E.

EARTHS. (Terres, Fr.;Erden, Germ.) Modern science has demonstrated that the substances called primitive earths, and which prior to the great electro-chemical career of Sir H. Davy, were deemed to be elementary matter, are all compounds of certain metallic bases and oxygen, with the exception ofsilica, whose base,silicon, being analogous to boron, has led that compound to be regarded as an acid; a title characteristic of the part it extensively performs in neutralizing alkaline bodies, in mineral nature, and in the processes of art. Four of the earths, when pure, possess decided alkaline properties, being more or less soluble in water, having (at least 3 of them) an acrid alkaline taste, changing the purple infusion of red cabbage to green, most readily saturating the acids, and affording thereby neutro-saline crystals. These four arebaryta,strontia,lime(calcia), andmagnesia. The earths proper are five in number;alumina,glucina,yttria,zirconia, andthorina. These do not change the colour of infusion of cabbage or tincture of litmus, do not readily neutralize acidity, and are quite insoluble in water. The alkalies are soluble in water, even when carbonated; a property which distinguishes them from the alkaline earths.Lithiamust for this reason be considered to be an alkali. See the above substances in their alphabetical places.

EAU DE COLOGNE. This preparation has long possessed great celebrity, in consequence chiefly of the numerous virtues ascribed to it by its venders; and is resorted to by many votaries of fashion as a panacea against ailments of every kind. It is however nothing more than aromatized alcohol, and as such, an agreeable companion of the toilet. Numerous fictitious recipes have been offered for preparingeau de Cologne; the following may be reckoned authentic, having been imparted by Farina himself to a friend.Take 60 gallons of silent brandy; sage, and thyme, each 6 drachms; balm-mint and spearmint, each 12 ounces; calamus aromaticus, 4 drachms; root of angelica, 2 drachms; camphor, 1 drachm; petals of roses and violets, each 4 ounces; flowers of lavender, 2 ounces; flowers of orange, 4 drachms; wormwood, 1 ounce; nutmegs, cloves, cassia lignea, mace, each 4 drachms. Two oranges and two lemons, cut in pieces. Allow the whole to macerate in the spirit during 24 hours, then distil off 40 gallons by the heat of a water bath. Add to the product:Essence of lemons, of cedrat, of balm-mint, of lavender, each 1 ounce 4 drachms; neroli and essence of the seed of anthos, each 4 drachms; essence of jasmin, 1 ounce; of bergamot, 12 ounces. Filter and preserve for use.Cadet Gassincourt has proposed to prepareeau de Cologneby the following recipe: Take alcohol at 32° B., 2 quarts; neroli, essence of cedrat, of orange, of lemon, of bergamot, of rosemary, each 24 drops; add 2 drachms of the seeds of lesser cardamoms, distil by the heat of a water bath a pint and a half. When prepared as thus by simple mixture of essences without distillation, it is never so good.

Take 60 gallons of silent brandy; sage, and thyme, each 6 drachms; balm-mint and spearmint, each 12 ounces; calamus aromaticus, 4 drachms; root of angelica, 2 drachms; camphor, 1 drachm; petals of roses and violets, each 4 ounces; flowers of lavender, 2 ounces; flowers of orange, 4 drachms; wormwood, 1 ounce; nutmegs, cloves, cassia lignea, mace, each 4 drachms. Two oranges and two lemons, cut in pieces. Allow the whole to macerate in the spirit during 24 hours, then distil off 40 gallons by the heat of a water bath. Add to the product:

Essence of lemons, of cedrat, of balm-mint, of lavender, each 1 ounce 4 drachms; neroli and essence of the seed of anthos, each 4 drachms; essence of jasmin, 1 ounce; of bergamot, 12 ounces. Filter and preserve for use.

Cadet Gassincourt has proposed to prepareeau de Cologneby the following recipe: Take alcohol at 32° B., 2 quarts; neroli, essence of cedrat, of orange, of lemon, of bergamot, of rosemary, each 24 drops; add 2 drachms of the seeds of lesser cardamoms, distil by the heat of a water bath a pint and a half. When prepared as thus by simple mixture of essences without distillation, it is never so good.

EAU DE LUCE, is a compound formed of the distilled oil of amber and water of ammonia.

ELEMI, is a resin which exudes from incisions made during dry weather through the bark of theamyris elemifera, a tree which grows in South America and Brazil. It comes to us in yellow, tender, transparent lumps, which readily soften by the heat of the hand. They have a strong aromatic odour, a hot spicy taste, and contain 121⁄2per cent. of ethereous oil. The crystalline resin of elemi has been calledElémine. It is used in making lacquer, to give toughness to the varnish.

EBULLITION. (Eng. and Fr.;Kochen, Germ.) When the bottom of an open vessel containing water is exposed to heat, the lowest stratum of fluid immediately expands, becomes therefore specifically lighter, and is forced upwards by the superior gravity of the superincumbent colder and heavier particles. The heat is in this way diffused through the whole liquid mass, not by simple communication of that power from particle to particle as in solids, called theconductionof caloric, but by a translation of the several particles from the bottom to the top, and the top to the bottom, in alternate succession. This is denominated thecarryingpower of fluids, being common to both liquid and gaseous bodies. These internal movements may be rendered very conspicuous and instructive, by mingling a little powdered amber with water, contained in atall glass cylinder, standing upon a sand-bath. A column of the heated and lighter particles will be seen ascending near the axis of the cylinder, surrounded by a hollow column of the cooler ones descending near the sides. That this molecular translation or loco-motion is almost the sole mode in which fluids get heated, may be demonstrated by placing the middle of a pretty long glass tube, nearly filled with water, obliquely over an argand flame. The upper half of the liquid will soon boil, but the portion under the middle will continue cool, so that a lump of ice may remain for a considerable time at the bottom. When the heat is rapidly applied, the liquid is thrown into agitation, in consequence of elastic vapour being suddenly generated at the bottom of the vessel, and being as suddenly condensed at a little distance above it by the surrounding cold columns. These alternate expansions and contractions of volume become more manifest as the liquid becomes hotter, and constitute thesimmeringvibratory sound which is the prelude of ebullition. The whole mass being now heated to a pitch compatible with its permanent elasticity, becomes turbulent and explosive under the continued influence of fire, and emitting more or less copious volumes of vapour is said to boil. The further elevation of temperature, by the influence of caloric, becomes impossible in these circumstances with almost all liquids, because the vapour carries off from them as much heat in a latent state as they are capable of receiving from the fire.The temperature at which liquids boil in the open air varies with the degree of atmospheric pressure, being higher as that is increased, and lower as it is diminished. Hence boiling water is colder by some degrees in bad weather, or in an elevated situation, with a depressed barometer, than in fine weather, or at the bottom of a coal-pit, when the barometer is elevated. A high column of liquid also by resisting the discharge of the steam raises the boiling point. Invacuo, all liquids boil at a temperature about 124° F. lower than under the average atmospheric pressure. For a table of elasticities, seeVapour. Gay Lussac has shown that liquids are converted into vapours more readily or with less turbulence, when they are in contact with angular or irregular, than with smooth surfaces; that they therefore boil at a heat 2° F. lower in metallic than in glass vessels, probably owing to the greater polish of the latter. For example, if into water about to boil in a glass matras, iron filings, ground glass, or any other insoluble powder be thrown, such a brisk ebullition will be instantly determined, as will sometimes throw the water out of the vessel; the temperature at the same time sinking two degrees F. It would thence appear that the power of caloric, like that of electricity, becomes concentrated by points.The following table exhibits the boiling heats, by Fahrenheit’s scale, of the most important liquids:—Ether, specific gravity 0·7365 at 48°100°Carburet of sulphur,113Alcohol, sp. grav. 0·813Ure,173·5Nitric acid,. grav.1·500Dalton,210Water,212Saturated solution of Glauber salt,Biot,2131⁄3Satdo.ted soludo.n ofAcetate of leaddo.2152⁄3Satdo.ted soludo.n ofSea saltdo.2241⁄3Satdo.ted soludo.n ofMuriate of lime,Ure,285Satdo.ted soludo.n of Muriado.of lime, 31 + water 2,do.230Satdo.ted soludo.n of Muriado.of lime35·5 +wdo.r64·5,do.235Satdo.ted soludo.n of Muriado.of lime40·5 +wdo.r59·5,do.240Muriatic acid, sp. grav. 1·094Dalton,232Muriado.c acid, sdo.av.1·127do.222Nitric acid,id, sp.do.av.1·420do.248Nitrdo.acid, sp.do.av.1·30do.236Rectified petroleumUre,306Oil of turpentinedo.316Sulphuric acid, sp. grav. 1·848Dalton,600Sulphdo.c acid, spdo.av.1·810do.473Sulphdo.c acid, spdo.av.1·780do.435Sulphdo.c acid, spdo.av.1·700do.374Sulphdo.c acid, spdo.av.1·650do.350Sulphdo.c acid, spdo.av.1·520do.290Sulphdo.c acid, spdo.av.1·408do.260Sulphdo.c acid, spdo.av.1·300+do.240Phosphorusdo.554Sulphurdo.570Linseed oildo.640MercuryDulong,662do.Crighton,656Saturated solution ofacetate of soda, containing60per cent.Griffiths,256Saturatedo.Nitrate of soda,60do.246Saturatedo.Rochelle salt,90do.240Saturatedo.Nitre,74do.238Saturatedo.Muriate of ammonia,50do.236Saturatedo.Tartrate of potash,68do.234Saturatedo.Muriate of soda,30do.224Saturatedo.Sulphate of magnesia,57·5do.222Saturatedo.Borax,52·5do.222Saturatedo.Phosphate of soda,?do.222Saturatedo.Carbonate of soda,?do.220Saturatedo.Alum,52do.220Saturatedo.Chlorate of potash,40do.218Saturatedo.Sulphate of copper,45do.216

The temperature at which liquids boil in the open air varies with the degree of atmospheric pressure, being higher as that is increased, and lower as it is diminished. Hence boiling water is colder by some degrees in bad weather, or in an elevated situation, with a depressed barometer, than in fine weather, or at the bottom of a coal-pit, when the barometer is elevated. A high column of liquid also by resisting the discharge of the steam raises the boiling point. Invacuo, all liquids boil at a temperature about 124° F. lower than under the average atmospheric pressure. For a table of elasticities, seeVapour. Gay Lussac has shown that liquids are converted into vapours more readily or with less turbulence, when they are in contact with angular or irregular, than with smooth surfaces; that they therefore boil at a heat 2° F. lower in metallic than in glass vessels, probably owing to the greater polish of the latter. For example, if into water about to boil in a glass matras, iron filings, ground glass, or any other insoluble powder be thrown, such a brisk ebullition will be instantly determined, as will sometimes throw the water out of the vessel; the temperature at the same time sinking two degrees F. It would thence appear that the power of caloric, like that of electricity, becomes concentrated by points.

The following table exhibits the boiling heats, by Fahrenheit’s scale, of the most important liquids:—

EDULCORATE, (Edulcorer, Fr.;Aussüssen, Germ.) is a word introduced by the alchemists to signify the sweetening, or rather rendering insipid, of acrimonious pulverulent substances, by copious ablutions with water. It means, in modern language, the washing away of all particles soluble in water, by agitation or trituration with this fluid, and subsequent decantation or filtration.

EFFERVESCENCE. (Eng. and Fr.;Aufbrausen, Germ.) When gaseous matter is suddenly extricated with a hissing sound during a chemical mixture, or by the application of a chemical solvent to a solid, the phenomenon, from its resemblance to that of simmering or boiling water, is called effervescence. The most familiar example is afforded in the solution of sodaic powders; in which the carbonic acid gas of sesquicarbonate of soda, is extricated by the action of citric, or tartaric acid.

EFFLORESCENCE, (Eng. and Fr.;Verwittern, Germ.) is the spontaneous conversion of a solid, usually crystalline, into a powder, in consequence either of the abstraction of the combined water by the air, as happens to the crystals of sulphate and carbonate of soda; or by the absorption of oxygen and the formation of a saline compound, as in the case of alum schist, and iron pyrites. Saltpetre appears as an efflorescence upon the ground and walls in many situations.

EDGE-TOOLS. SeeCutleryandSteel.

EGGS, HATCHING. SeeIncubation, Artificial.

EIDER-DOWN, is a kind of precious down, so called because it is obtained from theEider-duck. These birds build their nests among precipitous rocks, and the female lines them with fine feathers plucked from her breast, among which she lays her five eggs. The natives of the districts frequented by the eider-ducks let themselves down by cords among the dangerous cliffs, to collect the down from the nests. It is used to fill coverlets, pillows, cushions, &c.

ELAINE is the name given by Chevreul to the thin oil, which may be expelled from tallow, and other fats, solid or fluid, by pressure either in their natural state, or after being saponified, so as to harden thestearine. It may be extracted also by digesting the fat in 7 or 8 times its weight of boiling alcohol, spec. grav. 0·798, till it dissolves the whole. Upon cooling the solution, the stearine falls to the bottom, while the elaine collects in a layer like olive oil, upon the surface of the supernatant solution, reduced by evaporation to one eighth of its bulk. If this elaine be now exposed to a cold temperature, it will deposit its remaining stearine, and become pure. SeeFat,Oils, andStearine.

ELASTIC BANDS. (Tissus Elastiques, Fr.;Federharz-zeige, Germ.) The manufacture of braces and garters, with threads of caoutchouc, either naked or covered, seems to have originated, some time ago, in Vienna, whence it was a few years since imported into Paris, and thence into this country. At first the pear-shaped bottle of Indian rubber was cut into long narrow strips by the scissors; a single operative turning off only about 100 yards in a day, by cutting the pear in a spiral direction. He succeeded next in separating with a pair of pincers the several layers of which the bottle was composed. Another mode of obtaining fine threads was to cut them out of a bottle which had been rendered thin by inflation with a forcing pump. All these operations are facilitated by previously steeping the caoutchouc in boiling water, in its moderately inflated state. More recently, machines have been successfully employed for cutting out these filaments, but for this purpose the bottle of caoutchouc is transformed into a disc of equal thickness in all its parts, and perfectly circular. This preliminary operation is executed as follows: 1. the bottle, softened in hot water, is squeezed between the two plates of a press, the neck having been removed beforehand, as useless in this point of view; 2. the bottle is then cut into two equal parts, and is allowed to consolidateby cooling before subjecting it to the cutting instrument. When the bottle is strong enough, and of variable thickness in its different points, each half is submitted to powerful pressure in a very strong cylindrical mould of metal, into which a metallic plunger descends, which forces the caoutchouc to take the form of a flat cylinder with a circular base. The mould is plunged into hot water during the compression. A stem or rod of iron, which goes across the hollow mould and piston, retains the latter in its place, notwithstanding the resilience of the caoutchouc, when the mould is taken from the press. The mould being then cooled in water, the caoutchouc is withdrawn.The transformation of the disc of caoutchouc into fine threads is performed by two machines; the first of which cuts it into a riband of equal thickness in its whole extent, running in a spiral direction from the circumference to the centre; the second subdivides this riband lengthwise into several parallel filaments much narrower but equally thick.The followingfigs.366,367,368.represent the machine for cutting the spiral riband. The discD, placed horizontally, turns round its vertical axis, so as to present its periphery to the edge of a knifeC, formed like a circular blade, whose plane is perpendicular to that of the bases of the disc. This knife turns round its centre, which is fixed. The rotatory motion of the disc forces the knife to penetrate further and further into its mass, and the motion of the knife itself makes it cut the riband more easily. It is obvious, that if the disc alone revolved, the motionless knife could act only by pressure, and would meet with an enormous resistance. A third movement becomes necessary. In proportion as the disc is diminished by the removal of the spiral band, the centre of this disc must advance upon the knife, in order that the riband may have always the same breadth. The inspection offig.368.will make the accordance of the three motions intelligible.Spiral riband cutterThe knifeCis placed upon a shaft or axisA, which carries a pulley, round which a belt or cord runs which drives the whole machine. This knife is six inches in diameter. In order that by being kept cool it may cut the caoutchouc better, it is plunged at its lower part into a troughB, full of water; a stopcockR, serves to empty this trough.The shaftAbears a pinion p, which takes into a wheelR, placed upon the shaftA′; upon which there is cut a worm or endless screw,V,V. This worm bears a nutE, which advances as the screw turns, and carries with it a tieL, which in its turn pushes the discD, carried upon a shoulder constantly towards the knife. This shoulder is guided by two ears which slide in two grooves cut in the thickness of the table. The diameter of the pinion p is about one fifth of that of the wheelR; so that the arbourAturns five times less quickly than the arbourA; and the fineness of the screwVcontributes further to slacken the movement of translation of the disc.When the disc is all cut down, the shoulder, the tie, and the nut, are brought back to their original position by lifting the nut, which is hinged on. The disc is fixed upon the shoulder by means of sharp points, and an upper washer. The shoulder and the washer have a very small diameter, in order that the knife may, in cutting down the disc, advance as near as possible to the centre.The rotatory movement of the disc and its shoulder, is given by an endless screwW,W, which governs a pinionp′, provided with 10 teeth, and carried by the shaftA, upon which the shoulder is mounted. The arbourA′ of this endless screw receives its motion from the first shaftA, by means of the wheelsSandS′ mounted upon these shafts, and of an intermediate wheelS′′. This wheel, of a diameter equal to that of the shaftA′′, is intended merely to allow this shaft to recede from the shaftA. The diameter of the wheel of this last shaft is to that of the two others in the ratio of 10 to 8.Riband cutterSecond machine for sub-dividing the ribands.Fig.369.—The riband is engaged between the circular knives,C,C, which are mounted upon the rollersR,R; thin brass washers keep these knives apart at a distance which may be varied, and two extreme washers mounted with screws on each roller maintain the whole system. The axes of these rollers traverse two uprightsM,M, furnished with brasses, and with adjusting screws to approximate them at pleasure. The axis of the lower roller carries a wheelr, which takes into another smaller wheelr′, placed upon the same shaft as the pulleyP, which is driven by a cord. The diameter of the wheelris three times greater than the wheelr′. The pulleyPis twice the size of the wheelr′; and its cord passes round a drumB, which drives the rest of the machine.The threads when brought to this state of slenderness, are put successively into tubs filled with cold water; they are next softened in hot water, and elongated as much as possible in the following manner:—They are wound upon a reel turned quickly, while the operative stretches the caoutchouc thread with his hand. In this way it is rendered 8 or 10 times longer. The reels when thus filled are placed during some days in a cold apartment, where the threads become firm, and seem to change their nature.This state of stiffness is essential for the success of the subsequent operations. The threads are commonly covered with a sheath of silk, cotton, or linen, by a braiding machine, and are then placed as warp in a loom, in order to form a narrow web for braces, garters, &c. If the gum were to exercise its elasticity during this operation, the different threads would be lengthened and shortened in an irregular manner, so as to form a puckered tissue. It is requisite therefore to weave the threads in their rigid and inextensible, or at least incontractile condition, and after the fabric is woven to restore to the threads of caoutchouc their appropriate elasticity. This restoration is easily effected by passing a hot smoothing iron over the tissue laid smoothly upon a table covered with blanket stuff. SeeBraiding Machine.

The transformation of the disc of caoutchouc into fine threads is performed by two machines; the first of which cuts it into a riband of equal thickness in its whole extent, running in a spiral direction from the circumference to the centre; the second subdivides this riband lengthwise into several parallel filaments much narrower but equally thick.

The followingfigs.366,367,368.represent the machine for cutting the spiral riband. The discD, placed horizontally, turns round its vertical axis, so as to present its periphery to the edge of a knifeC, formed like a circular blade, whose plane is perpendicular to that of the bases of the disc. This knife turns round its centre, which is fixed. The rotatory motion of the disc forces the knife to penetrate further and further into its mass, and the motion of the knife itself makes it cut the riband more easily. It is obvious, that if the disc alone revolved, the motionless knife could act only by pressure, and would meet with an enormous resistance. A third movement becomes necessary. In proportion as the disc is diminished by the removal of the spiral band, the centre of this disc must advance upon the knife, in order that the riband may have always the same breadth. The inspection offig.368.will make the accordance of the three motions intelligible.

Spiral riband cutter

The knifeCis placed upon a shaft or axisA, which carries a pulley, round which a belt or cord runs which drives the whole machine. This knife is six inches in diameter. In order that by being kept cool it may cut the caoutchouc better, it is plunged at its lower part into a troughB, full of water; a stopcockR, serves to empty this trough.

The shaftAbears a pinion p, which takes into a wheelR, placed upon the shaftA′; upon which there is cut a worm or endless screw,V,V. This worm bears a nutE, which advances as the screw turns, and carries with it a tieL, which in its turn pushes the discD, carried upon a shoulder constantly towards the knife. This shoulder is guided by two ears which slide in two grooves cut in the thickness of the table. The diameter of the pinion p is about one fifth of that of the wheelR; so that the arbourAturns five times less quickly than the arbourA; and the fineness of the screwVcontributes further to slacken the movement of translation of the disc.

When the disc is all cut down, the shoulder, the tie, and the nut, are brought back to their original position by lifting the nut, which is hinged on. The disc is fixed upon the shoulder by means of sharp points, and an upper washer. The shoulder and the washer have a very small diameter, in order that the knife may, in cutting down the disc, advance as near as possible to the centre.

The rotatory movement of the disc and its shoulder, is given by an endless screwW,W, which governs a pinionp′, provided with 10 teeth, and carried by the shaftA, upon which the shoulder is mounted. The arbourA′ of this endless screw receives its motion from the first shaftA, by means of the wheelsSandS′ mounted upon these shafts, and of an intermediate wheelS′′. This wheel, of a diameter equal to that of the shaftA′′, is intended merely to allow this shaft to recede from the shaftA. The diameter of the wheel of this last shaft is to that of the two others in the ratio of 10 to 8.

Riband cutter

Second machine for sub-dividing the ribands.Fig.369.—The riband is engaged between the circular knives,C,C, which are mounted upon the rollersR,R; thin brass washers keep these knives apart at a distance which may be varied, and two extreme washers mounted with screws on each roller maintain the whole system. The axes of these rollers traverse two uprightsM,M, furnished with brasses, and with adjusting screws to approximate them at pleasure. The axis of the lower roller carries a wheelr, which takes into another smaller wheelr′, placed upon the same shaft as the pulleyP, which is driven by a cord. The diameter of the wheelris three times greater than the wheelr′. The pulleyPis twice the size of the wheelr′; and its cord passes round a drumB, which drives the rest of the machine.

The threads when brought to this state of slenderness, are put successively into tubs filled with cold water; they are next softened in hot water, and elongated as much as possible in the following manner:—They are wound upon a reel turned quickly, while the operative stretches the caoutchouc thread with his hand. In this way it is rendered 8 or 10 times longer. The reels when thus filled are placed during some days in a cold apartment, where the threads become firm, and seem to change their nature.

This state of stiffness is essential for the success of the subsequent operations. The threads are commonly covered with a sheath of silk, cotton, or linen, by a braiding machine, and are then placed as warp in a loom, in order to form a narrow web for braces, garters, &c. If the gum were to exercise its elasticity during this operation, the different threads would be lengthened and shortened in an irregular manner, so as to form a puckered tissue. It is requisite therefore to weave the threads in their rigid and inextensible, or at least incontractile condition, and after the fabric is woven to restore to the threads of caoutchouc their appropriate elasticity. This restoration is easily effected by passing a hot smoothing iron over the tissue laid smoothly upon a table covered with blanket stuff. SeeBraiding Machine.

ELECTIVE AFFINITY, (Wahlverwandtschaft, Germ.) denotes the order of preference, so to speak, in which the several chemical substanceschooseto combine; or really, the gradation of attractive force infused by Almighty Wisdom among the different objects of nature, which determines perfect uniformity and identity in their compounds amidst indefinite variety of combination. The discussion of this interesting subject belongs to pure chemistry. SeeDecomposition.

ELEMENTS (Eng. and Fr.;Grundstoffe, Germ.) The ancients considered fire, air, water, and earth, as simple substances, essential to the constitution of all terrestrial beings. This hypothesis, evidently incompatible with modern chemical discovery, may be supposed to correspond, however, to the four states in which matter seems to exist; namely, 1. the unconfinable powers or fluids,—caloric, light, electricity; 2. ponderable gases, or elastic fluids; 3. liquids; 4. solids. The three elements of the alchemists, salt, earth, mercury, were, intheirsense of the word, mere phantasms.In modern science, the termElementsignifies merely a substance which has not yet been resolved by analysis into any simpler form of matter; and it is therefore synonymous with undecompounded. This class comprehends 54 different bodies, of which no less than 41 are metallic. Five may be styledArchæal, from the intensity and universality of their affinities for the other bodies, which they penetrate, corrode, and apparently consume, with the phenomena of light and heat. These 5 arechlorine,oxygen,iodine,bromine,fluorine. Eight elements are eminently inflammable when acted upon by any of the preceding five, and are thereby converted into incombustible compounds. The simple non-metallic inflammables arehydrogen,azote,sulphur,phosphorus,selenium,carbon,boron,silicon.The following table exhibits all the undecompounded bodies in alphabetical order, with their prime equivalent numbers, atomic weights, or reciprocal combining and saturating proportions, as given by Berzelius, in reference to oxygen, reckoned 100,000.:—Table of undecompounded Bodies, or modern Chemical Elements.A signifies Archæal; I, Inflammable; M, Metal.AluminiumM.171,167Antimony—806,542Arsenic—470,042AzoteI.88,518BariumM.856,880Bismuth—886,000BoronI.135,983BromineA.489,150CadmiumM.696,970Calcium—256,019CarbonI.76,437CeriumM.574,718ChlorineA.221,325ChromiumM.351,819Cobalt—369,991Copper—395,695FluorineI.116,900GoldM.1243,013HydrogenI.62,398IodineA.789,145IridiumM.1233,260Iron—339,213Lead—1294,489Lithium—81,320Magnesium—158,353Manganesium—345,900MercuryM.1265,822Molybdenum—598,525Nickel—369,675Osmium—1244,210OxygenA.100,000PalladiumM.665,840PhosphorusI.196,155PlatinumM.1233,260Rhodium—651,400SeleniumI.494,582Silicon—277,478SilverM.675,804Strontium—547,285SulphurI.201,165TantalumM.1153,715Tellurium—801,760Thorinum—744,900Tin—735,294Titanium—303,686Tungsten—1183,000Uranium—2711,360Vanadium—855,840Yttrium—401,840Zinc—403,226Zirconium—420,238

In modern science, the termElementsignifies merely a substance which has not yet been resolved by analysis into any simpler form of matter; and it is therefore synonymous with undecompounded. This class comprehends 54 different bodies, of which no less than 41 are metallic. Five may be styledArchæal, from the intensity and universality of their affinities for the other bodies, which they penetrate, corrode, and apparently consume, with the phenomena of light and heat. These 5 arechlorine,oxygen,iodine,bromine,fluorine. Eight elements are eminently inflammable when acted upon by any of the preceding five, and are thereby converted into incombustible compounds. The simple non-metallic inflammables arehydrogen,azote,sulphur,phosphorus,selenium,carbon,boron,silicon.

The following table exhibits all the undecompounded bodies in alphabetical order, with their prime equivalent numbers, atomic weights, or reciprocal combining and saturating proportions, as given by Berzelius, in reference to oxygen, reckoned 100,000.:—

Table of undecompounded Bodies, or modern Chemical Elements.

A signifies Archæal; I, Inflammable; M, Metal.

ELUTRIATE. (Soutirer, Fr.;Schlemmen, Germ.) When an insoluble pulverulent matter, like whitening or ground flints, is diffused through a large body of water, and the mixture is allowed to settle for a little, the larger particles will subside. If the supernatant liquid be now carefully decanted, or run off, with a syphon, it will contain an impalpable powder, which on repose will collect at the bottom, and may be taken out to dry. This process is called elutriation.

EMBALMING. (Embaument, Fr.;Einbalsamen, Germ.) Is an operation in which balsams (baumes, Fr.) were employed to preserve human corpses from putrefaction; whence the name.The ancient Egyptians had recourse to this process for preserving the bodies of numerous families, and even of the animals which they loved or worshipped. An excellent account of their methods is given in Mr. Pettigrew’s work upon Mummies. Modern chemistry has made us acquainted with many means of counteracting putrefaction more simple and efficacious than the Egyptian system of salting, smoking, spicing, and bituminizing. SeePutrefaction.

EMBALMING. (Embaument, Fr.;Einbalsamen, Germ.) Is an operation in which balsams (baumes, Fr.) were employed to preserve human corpses from putrefaction; whence the name.

The ancient Egyptians had recourse to this process for preserving the bodies of numerous families, and even of the animals which they loved or worshipped. An excellent account of their methods is given in Mr. Pettigrew’s work upon Mummies. Modern chemistry has made us acquainted with many means of counteracting putrefaction more simple and efficacious than the Egyptian system of salting, smoking, spicing, and bituminizing. SeePutrefaction.

EMBOSSING WOOD. (Bossage, Fr.;Erhabenes Arbeit, Germ.) Raised figures upon wood, such as are employed in picture frames and other articles of ornamental cabinet work, are usually produced by means of carving, or by casting the pattern in plaster of Paris, or other composition, and cementing, or otherwise fixing it on the surface of the wood. The former mode is expensive; the latter is inapplicable on many occasions. The invention of Mr. Streaker may be used either by itself, or in aid of carving; and depends on the fact, that if a depression be made by a blunt instrument on the surface of the wood, such depressed part will again rise to its original level by subsequent immersion in the water.The wood to be ornamented having been first worked out to its proposed shape, is in a state to receive the drawing of the pattern; this being put on, a blunt steel tool, or burnisher, or die, is to be applied successively to all those parts of the pattern intended to be in relief, and, at the same time, is to be driven very cautiously, without breaking the grain of the wood, till the depth of the depression is equal to the intended prominence of the figures. The ground is then to be reduced by planing or filing to the level of the depressed part; after which, the piece of wood being placed in water, either hot or cold, the part previously depressed will rise to its former height, and will then form an embossed pattern, which may be finished by the usual operations of carving.For this invention the Society of Arts voted to Mr. Streaker their silver Isis medal, and ten guineas.

The wood to be ornamented having been first worked out to its proposed shape, is in a state to receive the drawing of the pattern; this being put on, a blunt steel tool, or burnisher, or die, is to be applied successively to all those parts of the pattern intended to be in relief, and, at the same time, is to be driven very cautiously, without breaking the grain of the wood, till the depth of the depression is equal to the intended prominence of the figures. The ground is then to be reduced by planing or filing to the level of the depressed part; after which, the piece of wood being placed in water, either hot or cold, the part previously depressed will rise to its former height, and will then form an embossed pattern, which may be finished by the usual operations of carving.

For this invention the Society of Arts voted to Mr. Streaker their silver Isis medal, and ten guineas.

EMBOSSING CLOTH. Mr. Thomas Greig, of Rose Bank, near Bury, patented an invention, in November 1835, which consists in an ingenious construction of machineryfor both embossing and printing silk, cotton, woollen cloth, paper, and other fabrics, in one or more colours, at one operation.Silk printing pressFig. 370 and 370* enlarged(216 kB)Figs.370,370*represent three distinct printing cylinders of copper, or other suitable material,A,B,C, with their necessary appendages for printing three different colours upon the fabric as it passes through the machine: either of these cylindersA,B, orC, may be employed as an embossing cylinder, without performing the printing process, or may be made to effect both operations at the same time.The fabric or goods to be operated upon being first wound tightly upon a roller, that roller is to be mounted upon an axle or pivot, bearing in arms or brackets at the back of the machine, as shown atD. From this roller the fabrica a a ais conducted between tension rails, and passed under the bed cylinder or paper bowlE, and from thence proceeds over a carrier rollerF, and over steam boxes not shown in the drawing, or it may be conducted into a hot room, for the purpose of drying the colours.The cylindersA,B, andC, having either engraved or raised surfaces, are connected to feeding rollersb b b, revolving in the ink or coloured troughsc c c; or endless felts, called sieves, may be employed, as in ordinary printing machines, for supplying the colour, when the device on the surface of the cylinders is raised: these cylinders may be furnished with doctors or scrapers when required, or the same may be applied to the endless felts.The blocks have adjustable screwsg g, for the purpose of bringing the cylinders up against the paper bowl, with any required degree of pressure: the cylinderBis supported by its gudgeons running in blocks, which blocks slide in the lower parts of the side frames, and are connected to perpendicular rodsi, having adjustable screw nuts.The lower parts of these rods bear upon weighted leversk k, extending in front of the machine; and by increasing the weightsl l, any degree of upward pressure may be given to the cylinderB.The colour boxes or troughsc c c, carrying the feeding rollersb b b, are fixed on boards which slide in grooves in the side frames, and the rollers are adjusted and brought into contact with the surface of the printing cylinders by screws.If a back cloth should be required to be introduced between the cylindrical bed or paper bowlE, and the fabrica a a, as the ordinary felt or blanket, it may, for printing and embossing cotton, silk, or paper, be of linen or cotton; but if woollen goods are to be operated upon, a cap of felt, or some such material, must be bound round the paper bowl, and the felt or blanket must be used for the back cloth, which is to be conducted over the rollersHandI.For the purpose of embossing the fabric, either of the rollersA,B, orC, may beemployed, observing that the surface of the roller must be cut, so as to leave the pattern or device elevated for embossing velvets, plain cloths, and papers; but for woollens the device must be excavated, that is, cut in recess.The pattern of the embossing cylinder will, by the operation, be partially marked through the fabric on to the surface of the paper bowlE; to obliterate which marks from the surface of the bowl, as it revolves, the iron cylinder rollerGis employed; but as in the embossing of the same patterns on paper, a counter roller is required to produce the pattern perfectly, the iron roller is in that case dispensed with, the impression given to the paper bowl being required to be retained on its surface until the operation is finished.In this case the relative circumferences of the embossing cylinder, and of the paper bowl, must be exactly proportioned to each other; that is, the circumference of the bowl must be equal, exactly, to a given number of circumferences of the embossing cylinder, very accurately measured, in order to preserve a perfect register or coincidence, as they continue revolving between the pattern on the surface of the embossing cylinder, and that indented into the surface of the paper bowl.The axle of the paper bowlE, turns in brasses fitted into slots in the side frames, and it may be raised by hand from its bearings when required, by a leverk, extending in front. This lever is affixed to the end of a horizontal shaftL,L, crossing the machine seen in the figures, at the back of which shaft there are two segment leversP,P, to which bent rodsQ,Q, are attached, having hooks at their lower ends, passed under the axle of the bowl. At the reverse end of the shaftL, a ratchet-wheelr, is affixed, and a pall or click mounted on the side of the frame takes into the teeth of the wheelr, and thereby holds up the paper bowl when required.When the iron rollerG, is to be brought into operation, the vertical screwst,t, mounted in the upper parts of the side frames, are turned, in order to bring down the brassesN, which carry the axle of that roller and slide in slots in the side frames.The cylindersA,B, andC, are represented hollow, and may be kept at any desired temperature during the operation of printing, by introducing steam into them; and under the colour boxesc,c,c, hollow chambers are also made for the same purpose. The degree of temperature required to be given to these must depend upon the nature of the colouring material, and of the goods operated upon. For the purpose of conducting steam to these hollow cylinders and colour boxes, pipes, as shown atv,v,v, are attached, which lead from a steam boiler. But when either of these cylinders is employed for embossing alone, or for embossing and printing at the same time, and particularly for some kinds of goods where a higher temperature may be required, a red-hot heater is then introduced into the hollow cylinder in place of steam.If the cylinderB, is employed as the embossing cylinder, and it is not intended to print the fabric by that cylinder simultaneously with the operation of embossing, the feeding rollingb, must be removed, and also the colour boxc, belonging to that cylinder; and the cylindersA, andC, are to be employed for printing the fabric, the one applying the colour before the embossing is effected, the other after it. It is however to be remarked, that ifA, andC, are to print colours on the fabric, andB, to emboss it, in that case it is preferred, where the pattern would allow it.AandC, are wooden rollers having the pattern upon their surfaces, and not metal, as the embossing cylinders must of necessity be.It will be perceived that this machine will print one, two, or three colours at the same time, and that the operation of embossing may be performed simultaneously with the printing, by either of the cylindersA,B, orC, or the operation may be performed consecutively by the cylinders, either preceding or succeeding each other.The situations of the doctors, when required to be used for removing any superfluous colour from the surface of the printing cylinder, are shown atd,d,d; those for removing any lint which may attach itself, ate,e,e. They are kept in their bearings by weighted levers and screws, and receive a slight lateral movement to and fro, by means of the vertical rodm, which is connected at top to an eccentric, on the end of the axle of the rollerH, and at its lower end to a horizontal rod mounted at the side of the frame; to this horizontal rod, arms are attached, which are connected to the respective doctors; and thus by the rotation of the eccentric, the doctors are made to slide laterally.When the cylindersA,B, orC, are employed for embossing only, those doctors will not be required. The driving power is communicated to the machine from any first mover through the agency of the toothed geer, which gives rotatory motion to the cylinderB, and from thence to the other cylindersA, andC, by toothed geer shown infig.370.

Silk printing pressFig. 370 and 370* enlarged(216 kB)

Fig. 370 and 370* enlarged(216 kB)

Figs.370,370*represent three distinct printing cylinders of copper, or other suitable material,A,B,C, with their necessary appendages for printing three different colours upon the fabric as it passes through the machine: either of these cylindersA,B, orC, may be employed as an embossing cylinder, without performing the printing process, or may be made to effect both operations at the same time.

The fabric or goods to be operated upon being first wound tightly upon a roller, that roller is to be mounted upon an axle or pivot, bearing in arms or brackets at the back of the machine, as shown atD. From this roller the fabrica a a ais conducted between tension rails, and passed under the bed cylinder or paper bowlE, and from thence proceeds over a carrier rollerF, and over steam boxes not shown in the drawing, or it may be conducted into a hot room, for the purpose of drying the colours.

The cylindersA,B, andC, having either engraved or raised surfaces, are connected to feeding rollersb b b, revolving in the ink or coloured troughsc c c; or endless felts, called sieves, may be employed, as in ordinary printing machines, for supplying the colour, when the device on the surface of the cylinders is raised: these cylinders may be furnished with doctors or scrapers when required, or the same may be applied to the endless felts.

The blocks have adjustable screwsg g, for the purpose of bringing the cylinders up against the paper bowl, with any required degree of pressure: the cylinderBis supported by its gudgeons running in blocks, which blocks slide in the lower parts of the side frames, and are connected to perpendicular rodsi, having adjustable screw nuts.

The lower parts of these rods bear upon weighted leversk k, extending in front of the machine; and by increasing the weightsl l, any degree of upward pressure may be given to the cylinderB.

The colour boxes or troughsc c c, carrying the feeding rollersb b b, are fixed on boards which slide in grooves in the side frames, and the rollers are adjusted and brought into contact with the surface of the printing cylinders by screws.

If a back cloth should be required to be introduced between the cylindrical bed or paper bowlE, and the fabrica a a, as the ordinary felt or blanket, it may, for printing and embossing cotton, silk, or paper, be of linen or cotton; but if woollen goods are to be operated upon, a cap of felt, or some such material, must be bound round the paper bowl, and the felt or blanket must be used for the back cloth, which is to be conducted over the rollersHandI.

For the purpose of embossing the fabric, either of the rollersA,B, orC, may beemployed, observing that the surface of the roller must be cut, so as to leave the pattern or device elevated for embossing velvets, plain cloths, and papers; but for woollens the device must be excavated, that is, cut in recess.

The pattern of the embossing cylinder will, by the operation, be partially marked through the fabric on to the surface of the paper bowlE; to obliterate which marks from the surface of the bowl, as it revolves, the iron cylinder rollerGis employed; but as in the embossing of the same patterns on paper, a counter roller is required to produce the pattern perfectly, the iron roller is in that case dispensed with, the impression given to the paper bowl being required to be retained on its surface until the operation is finished.

In this case the relative circumferences of the embossing cylinder, and of the paper bowl, must be exactly proportioned to each other; that is, the circumference of the bowl must be equal, exactly, to a given number of circumferences of the embossing cylinder, very accurately measured, in order to preserve a perfect register or coincidence, as they continue revolving between the pattern on the surface of the embossing cylinder, and that indented into the surface of the paper bowl.

The axle of the paper bowlE, turns in brasses fitted into slots in the side frames, and it may be raised by hand from its bearings when required, by a leverk, extending in front. This lever is affixed to the end of a horizontal shaftL,L, crossing the machine seen in the figures, at the back of which shaft there are two segment leversP,P, to which bent rodsQ,Q, are attached, having hooks at their lower ends, passed under the axle of the bowl. At the reverse end of the shaftL, a ratchet-wheelr, is affixed, and a pall or click mounted on the side of the frame takes into the teeth of the wheelr, and thereby holds up the paper bowl when required.

When the iron rollerG, is to be brought into operation, the vertical screwst,t, mounted in the upper parts of the side frames, are turned, in order to bring down the brassesN, which carry the axle of that roller and slide in slots in the side frames.

The cylindersA,B, andC, are represented hollow, and may be kept at any desired temperature during the operation of printing, by introducing steam into them; and under the colour boxesc,c,c, hollow chambers are also made for the same purpose. The degree of temperature required to be given to these must depend upon the nature of the colouring material, and of the goods operated upon. For the purpose of conducting steam to these hollow cylinders and colour boxes, pipes, as shown atv,v,v, are attached, which lead from a steam boiler. But when either of these cylinders is employed for embossing alone, or for embossing and printing at the same time, and particularly for some kinds of goods where a higher temperature may be required, a red-hot heater is then introduced into the hollow cylinder in place of steam.

If the cylinderB, is employed as the embossing cylinder, and it is not intended to print the fabric by that cylinder simultaneously with the operation of embossing, the feeding rollingb, must be removed, and also the colour boxc, belonging to that cylinder; and the cylindersA, andC, are to be employed for printing the fabric, the one applying the colour before the embossing is effected, the other after it. It is however to be remarked, that ifA, andC, are to print colours on the fabric, andB, to emboss it, in that case it is preferred, where the pattern would allow it.AandC, are wooden rollers having the pattern upon their surfaces, and not metal, as the embossing cylinders must of necessity be.

It will be perceived that this machine will print one, two, or three colours at the same time, and that the operation of embossing may be performed simultaneously with the printing, by either of the cylindersA,B, orC, or the operation may be performed consecutively by the cylinders, either preceding or succeeding each other.

The situations of the doctors, when required to be used for removing any superfluous colour from the surface of the printing cylinder, are shown atd,d,d; those for removing any lint which may attach itself, ate,e,e. They are kept in their bearings by weighted levers and screws, and receive a slight lateral movement to and fro, by means of the vertical rodm, which is connected at top to an eccentric, on the end of the axle of the rollerH, and at its lower end to a horizontal rod mounted at the side of the frame; to this horizontal rod, arms are attached, which are connected to the respective doctors; and thus by the rotation of the eccentric, the doctors are made to slide laterally.

When the cylindersA,B, orC, are employed for embossing only, those doctors will not be required. The driving power is communicated to the machine from any first mover through the agency of the toothed geer, which gives rotatory motion to the cylinderB, and from thence to the other cylindersA, andC, by toothed geer shown infig.370.

Back to Index Next