I. & J.

Hot-flueHOT-FLUE, is the name given in England to an apartment heated by stoves or steam pipes, in which padded and printed calicoes are dried hard.Fig.563.represents the simplest form of such a flue, heated by the vertical round iron stoveC, from whose top a wide square pipe proceeds upwards in a slightly inclined direction, which receives the current of air heated by the body and capital of the stove. In this wide channel there are pullies, with cords or bands which, suspend by hooks, and conduct the web ofcalico, from the entrance atB, where the operative sits, to near the pointA, and back again. This circuit may be repeated once or oftener till the goods are perfectly dried. AtDthe driving pulley connected with the main shaft is shown. Near the feet of the operative is thecandroyor reel upon which the moist goods are rolled in an endless web; so that their circulation in the hot-air channel can be continued without interruption, as long as may be necessary.Hot-flueFig.564.is a cross section of the apparatus of the regular hot-flue, as it is mounted in the most scientific calico works of England, those of James Thomson, Esq., of Primrose, near Clitheroe, Lancashire.a a a a, is an arched apartment, nearly 30 yards long, by 13 feet high, and 10 feet wide. Through about one half of this gallery there is a horizontal floor supported on arches, above which is the driest space, through which the goods are finally passed before they escape from the hot-flue, after they have been previously exposed to the hot but somewhat moist air of the lower compartment. A large square flue covered with cast-iron plates runs along the whole bottom of the gallery. It is divided into two long parallel vaults, whose sections are seen atu,u,fig.564., covered with the cast-iron platesv v, grooved at their ends into one another. The thickness of these plates is increased progressively as they come nearer to the fireplace or furnace. There are dampers which regulate the draught, and of course the heat of the stove.h hare the air-passages or vent-holes, left in the side walls, and which by means of a long iron rod, mounted with iron plates, may be opened or closed together to any degree.k kare the cast-iron supports of the tinned brass rollers which guide the goods along, and which are fixed to the cross pieces represented byr r,fig.564.l lare iron bars for supporting the ventilators or fans (see thefanunderFoundry). These fans are here enclosed within a wire grating. They make about 300 turns per minute, and expel the moist air with perfect effect.sindicates the position of the windows, which extend throughout the length of the building.tis a gas-light jet, placed at the side of each window to supply illumination for night work.The piece is stretched along the whole extent of the gallery, and runs through it in the course of one minute and a half; being exposed during its passage to the heat of 212° Fahr.Outside of hot-flueInfig.565.,Ais the iron door of entrance to the hot-flue gallery; atbis the padding machine, where the goods are imbued with the general mordant. The speed of this machine may be varied by means of the two conical drumsc c, which drive it; since when the bandc c, is brought by its forks, and adjusting screws, nearer to the narrow end of the lower drum, the cylinder upon the same shaft with the latter is driven quicker; andvice versa. OverD Dthe cords are shown for drawing the drum mechanism into geer with the main shaft bandF,F,E; or for throwing it out of geer. The pulliesF Fcarry the bands which transmit the motion to the padding machine. A cylindrical drum exterior to the hot-flue, covered with flannel, serves to receive the end of the series of pieces, and to draw them through the apartment. This mode of dryingthe padded calicoes requires for each piece of 28 yards, 3 pounds of coals for the furnace when a fan is employed, and 4 pounds without it.

Hot-flue

HOT-FLUE, is the name given in England to an apartment heated by stoves or steam pipes, in which padded and printed calicoes are dried hard.Fig.563.represents the simplest form of such a flue, heated by the vertical round iron stoveC, from whose top a wide square pipe proceeds upwards in a slightly inclined direction, which receives the current of air heated by the body and capital of the stove. In this wide channel there are pullies, with cords or bands which, suspend by hooks, and conduct the web ofcalico, from the entrance atB, where the operative sits, to near the pointA, and back again. This circuit may be repeated once or oftener till the goods are perfectly dried. AtDthe driving pulley connected with the main shaft is shown. Near the feet of the operative is thecandroyor reel upon which the moist goods are rolled in an endless web; so that their circulation in the hot-air channel can be continued without interruption, as long as may be necessary.

Hot-flue

Fig.564.is a cross section of the apparatus of the regular hot-flue, as it is mounted in the most scientific calico works of England, those of James Thomson, Esq., of Primrose, near Clitheroe, Lancashire.a a a a, is an arched apartment, nearly 30 yards long, by 13 feet high, and 10 feet wide. Through about one half of this gallery there is a horizontal floor supported on arches, above which is the driest space, through which the goods are finally passed before they escape from the hot-flue, after they have been previously exposed to the hot but somewhat moist air of the lower compartment. A large square flue covered with cast-iron plates runs along the whole bottom of the gallery. It is divided into two long parallel vaults, whose sections are seen atu,u,fig.564., covered with the cast-iron platesv v, grooved at their ends into one another. The thickness of these plates is increased progressively as they come nearer to the fireplace or furnace. There are dampers which regulate the draught, and of course the heat of the stove.h hare the air-passages or vent-holes, left in the side walls, and which by means of a long iron rod, mounted with iron plates, may be opened or closed together to any degree.k kare the cast-iron supports of the tinned brass rollers which guide the goods along, and which are fixed to the cross pieces represented byr r,fig.564.l lare iron bars for supporting the ventilators or fans (see thefanunderFoundry). These fans are here enclosed within a wire grating. They make about 300 turns per minute, and expel the moist air with perfect effect.sindicates the position of the windows, which extend throughout the length of the building.tis a gas-light jet, placed at the side of each window to supply illumination for night work.

The piece is stretched along the whole extent of the gallery, and runs through it in the course of one minute and a half; being exposed during its passage to the heat of 212° Fahr.

Outside of hot-flue

Infig.565.,Ais the iron door of entrance to the hot-flue gallery; atbis the padding machine, where the goods are imbued with the general mordant. The speed of this machine may be varied by means of the two conical drumsc c, which drive it; since when the bandc c, is brought by its forks, and adjusting screws, nearer to the narrow end of the lower drum, the cylinder upon the same shaft with the latter is driven quicker; andvice versa. OverD Dthe cords are shown for drawing the drum mechanism into geer with the main shaft bandF,F,E; or for throwing it out of geer. The pulliesF Fcarry the bands which transmit the motion to the padding machine. A cylindrical drum exterior to the hot-flue, covered with flannel, serves to receive the end of the series of pieces, and to draw them through the apartment. This mode of dryingthe padded calicoes requires for each piece of 28 yards, 3 pounds of coals for the furnace when a fan is employed, and 4 pounds without it.

HYDRATES; are compounds of the oxides, salts, &c. with water in definite or equivalent proportions. Thus slaked lime consists of one atom of quick-lime = 28, + one atom of water = 9, of which the sum is 37 on the hydrogen scale.

HYDRAULIC PRESS. SeeOil,Press, andStearine.

HYDRIODIC ACID; (Acide Hydriodique, Fr.;Hydriodsäure, Germ.) is an acid formed by the combination of 99·21 parts of iodine, and 0·79 hydrogen. When pure, it occurs in the gaseous state, but it combines with water like the hydrochloric or muriatic acid gas into a liquid acid.

HYDROCHLORIC ACID; the new chemical name ofmuriatic acid, which see.

HYDROGEN; (Eng. and Fr.;Wasserstoff, Germ.) an undecompounded gaseous body; the lightest of all ponderable matter, whose examination belongs to chemistry.

HYDROMETER; an instrument for ascertaining the specific gravities of liquids. Baumé’s hydrometer, which is much used in France, and other countries of the continent of Europe, when plunged in pure water, at the temperature of 58° Fahr., marks 0 upon its scale; in a solution containing 15 per cent. of common salt, (chloride of sodium) and 85 of water by weight, it marks 15°; so that each degree is meant to indicate a density corresponding to one per cent. of that salt. SeeAreometer, for comparative tables of hydrometers.

HYDROSULPHURETS; chemical compounds of bases withsulphuretted hydrogen.

HYMENŒA COURBARIL; a tree growing in South America, from which the resinaniméexudes.

HYOSCIAMUS NIGER. Henbane is a plant used in medicine, from which modern chemistry has extracted a new crystalline vegetable principle calledhyosciamine, which is very poisonous, and when applied in solution to the eye, determines a remarkable dilatation of the pupil; asbelladonnaalso does.

HYPOSULPHATES;Hyposulphites; saline compounds of the hyposulphuric or hyposulphurous acid with bases.

HYPEROXYMURIATES; the old and incorrect name ofChlorates.

JACK, called alsojack in a box, andhand-jack, is a portable, mechanical instrument, consisting of a rack and pinion, or a pair of claws and ratchet bar, moved by a winch handle, for raising heavy weights a little way off the ground.

JACK and JACK-SINKERS, are parts of a stocking frame; seeHosiery.

JACK-BACK, is the largest jack of the brewer.

JACQUARD. A peculiar and most ingenious mechanism, invented by M. Jacquart of Lyons, to be adapted to a silk or muslin loom for superseding the employment of draw-boys, in weaving figured goods. Independently of the ordinary play of the warp threads for the formation of the ground of such a web, all those threads which should rise simultaneously to produce the figure, have their appropriate healds, which a child formerly raised by means of cords, that grouped them together into a system, in the order, and at the time desired by the weaver. This plan evidently occasioned no little complication in the machine, when the design was richly figured; but the apparatus of Jacquart, which subjects this manœuvre to a regular mechanical operation, and derives its motion from a simple pedal put in action by the weaver’s feet, was generally adopted soon after its invention in 1800. Every common loom is susceptible of receiving this beautiful appendage. It costs in France, 200 francs, or 8l.sterling; and a little more in this country.Jacquard loomJacquard loomFig.566.is a front elevation of this mechanism, supposed to be let down.Fig.567.is a cross section, shown in its highest position.Fig.568.the same section as the preceding, but seen in its lower position.A, is the fixed part of the frame, supposed to form a part of the ordinary loom; there are two uprights of wood, with two cross-bars uniting them at their upper ends, and leaving an intervalx y, between them, to place and work the movable frameB, vibrating round two fixed pointsa a, placed laterally opposite each other, in the middle of the spacex y,fig.566.C, is a piece of iron with a peculiar curvature, seen in front,fig.566., and in profile,figs.567.and568.It is fixed on one side upon the upper cross-bar of the frameB, and on the other, to the intermediate cross-barbof the same frame, where it shows an inclined curvilinear spacec, terminated below by a semi-circle.Jacquard loomD, is a square wooden axis, movable upon itself round two iron pivots, fixed into its twoends; which axis occupies the bottom of the movable frameB. The four faces of this square axis are pierced with three round, equal, truly-bored holes, arranged in a quincunx. The teetha,fig.570., are stuck into each face, and correspond to holesa,fig.573., made in the cards which constitute the endless chain for the healds; so that in the successive application of the cards to each face of the square axis, the holes pierced in one card may always fall opposite to those pierced in the other.The right-hand end of the square axis, of which a section is shown in double size,fig.569., carries two square plates of sheet irond, kept parallel to each other and a little apart, by four spindlese, passed opposite to the corners. This is a kind of lantern, in whose spindles, the hooks of the leversff′, turning round fixed pointsgg′beyond the right hand uprightA, catch hold, either above or below at the pleasure of the weaver, according as he merely pulls or lets go the cordz, during the vibratory movement of the frameB.Eis a piece of wood shaped like a T, the stem of which prolonged upwards, passes freely through the cross-barb, and through the upper cross-bar of the frameB, which serve as guides to it. The head of the T piece being applied successively against the two spindlese, placed above in a horizontal position, first by its weight, and then by the spiral springh, acting from above downwards, keeps the square axis in its position, while it permits it to turn upon itself in the two directions. The namepressis given to the assemblage of all the pieces which compose the movable frameB B.Fis a cross-bar made to move in a vertical direction by means of the leverG, in the notches or groovesi, formed within the fixed uprightsA.H, is a piece of bent iron, fixed by one of its ends with a nut and screw, upon the cross-barF, out of the vertical plane of the pieceC. Its other end carries a friction rollerJ, which working in the curvilinear spacecof the pieceC, forces this, and consequently the frameBto recede from the perpendicular, or to return to it, according as the cross-barFis in the top or bottom of its course, as shown infigs.567.and568.I, cheeks of sheet iron attached on either side to the cross-barF, which serve as a safe to a kind of clawK, composed here of eight small metallic bars, seen in sectionfig.567.and568., and on a greater scale infig.570.J, upright skewers of iron wire, whose tops bent down hook-wise, naturally place themselves over the little barsK. The bottom of these spindles likewise hooked in the same direction as the upper ones, embraces small wooden barsl, whose office is to keep them in their respective places, and to prevent them from twirling round, so that the uppermost hooks may be always directed towards the small metallic bars upon which they impend. To these hooks from below are attached strings, which after having crossed a fixed boardm n, pierced with corresponding holes for this purpose, proceed next to be attached to the threads of the loops destined to lift the warp threads.K K, horizontal spindles or needles, arranged here in eight several rows, so that each spindle corresponds both horizontally and vertically to each of the holes pierced in the four faces of the square axisD. There are therefore as many of these spindles as there are holes in one of the faces of the square.SpindleFig.571.represents one of these horizontal spindles.nis an eyelet through which the corresponding vertical skewer passes.oanother elongated eyelet, through which a small fixed spindle passes to serve as a guide, but which does not hinder it from moving length-wise, within the limits of the length of the eyelet.p, small spiral springs placed in each hole of the caseq q,fig.570.They serve the purpose of bringing back to its primitive position, every corresponding needle, as soon as it ceases to press upon it.Jacquard pierced cardsFig.572.represents the plan of the upper row of horizontal needles.Fig.573.is a fragment of the endless chain, formed with perforated cards, which are made to circulateor travel by the rotation of the shaftD. In this movement, each of the perforated cards, whose position, form, and number, are determined by the operation of tying-up of the warp, comes to be applied in succession against the four faces of the square axis or drum, leaving open the corresponding holes, and covering those upon the face of the axis, which have no corresponding holes upon the card.Now let us suppose that thepressBis let down into the vertical position shown infig.568.; then the card applied against the left face of the axis, leaves at rest or untouched the whole of the horizontal spindles (skewers), whose ends correspond to these holes, but pushes back those which are opposite to the unpierced part of the card; thereby the corresponding upright skewers, 3. 5. 6. and 8. for example, pushed out of the perpendicular, unhook themselves from above the bars of the claw, and remain in their place, when this claw comes to be raised by means of the leverG; and the skewers 1. 2. 4. and 7., which have remained hooked on, are raised along with the warp threads attached to them. Then by the passage across of a shot of the colour, as well as a shot of the common weft, and a stroke of the lay after shedding the warp and lowering the pressB, an element or point in the pattern is completed.The following card, brought round by a quarter revolution of the axis, finds all the needles in their first position, and as it is necessarily perforated differently from the preceding card, it will lift another series of warp threads; and thus in succession for all the other cards, which compose a complete system of a figured pattern.This machine, complicated in appearance, and which requires some pains to be understood, acts however in a very simple manner. Its whole play is dependent upon the movement of the leverG, which the weaver himself causes to rise and fall, by means of a peculiar pedal; so that without the aid of any person, after the piece is properly read in and mounted, he can execute the most complex patterns, as easily as he could weave plain goods; only attending to the order of his weft yarns, when these happen to be of different colours.If some warp yarns should happen to break without the weaver observing them, or should he mistake his coloured shuttle yarns, which would so far disfigure the pattern, he must undo his work. For this purpose, he makes use of the lower hooked leverf′, whose purpose is to make the chain of the card go backwards, while working the loom as usual, withdrawing at each stroke the shot both of the ground and of the figure. The weaver is the more subject to make mistakes, as the figured side of the web is downwards, and it is only with the aid of a bit of looking-glass that he takes a peep of his work from time to time. The upper surface exhibits merely loose threads in different points, according as the pattern requires them to lie upon the one side or the other.Thus it must be evident, that such a number of paste-boards are to be provided and mounted as equal the number of throws of the shuttle between the beginning and end of any figure or design which is to be woven; the piercing of each paste-board individually, will depend upon the arrangement of the lifting rods, and their connection with the warp, which is according to the design and option of the workman; great care must be taken that the holes come exactly opposite to the ends of the needles; for this purpose two large holes are made at the ends of the paste-boards, which fall upon conical points, by which means they are made to register correctly.It will be hence seen, that, according to the length of the figure, so must be the number of paste-boards, which may be readily displaced so as to remount and produce the figure in a few minutes, or remove it, or replace it, or preserve the figure for future use. The machine, of course, will be understood to consist of many sets of the lifting rods and needles, shown in the diagram, as will be perceived by observing the disposition of the holes in the paste-board; those holes, in order that they may be accurately distributed, are to be pierced from a gauge, so that not the slightest variation shall take place.To form these card-slips, an ingenious apparatus is employed, by which the proper steel punches required for the piercing of each distinct card, are placed in their relative situations preparatory to the operation of piercing, and also by its means a card may be punched with any number of holes at one operation. This disposition of the punches is effected by means of rods connected to cords disposed in a frame, in the nature of a false simple, on which the pattern of the work to be performed is first read in.These improved pierced cards, slips, or paste-boards, apply to a weaving apparatus, which is so arranged that a figure to be wrought can be extended to any distance along the loom, and by that means the loom is rendered capable of producing broad figured works; having the long leverGplaced in such a situation that it affords power to the foot of the weaver, and by this means enables him to draw the heaviest morintures and figured works, without the assistance of a draw-boy.The machinery for arranging the punches, consists of a frame with four upright standards and cross-pieces, which contains a series of endless cords passing under a wooden roller at bottom, and over pulleys at the top. These pulleys are mounted onaxles in two frames, placed obliquely over the top of the standard frame, which pulley-frames constitute the table commonly used by weavers.Endless cordIn order better to explain these endless cords,fig.574.represents a single endless cord 1, 1, which is here shown in operation, and part of another endless cord 2, 2, shown stationary. There must be as many endless cords in this frame as needles in the weaving-loom.ais the wooden cylinder, revolving upon its axis at the lower part of the standards;b b, the two pulleys of the pulley-frames above, over which the individual endless cord passes;cis a small traverse ring. To each of these rings a weight is suspended by a single thread, for the purpose of giving tension to the endless cord.dis a board resembling a common comber-bar, which is supported by the cross-bars of the standard frame, and is pierced with holes, in situation and number, corresponding with the perpendicular threads that pass through them; which board keeps the threads distinct from each other.Ate, the endless cord passes through the eyes of wires resembling needles, which are contained in a wooden box placed in front of the machine, and shown in this figure in section only. These wires are called thepunch-projectors; they are guided and supported by horizontal rods and vertical pins, the latter of which pass through loops formed at the hinder part of the respective wires. Atfare two horizontal rods extending the whole width of the machine, for the purpose of producing the cross in the cords;gis a thick brass plate, extending along in front of the machine, and lying close to the box which holds thepunch-projectors; this plateg, shown also in section, is called thepunch-holder; it contains the same number of apertures as there are punch-projectors, and disposed so as to correspond with each other. In each of these apertures, there is a punch for the purpose of piercing the cards, slips, or pasteboards with holes;his a thick steel plate of the same size asg, and shown likewise in section, corresponding also in its number of apertures, and their disposition, with the punch-projectors and the punch-holder. This plateh, is called thepunch-receiver.The object of this machine is to transfer such of the punches as may be required for piercing any individual card from the punch-holderg, into the punch-receiverh; when they will be properly situated, and ready for piercing the individual card or slip, with such holes as have been read in upon the machine, and are required for permitting the warp threads to be withdrawn in the loom, when this card is brought against the ends of the needles. The process of transferring the patterns to the punches will be effected in the following manner.The pattern is to be read in, according to the ordinary mode, as in a false simple, upon the endless cords below the rodsf, and passed under the revolving wooden cylindera, to a sufficient height for a person in front of the machine to reach conveniently. He there takes the upper threads of the pattern, called thebeard, and draws them forward so as to introduce a stick behind the cords thus advanced, as shown by dots, for the purpose of keeping them separate from the cords which are not intended to be operated upon. All the punch-projectors which are connected with the cords brought forward, will be thus made to pass through the corresponding apertures of the punch-holderg, and by this means will project the punches out of these apertures, into corresponding apertures of the punch-receiverh. The punches will now be properly arranged for piercing the required holes on a card or slip, which is to be effected in the following manner.Remove the punch-receivers from the front of the machine; and having placed one of the slips of card or pasteboard between the two folding plates of metal, completely pierced with holes corresponding to the needles of the loom, lay the punch-receiver upon those perforated plates; to which it must be made to fit by mortises and blocks, the cutting parts of the punches being downwards. Upon the back of the punch-receiver is then to be placed a plate or block, studded with perpendicular pins corresponding to the above described holes, into which the pins will fall. The plates and the blocks thus laid together, are to be placed under a press, by which means the pins of the block will be made to pass through the apertures of the punch-receiver; and wherever the punch has been deposited in the receiver by the above process, the said punches will be forced through the slip of pasteboard, and pierced with such holes as are required for producing the figured design in the loom.Each card being thus pierced, the punch-receiver is returned to its place in front of the machine, and all the punches forced back again into the apertures of the punch-holder as at first. The next set of cords is now drawn forward by the nextbeard, as above described, which sends out thepunch-projectorsas before, and disposes the punches in the punch-receiver, ready for the operation of piercing the next card. The process being thus repeated, the whole pattern is, by a number of operations, transferred to the punches, and afterwards to the cards or slips, as above described.

Jacquard loom

Fig.566.is a front elevation of this mechanism, supposed to be let down.Fig.567.is a cross section, shown in its highest position.Fig.568.the same section as the preceding, but seen in its lower position.

A, is the fixed part of the frame, supposed to form a part of the ordinary loom; there are two uprights of wood, with two cross-bars uniting them at their upper ends, and leaving an intervalx y, between them, to place and work the movable frameB, vibrating round two fixed pointsa a, placed laterally opposite each other, in the middle of the spacex y,fig.566.

C, is a piece of iron with a peculiar curvature, seen in front,fig.566., and in profile,figs.567.and568.It is fixed on one side upon the upper cross-bar of the frameB, and on the other, to the intermediate cross-barbof the same frame, where it shows an inclined curvilinear spacec, terminated below by a semi-circle.

Jacquard loom

D, is a square wooden axis, movable upon itself round two iron pivots, fixed into its twoends; which axis occupies the bottom of the movable frameB. The four faces of this square axis are pierced with three round, equal, truly-bored holes, arranged in a quincunx. The teetha,fig.570., are stuck into each face, and correspond to holesa,fig.573., made in the cards which constitute the endless chain for the healds; so that in the successive application of the cards to each face of the square axis, the holes pierced in one card may always fall opposite to those pierced in the other.The right-hand end of the square axis, of which a section is shown in double size,fig.569., carries two square plates of sheet irond, kept parallel to each other and a little apart, by four spindlese, passed opposite to the corners. This is a kind of lantern, in whose spindles, the hooks of the leversff′, turning round fixed pointsgg′beyond the right hand uprightA, catch hold, either above or below at the pleasure of the weaver, according as he merely pulls or lets go the cordz, during the vibratory movement of the frameB.

Eis a piece of wood shaped like a T, the stem of which prolonged upwards, passes freely through the cross-barb, and through the upper cross-bar of the frameB, which serve as guides to it. The head of the T piece being applied successively against the two spindlese, placed above in a horizontal position, first by its weight, and then by the spiral springh, acting from above downwards, keeps the square axis in its position, while it permits it to turn upon itself in the two directions. The namepressis given to the assemblage of all the pieces which compose the movable frameB B.

Fis a cross-bar made to move in a vertical direction by means of the leverG, in the notches or groovesi, formed within the fixed uprightsA.

H, is a piece of bent iron, fixed by one of its ends with a nut and screw, upon the cross-barF, out of the vertical plane of the pieceC. Its other end carries a friction rollerJ, which working in the curvilinear spacecof the pieceC, forces this, and consequently the frameBto recede from the perpendicular, or to return to it, according as the cross-barFis in the top or bottom of its course, as shown infigs.567.and568.

I, cheeks of sheet iron attached on either side to the cross-barF, which serve as a safe to a kind of clawK, composed here of eight small metallic bars, seen in sectionfig.567.and568., and on a greater scale infig.570.

J, upright skewers of iron wire, whose tops bent down hook-wise, naturally place themselves over the little barsK. The bottom of these spindles likewise hooked in the same direction as the upper ones, embraces small wooden barsl, whose office is to keep them in their respective places, and to prevent them from twirling round, so that the uppermost hooks may be always directed towards the small metallic bars upon which they impend. To these hooks from below are attached strings, which after having crossed a fixed boardm n, pierced with corresponding holes for this purpose, proceed next to be attached to the threads of the loops destined to lift the warp threads.K K, horizontal spindles or needles, arranged here in eight several rows, so that each spindle corresponds both horizontally and vertically to each of the holes pierced in the four faces of the square axisD. There are therefore as many of these spindles as there are holes in one of the faces of the square.

Spindle

Fig.571.represents one of these horizontal spindles.nis an eyelet through which the corresponding vertical skewer passes.oanother elongated eyelet, through which a small fixed spindle passes to serve as a guide, but which does not hinder it from moving length-wise, within the limits of the length of the eyelet.p, small spiral springs placed in each hole of the caseq q,fig.570.They serve the purpose of bringing back to its primitive position, every corresponding needle, as soon as it ceases to press upon it.

Jacquard pierced cards

Fig.572.represents the plan of the upper row of horizontal needles.Fig.573.is a fragment of the endless chain, formed with perforated cards, which are made to circulateor travel by the rotation of the shaftD. In this movement, each of the perforated cards, whose position, form, and number, are determined by the operation of tying-up of the warp, comes to be applied in succession against the four faces of the square axis or drum, leaving open the corresponding holes, and covering those upon the face of the axis, which have no corresponding holes upon the card.

Now let us suppose that thepressBis let down into the vertical position shown infig.568.; then the card applied against the left face of the axis, leaves at rest or untouched the whole of the horizontal spindles (skewers), whose ends correspond to these holes, but pushes back those which are opposite to the unpierced part of the card; thereby the corresponding upright skewers, 3. 5. 6. and 8. for example, pushed out of the perpendicular, unhook themselves from above the bars of the claw, and remain in their place, when this claw comes to be raised by means of the leverG; and the skewers 1. 2. 4. and 7., which have remained hooked on, are raised along with the warp threads attached to them. Then by the passage across of a shot of the colour, as well as a shot of the common weft, and a stroke of the lay after shedding the warp and lowering the pressB, an element or point in the pattern is completed.

The following card, brought round by a quarter revolution of the axis, finds all the needles in their first position, and as it is necessarily perforated differently from the preceding card, it will lift another series of warp threads; and thus in succession for all the other cards, which compose a complete system of a figured pattern.

This machine, complicated in appearance, and which requires some pains to be understood, acts however in a very simple manner. Its whole play is dependent upon the movement of the leverG, which the weaver himself causes to rise and fall, by means of a peculiar pedal; so that without the aid of any person, after the piece is properly read in and mounted, he can execute the most complex patterns, as easily as he could weave plain goods; only attending to the order of his weft yarns, when these happen to be of different colours.

If some warp yarns should happen to break without the weaver observing them, or should he mistake his coloured shuttle yarns, which would so far disfigure the pattern, he must undo his work. For this purpose, he makes use of the lower hooked leverf′, whose purpose is to make the chain of the card go backwards, while working the loom as usual, withdrawing at each stroke the shot both of the ground and of the figure. The weaver is the more subject to make mistakes, as the figured side of the web is downwards, and it is only with the aid of a bit of looking-glass that he takes a peep of his work from time to time. The upper surface exhibits merely loose threads in different points, according as the pattern requires them to lie upon the one side or the other.

Thus it must be evident, that such a number of paste-boards are to be provided and mounted as equal the number of throws of the shuttle between the beginning and end of any figure or design which is to be woven; the piercing of each paste-board individually, will depend upon the arrangement of the lifting rods, and their connection with the warp, which is according to the design and option of the workman; great care must be taken that the holes come exactly opposite to the ends of the needles; for this purpose two large holes are made at the ends of the paste-boards, which fall upon conical points, by which means they are made to register correctly.

It will be hence seen, that, according to the length of the figure, so must be the number of paste-boards, which may be readily displaced so as to remount and produce the figure in a few minutes, or remove it, or replace it, or preserve the figure for future use. The machine, of course, will be understood to consist of many sets of the lifting rods and needles, shown in the diagram, as will be perceived by observing the disposition of the holes in the paste-board; those holes, in order that they may be accurately distributed, are to be pierced from a gauge, so that not the slightest variation shall take place.

To form these card-slips, an ingenious apparatus is employed, by which the proper steel punches required for the piercing of each distinct card, are placed in their relative situations preparatory to the operation of piercing, and also by its means a card may be punched with any number of holes at one operation. This disposition of the punches is effected by means of rods connected to cords disposed in a frame, in the nature of a false simple, on which the pattern of the work to be performed is first read in.

These improved pierced cards, slips, or paste-boards, apply to a weaving apparatus, which is so arranged that a figure to be wrought can be extended to any distance along the loom, and by that means the loom is rendered capable of producing broad figured works; having the long leverGplaced in such a situation that it affords power to the foot of the weaver, and by this means enables him to draw the heaviest morintures and figured works, without the assistance of a draw-boy.

The machinery for arranging the punches, consists of a frame with four upright standards and cross-pieces, which contains a series of endless cords passing under a wooden roller at bottom, and over pulleys at the top. These pulleys are mounted onaxles in two frames, placed obliquely over the top of the standard frame, which pulley-frames constitute the table commonly used by weavers.

Endless cord

In order better to explain these endless cords,fig.574.represents a single endless cord 1, 1, which is here shown in operation, and part of another endless cord 2, 2, shown stationary. There must be as many endless cords in this frame as needles in the weaving-loom.ais the wooden cylinder, revolving upon its axis at the lower part of the standards;b b, the two pulleys of the pulley-frames above, over which the individual endless cord passes;cis a small traverse ring. To each of these rings a weight is suspended by a single thread, for the purpose of giving tension to the endless cord.dis a board resembling a common comber-bar, which is supported by the cross-bars of the standard frame, and is pierced with holes, in situation and number, corresponding with the perpendicular threads that pass through them; which board keeps the threads distinct from each other.

Ate, the endless cord passes through the eyes of wires resembling needles, which are contained in a wooden box placed in front of the machine, and shown in this figure in section only. These wires are called thepunch-projectors; they are guided and supported by horizontal rods and vertical pins, the latter of which pass through loops formed at the hinder part of the respective wires. Atfare two horizontal rods extending the whole width of the machine, for the purpose of producing the cross in the cords;gis a thick brass plate, extending along in front of the machine, and lying close to the box which holds thepunch-projectors; this plateg, shown also in section, is called thepunch-holder; it contains the same number of apertures as there are punch-projectors, and disposed so as to correspond with each other. In each of these apertures, there is a punch for the purpose of piercing the cards, slips, or pasteboards with holes;his a thick steel plate of the same size asg, and shown likewise in section, corresponding also in its number of apertures, and their disposition, with the punch-projectors and the punch-holder. This plateh, is called thepunch-receiver.

The object of this machine is to transfer such of the punches as may be required for piercing any individual card from the punch-holderg, into the punch-receiverh; when they will be properly situated, and ready for piercing the individual card or slip, with such holes as have been read in upon the machine, and are required for permitting the warp threads to be withdrawn in the loom, when this card is brought against the ends of the needles. The process of transferring the patterns to the punches will be effected in the following manner.

The pattern is to be read in, according to the ordinary mode, as in a false simple, upon the endless cords below the rodsf, and passed under the revolving wooden cylindera, to a sufficient height for a person in front of the machine to reach conveniently. He there takes the upper threads of the pattern, called thebeard, and draws them forward so as to introduce a stick behind the cords thus advanced, as shown by dots, for the purpose of keeping them separate from the cords which are not intended to be operated upon. All the punch-projectors which are connected with the cords brought forward, will be thus made to pass through the corresponding apertures of the punch-holderg, and by this means will project the punches out of these apertures, into corresponding apertures of the punch-receiverh. The punches will now be properly arranged for piercing the required holes on a card or slip, which is to be effected in the following manner.

Remove the punch-receivers from the front of the machine; and having placed one of the slips of card or pasteboard between the two folding plates of metal, completely pierced with holes corresponding to the needles of the loom, lay the punch-receiver upon those perforated plates; to which it must be made to fit by mortises and blocks, the cutting parts of the punches being downwards. Upon the back of the punch-receiver is then to be placed a plate or block, studded with perpendicular pins corresponding to the above described holes, into which the pins will fall. The plates and the blocks thus laid together, are to be placed under a press, by which means the pins of the block will be made to pass through the apertures of the punch-receiver; and wherever the punch has been deposited in the receiver by the above process, the said punches will be forced through the slip of pasteboard, and pierced with such holes as are required for producing the figured design in the loom.

Each card being thus pierced, the punch-receiver is returned to its place in front of the machine, and all the punches forced back again into the apertures of the punch-holder as at first. The next set of cords is now drawn forward by the nextbeard, as above described, which sends out thepunch-projectorsas before, and disposes the punches in the punch-receiver, ready for the operation of piercing the next card. The process being thus repeated, the whole pattern is, by a number of operations, transferred to the punches, and afterwards to the cards or slips, as above described.

JADE; axe-stone; (Nephrite,Ceraunite, Fr.) is a mineral commonly of a greenish colour, compact, and of a fatty lustre. Spec. grav. 2·95; scratches glass, is very tough; fuses into a white enamel. Its constituents are, silica 50·5; alumina 10; magnesia 31; oxide of iron 5·50; oxide of chrome 0·05; water 2·75. It comes from China, is used among rude nations for making hatchets; and is susceptible of being cut into any form.

JAPANNING, is a kind of varnishing or lacquering, practised with excellence by the Japanese, whence the name. SeeVarnish.

JASPER; (Jaspe calcedoine, Fr.;Jaspis, Germ.) is a sub species of calcedony quartz, of which there are five varieties. 1. The Egyptian red and brown, with ring or tendril-shaped delineations. 2. Striped jasper. 3. Porcelain jasper. 4. Common jasper. 5. Agate jasper. The prettiest specimens are cut for seals, and for the inferior kinds of jewellery ornaments. SeeLapidary.

ICEHOUSE; (Glacière, Fr.;Eishaus, Germ.) Under the articleFreezing, I have enumerated the different artificial methods of producing cold. But for the uses of common life, in these climates, the most economical and convenient means of refrigeration in hot weather may be procured by laying up a store of ice in winter, in such circumstances as will preserve it solid during summer.An icehouse should not be regarded as an object of mere luxury, for pleasing the palates of gourmands with iced creams and orgeats. In the southern countries of Europe it is considered among people in easy circumstances as an indispensable appendage to a country mansion. During the Dog-days, especially at those periods, and in those districts where thesiroccoblows, a lassitude and torpor of mind and body supervene, with indigestion or total loss of appetite, and sometimes dysenteries, which are obviously occasioned by the excessive heat, and are to be prevented or counteracted chiefly by the use of cold beverages. By giving tone to the stomach, iced drinks immediately restore the functions of the nervous and muscular systems when they are languid; while they enable persons in health to endure without much inconvenience an atmosphere so close and sultry as would be intolerable without this remedy. Icehouses, moreover, afford to country gentlemen, a great advantage in enabling them to preserve their fish, butcher meat, dead poultry, and game, which would otherwise, in particular states of the weather, immediately spoil. Considering at how little expense and trouble an icehouse can be constructed, it is surprising that any respectable habitation in the country should not have one attached to it. The simplest and most scientific form is a double cone, that is, two cones joined base to base; the one being of stones or brickwork, sunk under ground with its apex at the bottom, into which the ice is rammed; the other being a conical roof of carpentry covered with thatch, and pointed at top. The entrance should be placed always on the north side; it should consist of a corridor or porch with double doors, and be screened from the sunbeams by a small shrubbery. Such are, in general, the principles upon which an icehouse should be formed; but they will be better understood by the following explanation and figure.A dry sandy soil should be selected, and, if possible, a spot sheltered by a cliff or other natural barrier from the direct rays of the sun. Here a cavity is to be dug about 16 feet in diameter, terminating below like the point of a sugar loaf. Its ordinary depth, for a moderate family, may be about 24 feet; but the larger its dimensions are, the longer will it preserve the ice, provided it be filled. In digging, the workman should slope the ground progressively towards the axis of the cone, to prevent the earth falling in. This conical slope should be faced with brick or stone work about one foot thick, and jointed with Roman cement so as to be air and water tight. A well is to be excavated at the bottom two feet wide and four deep, covered at top with an iron grating for supporting the ice, and letting the water drain away.The upper cone may likewise be built of brickwork, and covered with thatch; such a roof would prove the most durable. This is the construction shown infig.575.Whatever kind of roof be preferred, there must be left in it an oblong passage into the interior. This porch should face the north, and be at least 8 feet long by 21⁄2feet wide; and perfectly closed by a well-fitted door at each end. All round the bottom of this conical cover, a gutter should be placed to carry off the rain to a distance from the icehouse, and prevent the circumjacent ground from getting soaked with moisture.IcehouseFig.575.shows the section of a well-constructed icehouse. Under the ice-chamberAthe ice is rammed into the spaceB.Cis the grate of the drain-sinkD. TheportionE Eis built in brick or stone; the baseLof the ice-chamber slopes inwards towards the centre atC. The upper part of the brickworkE Eis a little way below the level of the ground. The wooden frame workF F F Fforms the roof, and is covered with thick thatch.G His the wooden work of the doorI. AtKthe bucket is seen for lifting up a charge of ice, by means of the cordJpassing over the pulleyM, which enables the servant to raise it easily.The icehouse should have no window to admit light; but be, so to speak, hermetically sealed in every point, except at its cess-pool, which may terminate in a water trap to prevent circulation of air.A clear day should be selected for charging the icehouse; but before beginning to fill, a quantity of long dry straw should be laid on the bottom crosswise; and as the ice is progressively introduced, straw is to be spread against the conical sides, to prevent the ice from coming into contact with the brick or stone work. The more firmly compacted the ice is, the better does it keep; with which view it should be broken into pieces with mallets before being thrown in. No layers of straw should be stratified among the ice, for they would make its body porous. Some persons recommend to pour in a little water with the successive layers of ice, in order to fill up its small crevices, and convert the whole into one mass.Over the top layer a thick bed of straw should be spread, which is to be covered with boards surmounted with heavy stones, to close up the interstices in the straw. The inner and outer doors should never be opened at once; but the one should always be shut before the other is opened.Dry snow well rammed keeps equally well with hard ice, if care be taken to leave no cavities in the mass, and to secure its compactness by sprinkling a little water upon the successive charges.To facilitate the extraction of the ice, a ladder is set up against its sloping wall at one side of the door, and left there during the season.

An icehouse should not be regarded as an object of mere luxury, for pleasing the palates of gourmands with iced creams and orgeats. In the southern countries of Europe it is considered among people in easy circumstances as an indispensable appendage to a country mansion. During the Dog-days, especially at those periods, and in those districts where thesiroccoblows, a lassitude and torpor of mind and body supervene, with indigestion or total loss of appetite, and sometimes dysenteries, which are obviously occasioned by the excessive heat, and are to be prevented or counteracted chiefly by the use of cold beverages. By giving tone to the stomach, iced drinks immediately restore the functions of the nervous and muscular systems when they are languid; while they enable persons in health to endure without much inconvenience an atmosphere so close and sultry as would be intolerable without this remedy. Icehouses, moreover, afford to country gentlemen, a great advantage in enabling them to preserve their fish, butcher meat, dead poultry, and game, which would otherwise, in particular states of the weather, immediately spoil. Considering at how little expense and trouble an icehouse can be constructed, it is surprising that any respectable habitation in the country should not have one attached to it. The simplest and most scientific form is a double cone, that is, two cones joined base to base; the one being of stones or brickwork, sunk under ground with its apex at the bottom, into which the ice is rammed; the other being a conical roof of carpentry covered with thatch, and pointed at top. The entrance should be placed always on the north side; it should consist of a corridor or porch with double doors, and be screened from the sunbeams by a small shrubbery. Such are, in general, the principles upon which an icehouse should be formed; but they will be better understood by the following explanation and figure.

A dry sandy soil should be selected, and, if possible, a spot sheltered by a cliff or other natural barrier from the direct rays of the sun. Here a cavity is to be dug about 16 feet in diameter, terminating below like the point of a sugar loaf. Its ordinary depth, for a moderate family, may be about 24 feet; but the larger its dimensions are, the longer will it preserve the ice, provided it be filled. In digging, the workman should slope the ground progressively towards the axis of the cone, to prevent the earth falling in. This conical slope should be faced with brick or stone work about one foot thick, and jointed with Roman cement so as to be air and water tight. A well is to be excavated at the bottom two feet wide and four deep, covered at top with an iron grating for supporting the ice, and letting the water drain away.

The upper cone may likewise be built of brickwork, and covered with thatch; such a roof would prove the most durable. This is the construction shown infig.575.Whatever kind of roof be preferred, there must be left in it an oblong passage into the interior. This porch should face the north, and be at least 8 feet long by 21⁄2feet wide; and perfectly closed by a well-fitted door at each end. All round the bottom of this conical cover, a gutter should be placed to carry off the rain to a distance from the icehouse, and prevent the circumjacent ground from getting soaked with moisture.

Icehouse

Fig.575.shows the section of a well-constructed icehouse. Under the ice-chamberAthe ice is rammed into the spaceB.Cis the grate of the drain-sinkD. TheportionE Eis built in brick or stone; the baseLof the ice-chamber slopes inwards towards the centre atC. The upper part of the brickworkE Eis a little way below the level of the ground. The wooden frame workF F F Fforms the roof, and is covered with thick thatch.G His the wooden work of the doorI. AtKthe bucket is seen for lifting up a charge of ice, by means of the cordJpassing over the pulleyM, which enables the servant to raise it easily.

The icehouse should have no window to admit light; but be, so to speak, hermetically sealed in every point, except at its cess-pool, which may terminate in a water trap to prevent circulation of air.

A clear day should be selected for charging the icehouse; but before beginning to fill, a quantity of long dry straw should be laid on the bottom crosswise; and as the ice is progressively introduced, straw is to be spread against the conical sides, to prevent the ice from coming into contact with the brick or stone work. The more firmly compacted the ice is, the better does it keep; with which view it should be broken into pieces with mallets before being thrown in. No layers of straw should be stratified among the ice, for they would make its body porous. Some persons recommend to pour in a little water with the successive layers of ice, in order to fill up its small crevices, and convert the whole into one mass.

Over the top layer a thick bed of straw should be spread, which is to be covered with boards surmounted with heavy stones, to close up the interstices in the straw. The inner and outer doors should never be opened at once; but the one should always be shut before the other is opened.

Dry snow well rammed keeps equally well with hard ice, if care be taken to leave no cavities in the mass, and to secure its compactness by sprinkling a little water upon the successive charges.

To facilitate the extraction of the ice, a ladder is set up against its sloping wall at one side of the door, and left there during the season.

JELLY, VEGETABLE, of ripe currants and other berries, is a compound of mucilage and acid, which loses its power of gelatinizing by prolonged ebullition.

JELLY, ANIMAL; seeGelatine,Glue, andIsinglass.

JET; (Jaietorjais, Fr.) a species of pitch-coal or glance-coal, which, being found abundantly in a beautiful compact form, in the valley of Hers, arrondissement of Pamiers, department of the Arriège, has been worked up extensively there from time immemorial, into a multitude of ornamental articles. With this black lignite, buttons, crosses, rosaries, necklaces, ear-drops, bracelets, waist-buckles, &c. are made, which were at one time much worn by ladies for mourning dresses. The greater number of these ornaments are fashioned upon grindstones which turn in a horizontal direction, and are kept continually wet; others are turned at the lathe, or shaped by files.About 40 years ago this manufacture employed from 1000 to 1200 operatives; at present it gives bread to only 60. This falling off may be ascribed to the successful imitation of the jet articles by those of black glass, which are equally beautiful, and not nearly so apt to lose their polish by use.

About 40 years ago this manufacture employed from 1000 to 1200 operatives; at present it gives bread to only 60. This falling off may be ascribed to the successful imitation of the jet articles by those of black glass, which are equally beautiful, and not nearly so apt to lose their polish by use.

IMPERMEABLE, is the epithet given to any kind of textile fabric, rendered water-proof by one or other of the following substances:—1. Linseed oil to which a drying quality has been communicated by boiling with litharge or sugar of lead, &c.2. The same oil holding in solution a little caoutchouc.3. A varnish made by dissolving caoutchouc in rectified petroleum or naphtha, applied between two surfaces of cloth, as described underMacintosh’s patent. SeeCaoutchouc.4. Vegetable or mineral pitch, applied hot with a brush, as in making tarpauling for covering goods in ships.5. A solution of soap worked into cloth, and decomposed in it by the action of a solution of alum; whence results a mixture of acid fats and alumina, which insinuates itself among all the woolly filaments, fills their interstices, and prevents the passage of water.6. A solution of glue or isinglass, introduced into a stuff, and then acted upon by aclear infusion of galls, whereby the fibres get impregnated with an insoluble, impermeable, pulverulent leather.7. Plaster work is rendered impermeable by mixing artificial or natural asphaltum with it.

IMPERMEABLE, is the epithet given to any kind of textile fabric, rendered water-proof by one or other of the following substances:—

1. Linseed oil to which a drying quality has been communicated by boiling with litharge or sugar of lead, &c.

2. The same oil holding in solution a little caoutchouc.

3. A varnish made by dissolving caoutchouc in rectified petroleum or naphtha, applied between two surfaces of cloth, as described underMacintosh’s patent. SeeCaoutchouc.

4. Vegetable or mineral pitch, applied hot with a brush, as in making tarpauling for covering goods in ships.

5. A solution of soap worked into cloth, and decomposed in it by the action of a solution of alum; whence results a mixture of acid fats and alumina, which insinuates itself among all the woolly filaments, fills their interstices, and prevents the passage of water.

6. A solution of glue or isinglass, introduced into a stuff, and then acted upon by aclear infusion of galls, whereby the fibres get impregnated with an insoluble, impermeable, pulverulent leather.

7. Plaster work is rendered impermeable by mixing artificial or natural asphaltum with it.

JEWELLERY,Art of. SeeGemandLapidary.

INCOMBUSTIBLE CLOTH; is a tissue of the fibrous mineral called amianthus or asbestos. This is too rare to form the object of any considerable manufacture. Cotton and linen cloth may be best rendered incapable of taking fire, or burning with flame, by being imbued with a solution of sal ammoniac.

INCUBATION, ARTIFICIAL. The Egyptians have from time immemorial been accustomed to hatch eggs by artificial warmth, without the aid of hens, in peculiar stoves, calledMammals. The inhabitants of the village Bermé, still travel through the most distant provinces of Egypt at certain seasons of the year, with a portable furnace, heated by a lamp, and either hatch chickens for sale, or undertake to hatch the eggs belonging to the natives at a certain rate per dozen. M. de Reaumur published in France about a century ago, some ingenious observations upon this subject; but M. Bonnemain was the first person who studied with due attention all the circumstances of artificial incubation, and mounted the process successfully upon the commercial scale. So far back as 1777 he communicated to the Academy of Sciences an interesting fact, which he had noticed, upon the mechanism employed by chicks to break their shells; and for some time prior to the French revolution he furnished the Parisian market with excellent poultry at a period of the year when the farmers had ceased to supply it. His establishment was ruined at that disastrous era, and no other has ever since been constructed or conducted with similar care. As there can be no doubt however of the practicability and profitableness of the scheme, when judiciously managed, I shall insert a brief account of his ingenious arrangements. I had the pleasure of making the acquaintance of this amiable old man at my first visit to Paris, many years ago, and believe all his statements to be worthy of credit. Some imitations of his plans have been made in this country, but how far they have succeeded in an economical point of view, it is difficult to determine. His apparatus derives peculiar interest from the fact, that it was founded upon the principle of the circulation of hot water, by the intestine motions of its particles, in a returning series of connected pipes; a subject afterwards illustrated in the experimental researches of Count Rumford. It has of late years been introduced as anoveltyinto this country, and applied to warm the apartments of many public and private buildings. The following details will prove that the theory and practice of hot-water circulation were as perfectly understood by M. Bonnemain fifty years ago, as they are by any of our stove-doctors at the present day. They were then publicly exhibited at his residence in Paris, and were afterwards communicated to the world at large in the interesting article of theDictionnaire Technologique, intitledIncubation Artificielle.The apparatus of M. Bonnemain consisted: 1. of a boiler and pipes for the circulation of water; 2. of a regulator calculated to maintain an equable temperature; 3. of a stove-apartment, heated constantly to the degree best fitted for incubation, which he called thehatchingpitch. He attached to one side apoussinièreor chick-room, for cherishing the chickens during a few days after incubation.Hatching boilerThe boiler is represented in vertical section and ground plan, infigs.576.and577.It is composed of a double cylinder of copper or cast-ironl,l, having a grateb(seeplan), an ashpit atd(section). The water occupies the shaded spaceC,C.h,g,g,e,e, are five vertical flues, for conducting the burnt air and smoke, which first rise in the two exterior fluese,e, then descend in the two adjoining fluesg,g, and finally re-mount through the passagesi,i, in the central flueh. During this upwards and downwards circulation, as shown by the arrows in the section, the products of combustion are made to impart nearly the whole of their heat to the water by which they are surrounded. At the commencement, some burning paper or wood shavings are inserted at the orificem, to establish a draught in this circuitous chimney. The air is admitted into the ash-pit at the side, in regulated quantities, through a small square door, movable round a rod which runs horizontally along its middle line. This swing valve is acted upon by an expanding bar (seeHeat-Regulator), which opens it more or less, according to the temperature of the stove apartment in which the eggs are placed.Artificial incubatorDis the upper orifice of the boiler, by which the hotter and consequently lighter particles of the water continually ascend, and are replaced by the cooled particles, which enter the boiler near its bottom, as shown infig.578.atR. Into further details relative to the boiler it is needless to enter; for though its form, as designed by M. Bonnemain,is excellent and most economical of heat for a charcoal fire, it would not suit one of pit-coal, on account of the obstruction to the pipes which would soon be occasioned by its soot.Infig.578.the boiler is shown atR, with the rod which regulates the air door of the ash-pit.Dis a stopcock for modifying the opening by which the hotter particles of water ascend;Gis the water-pipe of communication, having the heating pipe of distribution attached betweenE F, which thence passes backwards and forwards with a very slight slope from the horizontal direction, till it reaches thepoussinièreO P Q. It traverses this apartment, and returns byN Nto the orifice of the boilerH, where it turns vertically downwards, and descends to nearly the bottom of the boiler, discharging at that point the cooled and therefore denser particles of water to replace those which continually issue upwards atD.L Ris a tube surmounted with a funnel for keeping the range of pipes always full of water; andKis a syphon orifice for permitting the escape of the disengaged air, which would otherwise be apt to occupy partially the pipes and obstruct the aqueous circulation.The faster the water gets cooled in the serpentine tubes, the quicker its circulation will be, because the difference of density between the water at the top and bottom of the boiler, which is the sole cause of its movement, will be greater.Nrepresents small saucers filled with water, to supply the requisite moisture to the heated air, and to place the eggs, arranged along the traysM M, in an atmosphere analogous to that under the body of the hen.When we wish to hatch eggs with this apparatus, the fire is to be kindled in the boiler, and as soon as the temperature has risen to about 100° F., the eggs are introduced; but only one-twentieth of the whole number intended, upon the first day; next day, a like number is laid upon the trays, and thus in succession for twenty days, so that upon the twenty-first day the eggs first placed may be hatched for the most part, and we may obtain daily afterwards an equal number of chicks. In this way, regularity of care is established in the rearing of them.During the first days of incubation, natural as well as artificial, a small portion of the water contained in the egg evaporates by the heat, through the shell, and is replaced by a like quantity of air, which is afterwards useful for the respiration of the animal. If the warm atmosphere surrounding the eggs were very dry, such a portion of the aqueous part of the eggs would evaporate through the pores of the shells, as would endanger the future life of the chickin ovo. The transpiration from the body of the hen, as she sits upon her eggs, counteracts this desiccation in general; yet in very dry weather, many hatching eggs fail from that cause, unless they be placed in moist decomposing straw. The water saucersN Nare therefore essential to success in artificial incubation.After the chickens are hatched they are transferred into the nursery,O Q, on the front side of which there is a small grated trough filled with millet seed. Small divisions are made between the broods of successive days, to enable the superintendent to vary their feeding to their age.In order to supply an establishment of the common kind, where 100 eggs are to be hatched daily, a dozen of hens would be needed, and 150 eggs must be placed under them, as only two-thirds in general succeed. At this rate, 4300 mothers would be required to sit. Now supposing we should collect ten times as many hens, or 43,000, we should not be able to command the above number of chickens, as there is seldom a tenth part of hens in a brooding state. Besides, there would be in this case no fewer than 720 hens every day coming out with a fresh brood of chickens, which would require a regiment of superintendents.Artificial Incubation, by means of Hot Mineral Waters.—This curious process isdescribed very briefly in a letter by M. D’Arcet. The following are extracts from this letter:—“In June, 1825, I obtained chickens and pigeons at Vichy, by artificial incubation, effected through the means of the thermal waters of that place. In 1827 I went to the baths of Chaudes-Aigues, principally for the purpose of doing the same thing there. Finding the proprietor a zealous man, I succeeded in making a useful application of this source of heat to the production of poultry.“The advantage of this process may be comprehended, when it is known that the invalids who arrive at Vichy, for instance in the month of May, find chickens only the size of quails; whereas, by this means, they may be readily supplied six months old.“The good which may be done by establishing artificial incubation in places where hot springs exist, isincalculable; it may be introduced into these establishments without at all interfering with the medical treatment of patients, since the hatching would go on in winter, at a time when the baths for other purposes are out of use.“There is no other trouble required in breeding chickens, by means of hot baths, than to break the eggs at the proper time; for, when the apartments are closed, the whole of the interior will readily acquire a sufficiently elevated and very constant temperature.”In addition to these details by M. D’Arcet, a letter was received from M. Felgeris, the proprietor of the baths at Chaudes-Aigues (Cantal), in which he describes the success he had in following M. D’Arcet’s process. This consists in putting the eggs into a small basket, suspending it in one of the stove-rooms heated by the hot mineral water, and turning round the eggs every day. The very first trial was attended with success, and no failure was experienced in four repetitions of it.

The apparatus of M. Bonnemain consisted: 1. of a boiler and pipes for the circulation of water; 2. of a regulator calculated to maintain an equable temperature; 3. of a stove-apartment, heated constantly to the degree best fitted for incubation, which he called thehatchingpitch. He attached to one side apoussinièreor chick-room, for cherishing the chickens during a few days after incubation.

Hatching boiler

The boiler is represented in vertical section and ground plan, infigs.576.and577.It is composed of a double cylinder of copper or cast-ironl,l, having a grateb(seeplan), an ashpit atd(section). The water occupies the shaded spaceC,C.h,g,g,e,e, are five vertical flues, for conducting the burnt air and smoke, which first rise in the two exterior fluese,e, then descend in the two adjoining fluesg,g, and finally re-mount through the passagesi,i, in the central flueh. During this upwards and downwards circulation, as shown by the arrows in the section, the products of combustion are made to impart nearly the whole of their heat to the water by which they are surrounded. At the commencement, some burning paper or wood shavings are inserted at the orificem, to establish a draught in this circuitous chimney. The air is admitted into the ash-pit at the side, in regulated quantities, through a small square door, movable round a rod which runs horizontally along its middle line. This swing valve is acted upon by an expanding bar (seeHeat-Regulator), which opens it more or less, according to the temperature of the stove apartment in which the eggs are placed.

Artificial incubator

Dis the upper orifice of the boiler, by which the hotter and consequently lighter particles of the water continually ascend, and are replaced by the cooled particles, which enter the boiler near its bottom, as shown infig.578.atR. Into further details relative to the boiler it is needless to enter; for though its form, as designed by M. Bonnemain,is excellent and most economical of heat for a charcoal fire, it would not suit one of pit-coal, on account of the obstruction to the pipes which would soon be occasioned by its soot.

Infig.578.the boiler is shown atR, with the rod which regulates the air door of the ash-pit.Dis a stopcock for modifying the opening by which the hotter particles of water ascend;Gis the water-pipe of communication, having the heating pipe of distribution attached betweenE F, which thence passes backwards and forwards with a very slight slope from the horizontal direction, till it reaches thepoussinièreO P Q. It traverses this apartment, and returns byN Nto the orifice of the boilerH, where it turns vertically downwards, and descends to nearly the bottom of the boiler, discharging at that point the cooled and therefore denser particles of water to replace those which continually issue upwards atD.L Ris a tube surmounted with a funnel for keeping the range of pipes always full of water; andKis a syphon orifice for permitting the escape of the disengaged air, which would otherwise be apt to occupy partially the pipes and obstruct the aqueous circulation.

The faster the water gets cooled in the serpentine tubes, the quicker its circulation will be, because the difference of density between the water at the top and bottom of the boiler, which is the sole cause of its movement, will be greater.Nrepresents small saucers filled with water, to supply the requisite moisture to the heated air, and to place the eggs, arranged along the traysM M, in an atmosphere analogous to that under the body of the hen.

When we wish to hatch eggs with this apparatus, the fire is to be kindled in the boiler, and as soon as the temperature has risen to about 100° F., the eggs are introduced; but only one-twentieth of the whole number intended, upon the first day; next day, a like number is laid upon the trays, and thus in succession for twenty days, so that upon the twenty-first day the eggs first placed may be hatched for the most part, and we may obtain daily afterwards an equal number of chicks. In this way, regularity of care is established in the rearing of them.

During the first days of incubation, natural as well as artificial, a small portion of the water contained in the egg evaporates by the heat, through the shell, and is replaced by a like quantity of air, which is afterwards useful for the respiration of the animal. If the warm atmosphere surrounding the eggs were very dry, such a portion of the aqueous part of the eggs would evaporate through the pores of the shells, as would endanger the future life of the chickin ovo. The transpiration from the body of the hen, as she sits upon her eggs, counteracts this desiccation in general; yet in very dry weather, many hatching eggs fail from that cause, unless they be placed in moist decomposing straw. The water saucersN Nare therefore essential to success in artificial incubation.

After the chickens are hatched they are transferred into the nursery,O Q, on the front side of which there is a small grated trough filled with millet seed. Small divisions are made between the broods of successive days, to enable the superintendent to vary their feeding to their age.

In order to supply an establishment of the common kind, where 100 eggs are to be hatched daily, a dozen of hens would be needed, and 150 eggs must be placed under them, as only two-thirds in general succeed. At this rate, 4300 mothers would be required to sit. Now supposing we should collect ten times as many hens, or 43,000, we should not be able to command the above number of chickens, as there is seldom a tenth part of hens in a brooding state. Besides, there would be in this case no fewer than 720 hens every day coming out with a fresh brood of chickens, which would require a regiment of superintendents.

Artificial Incubation, by means of Hot Mineral Waters.—This curious process isdescribed very briefly in a letter by M. D’Arcet. The following are extracts from this letter:—

“In June, 1825, I obtained chickens and pigeons at Vichy, by artificial incubation, effected through the means of the thermal waters of that place. In 1827 I went to the baths of Chaudes-Aigues, principally for the purpose of doing the same thing there. Finding the proprietor a zealous man, I succeeded in making a useful application of this source of heat to the production of poultry.

“The advantage of this process may be comprehended, when it is known that the invalids who arrive at Vichy, for instance in the month of May, find chickens only the size of quails; whereas, by this means, they may be readily supplied six months old.

“The good which may be done by establishing artificial incubation in places where hot springs exist, isincalculable; it may be introduced into these establishments without at all interfering with the medical treatment of patients, since the hatching would go on in winter, at a time when the baths for other purposes are out of use.

“There is no other trouble required in breeding chickens, by means of hot baths, than to break the eggs at the proper time; for, when the apartments are closed, the whole of the interior will readily acquire a sufficiently elevated and very constant temperature.”

In addition to these details by M. D’Arcet, a letter was received from M. Felgeris, the proprietor of the baths at Chaudes-Aigues (Cantal), in which he describes the success he had in following M. D’Arcet’s process. This consists in putting the eggs into a small basket, suspending it in one of the stove-rooms heated by the hot mineral water, and turning round the eggs every day. The very first trial was attended with success, and no failure was experienced in four repetitions of it.

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