much that when plunged into a tub full of water, it makes a noise like the roaring of a lion, which may be heard to a very great distance.
The founding, refining, andceremony, being finished, they next try whether the glass be ready for casting. With this view, the end of a rod is dipped into the bucket, which is calleddrawing the glass, the portion taken up being allowed to run off, naturally assumes a pear-shape, from the appearance of which, they can judge if the consistence be proper, and if any air bubbles remain. If all be right, thecuvettesare taken out of the furnace, and conveyed to the part of thehallewhere their contents are to be poured out. This process requires peculiar instruments and manipulations.
Casting.—While the glass is refining, that is, coming to its highest point of perfection, preparation is made for the most important process, the casting of the plate, whose success crowns all the preliminary labours and cares. The oven orcarquaisedestined to receive and anneal the plate, is now heated by its small fire ortisar, to such a pitch that its sole may have the same temperature as that of the plates, being nearly red-hot at the moment of their being introduced. An unequal degree of heat in thecarquaisewould cause breakage of the glass. The casting table is then rolled towards the front door or throat, by means of levers, and its surface is brought exactly to the level of the sole of the oven.
The tableT,fig.515., is a mass of bronze, or now preferably cast-iron, about 10 feet long, 5 feet broad, and from 6 to 7 inches thick, supported by a frame of carpentry, which rests on three cast-iron wheels. At the end of the table opposite to that next to the front of the oven, is a very strong frame of timber-work, called the puppet or standard, upon which the bronze roller which spreads the glass is laid, before and after the casting. This is 5 feet long by 1 foot in diameter; it is thick in the metal but hollow in the axis. The same roller can serve only for two plates at one casting, when another is put in its place, and the first is laid aside to cool; for otherwise the hot roller would at a third casting, make the plate expand unequally, and cause it to crack. When the rollers are not in action, they are laid aside in strong wooden trestles, like those employed by sawyers. On the two sides of the table in the line of its length, are two parallel bars of bronze,t,t, destined to support the roller during its passage from end to end; the thickness of these bars determines that of the plate. The table being thus arranged, a crane is had recourse to for lifting the cuvette, and keeping it suspended, till it be emptied upon the table. This raising and suspension are effected by means of an iron gib, furnished with pullies, held horizontally, and which turns with them.
Casting table
The tongsT,fig.515., are made of four iron bars, bent into a square frame in their middle, for embracing the bucket. Four chains proceeding from the corners of the frameV, are united at their other ends into a ring which fits into the hook of the crane.
Things being thus arranged, all the workmen of the foundry co-operate in the manipulations of the casting. Two of them fetch, and place quickly in front of one of the lower openings, the small cuvette-carriage, which bears a forked bar of iron, having two prongs corresponding to the two holes left in the fire-tile door. This fork mounted on the axle of two cast-iron wheels, extends at its other end into two branches terminated by handles, by which the workmen move the fork, lift out the tile stopper, and set it down against the outer wall of the furnace.
The instant these men retire, two others push forward into the opening the extremity of the tongs-carriage, so as to seize the bucket by the girdle, or rather to clamp it. At the same time, a third workman is busy with an iron pinch or long chisel, detaching the bucket from its seat, to which it often adheres by some spilt glass; whenever it is free, he withdraws it from the furnace. Two powerful branches of iron united by a bolt, like two scissor blades, which open, come together, and join by a quadrant near the other end, form the tongs-carriage, which is mounted upon two wheels like a truck.
The same description will apply almost wholly to the iron-plate carriage, on which the bucket is laid the moment it is taken out of the furnace; the only difference in its construction is, that on the bent iron bars which form the tail or lower steps of this carriage (in place of the tongs) is permanently fastened an iron plate, on which the bucket is placed and carried for the casting.
Whenever thecuvetteis set upon its carriage, it must be rapidly wheeled to its station near the crane. The tongsTabove described are now applied to the girdle, and are then hooked upon the crane by the suspension chains. In this position the bucket is skimmed by means of a copper tool called a sabre, because it has nearly the shape of that weapon. Every portion of the matter removed by the sabre is thrown into a copper ladle (poche de gamin), which is emptied from time to time into a cistern of water. After being skimmed, the bucket is lifted up, and brushed very clean on its sides and bottom; then by the double handles of the suspension-tongs it is swung round to the table, where it is seized by the workmen appointed to turn it over; the roller having been previously laid on its ruler-bars, near the end of the table which is in contact with the annealing oven. Thecuvette-men begin to pour out towards the right extremityEof the roller, and terminate when it has arrived at the left extremityD. While preparing to do so, and at the instant of casting, two men place within the ruler-bar on each side, that is between the bar and the liquid glass, two iron instruments calledhands,m,m,m,m, which prevent the glass from spreading beyond the rulers, whilst another draws along the table the wiping barc,c, wrapped in linen, to remove dust, or any small objects which may interpose between the table and the liquid glass.
Whenever the melted glass is poured out, two men spread it over the table, guiding the roller slowly and steadily along, beyond the limits of the glass, and then run it smartly into the wooden standard prepared for its reception, in place of the trestlesV,V.
The empty bucket, while still red-hot, is hung again upon the crane, set on its plate-iron carriage, freed from its tongs, and replaced in the furnace, to be speedily cleared out anew, and charged with fresh fluid from the pots. If while the roller glides along, the two workmen who stand by with picking tools, perceivetearsin the matter in advance of the roller, and can dexterously snatch them out, they are suitably rewarded, according to the spot where the blemish lay, whether in the centre, where it would have proved most detrimental, or near the edge. These tears proceed usually fromsmall portions of semi-vitrified matter which fall from the vault of the furnace, and from their density occupy the bottom of thecuvettes.
While the plate is still red-hot and ductile, about 2 inches of its end opposite to thecarquaisedoor is turned up with a tool; this portion is called thehead of the mirror; against the outside of this head, the shovel, in the shape of a rake without teeth, is applied, with which the plate is eventually pushed into the oven, while two other workmen press upon the upper part of the head with a wooden pole, eight feet long, to preserve the plate in its horizontal position, and prevent its being warped. The plate is now left for a few moments near the throat of thecarquaise, to give it solidity; after which it is pushed further in by means of a very long iron tool, whose extremity is forked like the letter y, and hence bears that name; and is thereby arranged in the most suitable spot for allowing other plates to be introduced.
However numerous the manipulations executed from the moment of withdrawing thecuvettefrom the furnace, till the cast-plate is pushed into the annealing oven, I have seen them all performed in less than five minutes; such silence, order, regularity, and despatch prevail in the establishment of Saint-Gobin.
When all the plates of the same casting have been placed in thecarquaise, it is sealed up, that is to say, all its orifices are closed with sheets of iron, surrounded and made tight with plastic loam. With this precaution, the cooling goes on slowly and equably in every part, for no cooling current can have access to the interior of the oven.
After they are perfectly cooled, the plates are carefully withdrawn one after another, keeping them all the while in a horizontal position, till they are entirely out of thecarquaise.As soon as each plate is taken out, one set of workmen lower quickly and steadily the edge which they hold, while another set raise the opposite edge, till the glass be placed upright on two cushions stuffed with straw, and covered with canvas. In this vertical position they pass through, beneath the lower edge of the plate, three girths or straps each four feet long, thickened with leather in their middle, and ending in wooden handles; so that one embraces the middle of the plate, and the other two, the ends. The workmen, six in number, now seize the handles of the straps, lift up the glass closely to their bodies, and convey it with a regular step to the warehouse. Here the head of the plate is first cut off with a diamond square, and then the whole is attentively examined, in reference to its defects and imperfections, to determine the sections which must be made of it, and the eventual size of the pieces. The pairings and small cuttings detached are set aside, in order to be ground and mixed with the raw materials of another glass-pot.
The apartment in which the roughing-down and smoothing of the plates is performed, is furnished with a considerable number of stone tables, truly hewn and placed apart like billiard tables, in a horizontal position, about 2 feet above the ground. They are rectangular, and of different sizes proportional to the dimensions of the plates, which they ought always to exceed a little. These tables are supported either on stone pillars or wooden frames, and are surrounded with a wooden board whose upper edge stands somewhat below their level, and leaves in the space between it and the stone all round an interval of 3 or 4 inches, of which we shall presently see the use.
A cast plate, unless formed on a table quite new, has always one of its faces, the one next the table, rougher than the other; and with this face the roughing-down begins. With this view, the smoother face is cemented on the stone table with Paris-plaster. But often instead of one plate, several are cemented alongside of each other, those of the same thickness being carefully selected. They then take one or more crude plates of about one-third or one-fourth the surface of the plate fixed to the table, and fix it on them with liquid gypsum to the large base of a quadrangular truncated pyramid of stone; of a weight proportioned to its extent, or about a pound to the square inch. This pyramidal muller, if small sized, bears at each of its angles of the upper face a peg or ball, which the grinders lay hold of in working it; but when of greater dimension, there is adapted to it horizontally a wheel of slight construction, 8 or 10 feet in diameter, whose circumference is made of wood rounded so as to be seized with the hand. The upper plate is now rubbed over the lower ones, with moistened sand applied between.
This operation is however performed by machinery. The under plate being fixed or imbedded in stucco, on a solid table, the upper one likewise imbedded by the same cement in a cast-iron frame, has a motion of circum-rotation given to it closely resembling that communicated by the human hand and arm, moist sand being supplied between them. While an excentric mechanism imparts this double rotatory movement to the upper plate round its own centre, and of that centre round a point in the lower plate, this plate placed on a moveable platform changes its position by a slow horizontal motion, both in the direction of its length and its breadth. By this ingenious contrivance, which pervades the whole of the grinding and polishing machinery, a remarkable regularity of friction and truth of surface is produced. When the plates are sufficiently worked on one face, they are reversed in the frames, and worked together onthe other. The Paris plaster is usually coloured red, in order to shew any defects in the glass.
The smoothing of the plates is effected on the same principles by the use of moist emery washed to successive degrees of fineness, for the successive stages of the operation; and the polishing process is performed by rubbers of hat-felt and a thin paste of colcothar and water. The colcothar, called also crocus, is red oxide of iron prepared by the ignition of copperas, with grinding and elutriation of the residuum.
The last part of the polishing process is performed by hand. This is managed by females, who slide one plate over another, while a little moistened putty of tin finely levigated is thrown between.
Large mirror-plates are now the indispensable ornaments of every large and sumptuous apartment; they diffuse lustre and gaiety round them, by reflecting the rays of light in a thousand lines, and by multiplying indefinitely the images of objects placed between opposite parallel planes.
Thesilveringofplanemirrors consists in applying a layer of tin-foil alloyed with mercury to their posterior surface. The workshop for executing this operation is provided with a great many smooth tables of fine freestone or marble, truly levelled, having round their contour a rising ledge, within which there is a gutter or groove which terminates by a slight slope in a spout at one of the corners. These tables rest upon an axis of wood or iron which runs along the middle of their length; so that they may be inclined easily into an angle with the horizon of 12 or 13 degrees, by means of a hand-screw fixed below. They are also furnished with brushes, with glass rules, with rolls of woollen stuff, several pieces of flannel, and a great many weights of stone or cast-iron.
The glass-tinner, standing towards one angle of his table, sweeps and wipes its surface with the greatest care, along the whole surface to be occupied by the mirror-plate; then taking a sheet of tin-foil adapted to his purpose, he spreads it on the table, and applies it closely with a brush, which removes any folds or wrinkles. The table being horizontal, he pours over the tin a small quantity of quicksilver, and spreads it with a roll of woollen stuff; so that the tin-foil is penetrated and apparently dissolved by the mercury. Placing now two rules, to the right and to the left, on the borders of the sheet, he pours on the middle a quantity of mercury sufficient to form every where a layer about the thickness of a crown piece; then removing with a linen rag the oxide or other impurities, he applies to it the edge of a sheet of paper, and advances it about half an inch. Meanwhile another workman is occupied in drying very nicely the surface of the glass that is to be silvered, and then hands it to the master workman, who, laying it flat, places its anterior edge first on the table, and then on the slip of paper; now pushing the glass forwards, he takes care to slide it along so that neither air nor any coat of oxide on the mercury can remain beneath the plate. When this has reached its position, he fixes it there by a weight applied on its side, and gives the table a gentle slope, to run off all the loose quicksilver by the gutter and spout. At the end of five minutes he covers the mirror with a piece of flannel, and loads it with a great many weights, which are left upon it for 24 hours, under a gradually increased inclination of the table. By this time the plate is ready to be taken off the marble table, and laid on a wooden one sloped like a reading desk, with its under edge resting on the ground, while the upper is raised successively to different elevations by means of a cord passing over a pulley in the ceiling of the room. Thus the mirror has its slope graduated from day to day, till it finally arrives at a vertical position. About a month is required for draining out the superfluous mercury from large mirrors; and from 18 to 20 days from those of moderate size. The sheets of tin-foil being always somewhat larger than the glass-plate, their edges must be pared smooth off, before the plate is lifted off the marble table.
Process for silvering concave mirrors.—Having prepared some very fine Paris plaster by passing it through a silk sieve, and some a little coarser passed through hair-cloth, the first is to be made into a creamy liquor with water, and after smearing the concave surface of the glass with a film of olive oil, the fine plaster is to be poured into it, and spread by turning about, till a layer of plaster be formed about a tenth of an inch thick. The second or coarse plaster, being now made into a thin paste, poured over the first, and moved about, readily incorporates with it, in its imperfectly hardened state. Thus an exact mould is obtained of the concave surface of the glass, which lies about three-quarters of an inch thick upon it, but is not allowed to rise above its outer edge.
The mould being perfectly dried, must be marked with a point of coincidence on the glass, in order to permit of its being exactly replaced in the same position, after it has been lifted out. The mould is now removed, and a round sheet of tin-foil is applied to it, so large that an inch of its edge may project beyond the plaster all round; this border being necessary for fixing the tin to the contour of the mould by pellets of white wax softened a little with some Venice turpentine. Before fixing the tin-foil, however, it must be properly spread over the mould, so as to remove every wrinkle; which thepliancy of the foil easily admits of, by uniform and well-directed pressure with the fingers.
The glass being placed in the hollow bed of a tight sack filled with fine sand, set in a well-jointed box capable of retaining quicksilver, its concave surface must be dusted with sifted wood-ashes, or Spanish white contained in a small cotton bag, and then well wiped with clean linen rags, to free it from all adhering impurity, and particularly the moisture of the breath. The concavity must be now filled with quicksilver to the very lip, and the mould being dipped a little way into it, is withdrawn, and the adhering mercury is spread over the tin with a soft flannel roll, so as to amalgamate and brighten its whole surface, taking every precaution against breathing on it. Whenever this brightening seems complete, the mould is to be immersed, not vertically, but one edge at first, and thus obliquely downwards till the centres coincide; the mercury meanwhile being slowly displaced, and the mark on the mould being brought finally into coincidence with the mark on the glass. The mould is now left to operate by its own weight, in expelling the superfluous mercury, which runs out upon the sand-bag and thence into a groove in the bottom of the box, whence it overflows by a spout into a leather bag of reception. After half an hour’s repose, the whole is cautiously inverted, to drain off the quicksilver more completely. For this purpose, a box like the first is provided with a central support rising an inch above its edges; the upper surface of the support being nearly equal in diameter to that of the mould. Two workmen are required to execute the following operation. Each steadies the mould with the one hand, and raises the box with the other, taking care not to let the mould be deranged, which they rest on the (convex) support of the second box. Before inverting the first apparatus, however, the reception bag must be removed, for fear of spilling its mercury. The redundant quicksilver now drains off; and if the weight of the sand-bag is not thought sufficient, supplementary weights are added at pleasure. The whole is left in this position for two or three days. Before separating the mirror from its mould, the border of tin-foil, fixed to it with wax, must be pared off with a knife. Then the weight and sand-bag being removed, the glass is lifted up with its interior coating of tin-amalgam.
For silvering a convex surface.—A concave plaster mould is made on the convex glass, and their points of coincidence are defined by marks. This mould is to be lined with tin-foil, with the precautions above described; and the tin surface being first brightened with a little mercury, the mould is then filled with the liquid metal. The glass is to be well cleaned, and immersed in the quicksilver bath, which will expel the greater part of the metal. A sand-bag is now to be laid on the glass, and the whole is to be inverted as in the former case on a support; when weights are to be applied to the mould, and the mercury is left to drain off for several days.
If the glass be of large dimensions, 30 or 40 inches, for example, another method is adopted. A circular frame or hollow ring of wood or iron is prepared, of twice the diameter of the mirror, supported on three feet. A circular piece of new linen cloth of close texture is cut out, of equal diameter to the ring, which is hemmed stoutly at the border, and furnished round the edge with a row of small holes, for lacing the cloth to the ring, so as to leave no folds in it, but without bracing it so tightly as to deprive it of the elasticity necessary for making it into a mould. This apparatus being set horizontally, a leaf of tin-foil is spread over it, of sufficient size to cover the surface of the glass; the tin is first brightened with mercury, and then as much of the liquid metal is poured on as a plane mirror requires. The convex glass, well cleaned, is now set down on the cloth, and its own weight, joined to some additional weights, gradually presses down the cloth, and causes it to assume the form of the glass which thus comes into close contact with the tin submersed under the quicksilver. The redundant quicksilver is afterwards drained off by inversion, as in common cases.
The following recipe has been given for silvering the inside of glass globes. Melt in an iron ladle or a crucible, equal parts of tin and lead, adding to the fused alloy one part of bruised bismuth. Stir the mixture well and pour into it as it cools two parts of dry mercury; agitating anew and skimming off the drossy film from the surface of the amalgam. The inside of the glass globe being freed from all adhering dust and humidity, is to be gently heated, while a little of the semi-fluid amalgam is introduced. The liquidity being increased by the slight degree of heat, the metallic coating is applied to all the points of the glass, by turning round the globe in every direction, but so slowly as to favour the adhesion of the alloy. This silvering is not so substantial as that of plane mirrors: but the form of the vessel, whether a globe, an ovoid, or a cylinder, conceals or palliates the defects by counter reflection from the opposite surfaces.
Coloured Glasses and Artificial Gems.—The general vitreous body preferred by Fontanieu in his treatise on this subject, which he calls the Mayence base, is prepared in the following manner. Eight ounces of pure rock-crystal or flint in powder, mixed with 24 ounces of salt of tartar, are baked and left to cool. This is afterwards pouredinto a basin of hot water, and treated with dilute nitric acid till it ceases to effervesce; when the frit is to be washed till the water comes off tasteless. The frit is now dried and mixed with 12 ounces of fine white lead, and the mixture is to be levigated and elutriated with a little distilled water. An ounce of calcined borax is to be added to about 12 ounces of the preceding mixture in a dry state, the whole rubbed together in a porcelain mortar, then melted in a clean crucible, and poured out into cold water. This vitreous matter must be dried, and melted a second and a third time, always in a new crucible, and after each melting poured into cold water as at first, taking care to separate the lead that may be revived. To the last glass ground to powder, five drachms of nitre are to be added, and the mixture being melted for the last time, a mass of crystal will be found in the crucible with a beautiful lustre. The diamond is well imitated by this Mayence base. Another very fine white crystal may be obtained, according to M. Fontanieu, from eight ounces of white lead, two ounces of powdered borax, half a grain of manganese, and three ounces of rock-crystal treated as above.
The colours of artificial gems are obtained from metallic oxides. Theoriental topazis prepared by adding oxide of antimony to the base; the amethyst from manganese with a little purple precipitate of Cassius; the beryl from antimony and a very little cobalt; yellow artificial diamond and opal, from horn-silver (chloride of silver); blue stone from cobalt. SeePastesandPigments Vitrifiable.
The following are recipes for making the different kinds of glass.
1.Bottle glass.—11 pounds of dry glauber salts; 12 pounds of soaper salts; a half bushel of waste soap ashes; 56 pounds of sand; 22 pounds of glass skimmings; 1 cwt. of green broken glass; 25 pounds of basalt. This mixture affords a dark green glass.
2. Yellow or white sand 100 parts; kelp 30 to 40; lixiviated wood ashes from 160 to 170 parts; fresh wood ashes 30 to 40 parts; potter’s clay 80 to 100 parts; cullet or broken glass 100. If basalt be used, the proportion of kelp may be diminished.
In two bottle-glass houses in the neighbourhood of Valenciennes, an unknown ingredient, sold by a Belgian, was employed, which he calledspar. This was discovered by chemical analysis to be sulphate of baryta. The glass-makers observed that the bottles which contained some of this substance were denser, more homogeneous, more fusible, and worked more kindly, than those formed of the common materials. When one prime equivalent of the silicate of baryta = 123, is mixed with three primes of the silicate of soda = (3 × 77·6) = 232·8, and exposed in a proper furnace, vitrification readily ensues, and the glass may be worked a little under a cherry-red heat, with as much ease as a glass of lead, and has nearly the same lustre. Since the ordinary run of glass-makers are not familiar with atomic proportions, they should have recourse to a scientific chemist, to guide them in using such a proportion of sulphate of baryta as may suit their other vitreous ingredients; for an excess or defect of any of them will injure the quality of the glass.
3.Green window glass, or broad glass.—11 pounds of dry glauber salt; 10 pounds of soaper salts; half a bushel of lixiviated soap waste; 50 pounds of sand; 22 pounds of glass pot skimmings; 1 cwt. of broken green glass.
4.Crown glass.—300 parts of fine sand; 200 of good soda ash; 33 of lime; from 250 to 300 of broken glass; 60 of white sand; 30 of purified potash; 15 of saltpetre (1 of borax),1⁄2of arsenious acid.
5.Nearly white table glass.—20 pounds of potashes; 11 pounds of dry glauber salts; 16 of soaper salt; 55 of sand; 140 of cullet of the same kind. Another.—100 of sand; 235 of kelp; 60 of wood ashes; 11⁄3of manganese; 100 of broken glass.
6.White table glass.—40 pounds of potashes; 11 of chalk; 76 of sand;1⁄2of manganese; 95 of white cullet.
Another.—50 of purified potashes; 100 of sand; 20 of chalk; and 2 of saltpetre.
Bohemian table or plate glass is made with 63 parts of quartz; 26 of purified potashes; 11 of sifted slaked lime, and some cullet.
7.Crystal glass.—60 parts of purified potashes; 120 of sand; 24 of chalk; 2 of saltpetre; 2 of arsenious acid;1⁄16of manganese.
Another.—70 of purified pearl ashes; 120 of white sand; 10 of saltpetre;1⁄2of arsenious acid;1⁄3of manganese.
A third.—67 of sand; 23 of purified pearl ashes; 10 of sifted slaked lime;1⁄4of manganese; (5 to 8 of red lead).
A fourth.—120 of white sand; 50 of red lead; 40 of purified pearl ash; 20 of saltpetre;1⁄3of manganese.
A fifth.—120 of white sand; 40 of pearl ash purified; 35 of red lead; 13 of saltpetre;1⁄12of manganese.
A sixth.—30 of the finest sand; 20 of red lead; 8 of pearl ash purified; 2 of saltpetre; a little arsenious acid and manganese.
A seventh.—100 of sand; 45 of red lead; 35 of purified pearl ashes;1⁄7of manganese;1⁄3of arsenious acid.
8.Plate glass.—Very white sand 300 parts; dry purified soda 100 parts; carbonate of lime 43 parts; manganese 1; cullet 300.
Another.—Finest sand 720; purified soda 450; quicklime 80 parts; saltpetre 25 parts; cullet 425.
A little borax has also been prescribed; much of it communicates an exfoliating property to glass.
Tabular view of the composition of several kinds of Glass.
No. 1. is a very beautiful white wine glass of Neuwelt in Bohemia.
No. 2. Glass tubes, much more fusible than common wine glasses.
No. 3. Crown glass of Bohemia.
No. 4. Green glass, for medicinal phials and retorts.
No. 5. Flask glass of St. Etienne, for which some heavy spar is used.
No. 6. Glass of Sèvres.
No. 7. London glass employed for chemical and physical purposes.
No. 8. English flint glass.
No. 9. Guinand’s flint glass.
The manufacture ofGlass beadsat Murano near Venice, is most ingeniously simple. Tubes of glass of every colour, are drawn out to great lengths in a gallery adjoining the glass-house pots, in the same way as the more moderate lengths of thermometer and barometer tubes are drawn in our glass-houses. These tubes are chopped into very small pieces of nearly uniform length on the upright edge of a fixed chisel. These elementary cylinders being then put in a heap into a mixture of fine sand and wood ashes, are stirred about with an iron spatula till their cavities get filled. This curious mixture is now transferred to an iron pan suspended over a moderate fire, and continually stirred about as before, whereby the cylindrical bits assume a smooth rounded form; so that when removed from the fire and cleared out in the bore, they constitute beads, which are packed in casks, and exported in prodigious quantities to almost every country, especially to Africa and Spain.