Obs. ii. Three kinds of auxiliary words appear in the examples given.Substantive particles which follow the adjective they qualify, and imply a slight variation only. This variation may be increase or diminution, according to the sense of the adjective compared.Verbs. Of these, the verb 比compareis in constant use. It is found with other particles, or without any particle, and retains its syntax as a verb, unaffected by its use as an auxiliary in the comparison of adjectives. The other verbs employed express addition. Their opposites are used in a similar manner; e.g. 減少 ’kan’sau, 減脫 ’kant’eh,subtract.Conjunctions and adverbs form the remainder of the particles employed in comparison. They imply adifferencewithout specifying whether it be greater or less, so that they correspond more nearly to the English suffixerthan to the particlemore. The repeated form 越, 越 just answers to the particlethe, in “the sooner the better.” Such English forms as this are usually regarded as elliptical, and in explaining them, words supposed to be omitted are supplied. In the corresponding Chinese phrases, there is no ground for the hypothesis of an ellipsis.
Obs. ii. Three kinds of auxiliary words appear in the examples given.
178. The subjoined auxiliary particles supply the place of a superlative. The first three are placed before the adjective they qualify. The rest follow their word.
a. 頂 ’ting,highest, top.
b. 最 tsûe‘,exceedingly, the most.
c. 極,kiuh,extremely; this particle is used before or after the adjective which it qualifies.
d. 野 ’yá,wild, great; this word requires one of the auxiliary verbs 來 or 得 verbs before it.
e. 死 ’sí,to die; this word takes the auxiliary verb 來 between it and its adjective.
f. 嘸做mtsú‘,there is nothing that can be done; this form of expression also requires 來 lé.
g. 煞 sah,very. lit.a twinkling. (Premare has this particle, though it is certainly rare in mandarin. Many prefer 殺[1]sah,kill).
h. 頭一teu ih,the first in importance.
i. 了勿得 ’liau veh tuh,remarkably,exceedingly.
j. 了反勿得 ’liau fan veh tuh, ib.
k. 話勿得wó‘ veh tuh, or 話勿來wó‘ veh lé,very,unspeakable. 勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘,endlessly.
l. 得利害 tuh lí‘é‘,severe,dangerous.
Obs. i. Among the words admitted here are many forms of expression equivalent to our qualifying adverbsvery,extremely, etc. In actual usage no distinct line is kept between the adjectival and adverbial sense; e.g. 最好 tsûe‘ ’hau, may meanbest, orvery good. It seemed therefore preferable to give in one view, the more common forms for framing an absolute or modified superlative. Most of these particles are also used to qualify verbs, as will be shown. They are therefore true adverbs.
Obs. ii. Here may be distinguished four modes of forming the superlative. 1. By particles appropriated to this use 是, 頂, 極, tsûe‘, ’ting,kiuh. The two former stand before the adjective, the third is found both before and after its word. 2. The ordinal 頭一teu ih, in mandarin 第一tí ih,the first, also places the adjective it precedes in the superlative. 3. Auxiliary verbal particles 得, 來, tuh, lé, with the appendages 野, 極, 利害, ’yá,kiuh and lí‘é, to the former, and 野, 死, 唔, 做, ’yá, ’sí, andmtsú‘, to the latter, form a third class. 4. The forms 了勿得, ’liau veh tuh or ’liau fanveh tuh,wonderful,very, 話勿得wó‘ veh tuh (lé),unspeakable, and 勿了事 veh ’liau zz‘,endlessly, when appended to an adjective with 來 intervening, also convey a superlative sense.
Obs. iii. The verb 完wén,finishis also applied to adjectives with the same force as the preceding intensitive particles. 畫來像完者wó‘ lé ziáng‘wén ’tsé,painted extremely like; 容貌黃完yóng mau‘wongwén,countenance very sallow.
Obs. iv. Extreme excellence is also predicated of an adjective by the phrases 十分seh fun,ten partsand 十二分seh ni‘ fun,twelve parts; 物事十分好 meh zz‘ zeh fun ’hau,the thing is thoroughly good.
[1]That 殺 sah is the word seems probable because ’si,die, a word like it in meaning is much used in a similar manner.
179. Ordinal numbers are often expressed by the cardinal numbers, when on rhythmical grounds, there is no empty place in the sentence for a particle.
Obs. In regard to the cardinal numbers (for which see page61), a few examples only need to be added 五十三 ’ng zeh san,fifty three; 九 十二 ’kieu zeh ní‘,ninety two. From a hundred to a hundred and ten, 零 ling is inserted, 一百零四 ih páh ling sz‘,a hundred and four. Instead of saying 一百三十 ih páh sanseh, it is more frequent to omit 十 seh. Thus, ih páh san,a hundred and thirty, and so for other numbers. The omission of一 ih,one, sometimes occurs 百八 pák pah,a hundred and eighty;one thousand four hundredis 千四 t’siensz‘; fourteen thousand is 萬四 man‘ sz‘.
180. Days of the month take 初 t’sú before them as a numeral particle, but it is omitted when the number consists of two characters. Ordinal numbers are regularly formed by prefixing 第tí‘ to the cardinal numbers.
Obs. First is translated 頭一teu ih.
181. The numeral of multiplication is expressed by means of 倍pé‘,times; 要加倍 yau‘ ká bé‘,make it twice as large; 加長四倍 ká dzáng sz‘ bé‘,make it four times as long.
182. Distributive numbers are formed by the addition of 個 kú‘, or any other auxiliary substantive particles.
183. Indefinite numbers are expressed 百 páh, 100; 千 t’síen, 1,000; 萬 man‘, 10,000, with or without 論 lun.
184. Numbers enter into many common phrases.
Obs. Though not commonly occurring in English and other languages, examples similar to these are not wanting; e.g.at sixes and sevens.
185. Examples of some adjectives, extensive in their use and varied in their meaning, are here appended.
186. 全 dzien,complete, all.
187. 大tá‘,great, very.
188. 好 ’hau,good, well, that I may, it may.
189. 靈 ling,efficacious, intelligent.
190. 快 k’wá‘,fast, (adv.)near, soon, lively.
191. The pronouns are regarded by the Chinese as part of the auxiliary particles that with nouns and verbs make up sentences, and they have not proceeded to separate them from the rest of that numerous family by a peculiar denomination.
They are chiefly single words, but frequently admit of the dissyllabic form. Other pronouns, or particles having no meaning of their own (e.g. 是, 個), are prefixed or affixed to give them this form. The details will be found below.
Among the many simple and compound forms used as pronouns, the following may be distinguished as properly and originally such for this dialect.
Personal pronouns. 192. The first personal pronoun in the singular is ’ngú, 我I; the second, 儂 nóng‘ or 那 ná‘, thou; the third, 伊 í or 其kí,he.
In the plural 你 ’ní or 我你 ’ngú ’ní, expresswe; 那 ná or 儂那 nóng‘ ná‘,you; and 伊 í,they.
When the pronoun consists of one word only, the vacant place is often filled up by 是 ’zz.
Obs. i. The personal pronoun is often omitted, as 拾蓋看起來seh ké k’ön‘ ’k’í lé,thus you see; 勿來末總勿好 veh lé meh tsóng veh hau,if you do not come it will be unfortunate.
Obs. ii. The impersonal pronoun in Englishit, is not expressed, as 落雨者 loh ’ú’tsé,it is raining.
Obs. iii. In mandarin 我, 你, 他, ’ngó, ’ní, t’á,I, thou, he, all form their plural by taking 們 mun, as a suffix.
Obs. iv. Sometimes 我 ’ngú, may stand for the third personhe, This occurs, when two persons in relation to each other are the subject of conversation. The nominative is then considered asI, and the third person,he. Thus, 兄弟曉得呵哥勿喜歡我, h’iúng dí‘ ’hiau tuh á kú veh ’h’í hwén’ngú,the younger brother knows that the elder is displeased with him. This is not the case when no confusion of persons is likely to happen; e.g. 眼睛𥆝之伊個男人 ’ngantsing sú tsz í kú‘ nénniun,she looked on her husband.
193. The idea of self is expressed by 自家 zz‘ ká, for all persons, generally preceded by the appropriate pronoun.
Obs. i. In mandarin 自己 tsz‘ ’ki; Fúh-kien, 家己 ká ’kí.
Obs. ii. The pronoun 自 zz‘,self, though not used out of combination, occurs in several fixed phrases. 自殺自 zz‘ sah zz‘,to kill one’s-self; 自害自 zz‘hé‘ zz‘,to injure one’s-self, These concise forms are more agreeable and impressive to the native ear, than the equivalent long forms 自家殺脫自家 zz‘ ká sah t’eh zz‘ ká; 自家害脫自家 zz‘ káhé‘ t’eh zz‘ ká.
Demonstratives, 194. The demonstrative pronouns are 第個tí‘ kú‘,this, and 個個 kú‘ kú‘ or 伊個 í kú‘,that.
Obs. i. When these words combine with any of the auxiliary substantives to form demonstrative adverbs, the particle 個 kú‘ is omitted.
Obs. ii. Some of the mandarin demonstratives 那此彼 ’ná, t’sz, pé,that,this,that, though not belonging to our dialect in their monosyllabic form are found in some combinations. 那裏 ’á’lí,where?此地 ’t’sz dí‘,here; 彼此 pé ’t’sz,that and this. Facts of this sort illustrate the necessity for distinguishing between words of one or more syllables, and between roots in apposition, as separable and inseparable.
Interrogatives. 195. The interrogative forms are 啥 sá‘,what?那裏 ’á’lí,where? and which?and 幾 ’kí,what? which?also ’kí hó‘ (hau‘),how many.
Obs. i. In the compound forms here exhibited, 裏 may be taken to indicateplace; 許 hó‘ is a meaningless particle used to complete the rhythmus.
Obs. ii. The interrogative of the books 何hú,what?is found in combinations, such as 沒奈何 meh né‘hú,there is nothing I can do. But it is not used alone.
Relative pronouns. 196. The regular relative pronoun 所 ’só, is only used in combination with 以 ’í in the sensetherefore, and with ’dzé, 所在 as a noun substantive,house.
The place of the relative particle 所, used in books and in some dialects, is supplied by the particles 拉個 ’lá kú‘, or 個 alone, coming after the verb.
Possessive pronouns. 197. The possessive pronouns are expressed by the personal pronouns, with the auxiliary particle 個 kú‘.
Obs. i. In mandarin, 的 tih. The southern Fúh-kien dialect, besides having two distinct plural forms for the personal pronouns 恁 ’lin,you, 咱 ’lán,wehas also separate possessive forms for all the three persons 恁 ’lin,your; 阮 ’gwan,mine, 咱 ’lán,ours; 因 in,their, his. The intervening particle 個 is thus rendered unnecessary for that dialect. It is however often inserted. When these forms ’gwán, ’lin, in, are compared with the personal pronouns 我 你 伊 ’gwá, ’li or ’leu, í, the terminationnlooks extremely like an appendage to the root in each case.
Obs. ii. After the personal pronouns, when a preposition of motion precedes, a substantive of place is required; e.g. 到我喊頭來 tau‘ ’ngú han‘ deu lé,come to me. This is generally true in all instances, where place is left to be understood in English. 㑚塲好個狗 ná‘ dzáng hau‘ kú‘ ’keu,one of your dogs. It will be seen that the pronouns in these examples are possessive, though in the former, the corresponding English word is a personal pronoun.
Distributive pronouns. 198. The words corresponding to our distributive pronouns, each, every, etc. are the following 每逐各 ’mé, dzóh, k’oh.
每 ’mé,each.
逐 dzóh,each in succession.
各 koh,each, every.
Obs. i. Like the Greekpas,alloreach, 各 koh is also an adjectiveall; e.g. 各處 koh t’sû‘,all places.
Obs. ii. 每 mé, meansalways, in such phrases as 每要望望儂 ’mé yau‘ mong‘ mong‘ nóng‘,I wish constantly to come and see you; 每每 ’mé ’mé,always.
Reciprocal pronouns. 199. Phrases such asone anotherare expressed by 大家tá‘ ká and 家家 ká ká,mutually; or by 相 siáng,together, in combination.
Indefinite pronouns. 200. The wordsomeinsome one,something, is expressed either by 某 ’meu, or by the verb 有 ’yeu,have.Anythingis expressed by sá‘, usually with 有 ’yeu preceding; in the negative, 唔mtakes the place of ’yeu.
201.Severalis expressed by ’kí kú‘, 好幾個 hau‘ ’kí kú‘, 大 tá, and the borrowed form 多許 tú hau‘; 幾許 ’kí hó‘[1]is also used.
Obs. The Greektisis either interrogativewho?(Lat.quis?) or indifinitesome one, (Lat.aliquis.) In the same way, 幾 ’kí is sometimeshow many?and at other timesseveral. In the latter sense however, 好 is usually prefixed. So also sá‘ means eitherwhat?orany thing.
[1]Compare use of 幾許 in the following verses 花枝出建章 “Flowers grow in the Kien-chang palace” 風管發昭陽 “The sound of pipes issues from the palace of Chau-yang,” 借問承恩者 “I beg to ask in regard to those who receive favour” 雙蛾幾許長 “How long are their eyebrows?” These words are put in the mouth of a secondary wife of the emperor Han wú-ti when jealous of imperial favour extended to some inferior court women. The last line means “are their eyebrows so much longer than mine?”.
Correlatives or adjective pronouns. 202. The pronouns used as signs of the plural, as already illustrated in the section on substantives are 禿 全 t’óh, dzén,allorboth, and 總 ’tsóng,all.Noneandneitherare also expressed by t’óh, and dzénwith a negative.
Any one you please, whoever, whatever, are expressed by several borrowed phrases.
a. 大凡tá‘ van,generally speaking, whoever.
Obs. 凡 vanand sá‘ are the only true pronouns among these forms.
b. 勿拘 veh kü,does not matter what.
c. 隨便 dzûe bíen,as you please, whatever.
d. 勿論 veh lun‘,whatever.
e. sá‘whatever.
Obs. i. Buttman, Greek Grammar, section 78, says “Correlatives are words in connection with each other, of which one contains a certain question, and the corresponding one expresses the simplest relation which answers that question.” Thus, the question 啥人 sá‘ niun,who?may be answered by 第個人tí‘ kú‘ niun,this man; 隨便啥人, dzûe bíen‘ sa‘ niun,any one whatever; 唔啥人msá‘ niun,no one; 多 許人 tú hau‘ niun,many men. So also, 那裏隻船 ’álí tsáh zén,which boat?may be answered by 第隻tí‘ tsáh,this one; 勿論那裏隻 veh lun‘ ’álí tsáh,any one whatever; 禿勿是 t’óh veh ’zz,it is neither; 不過第搭幾隻船裏 peh kú‘tí‘ dah ’kí tsáh zén’lí,it must be one of those that are here; 是別隻船 ’zz bih tsáh zén,it it another; 忒前頭一樣個船 t’eh zíen deu ihyáng‘ kú‘ zén,the same boat as before. Several of these questions are answered by particles already presented under other denominations. The remainder not finding a place readily under any one class, are collected under the name of correlatives.
Obs. ii. The corresponding forms in Latin.Omnis, neuter, nullus, alter, alius, are classed with adjectives; Zempt calls thempronominalia. Buttman says, that the line between the corresponding words in Greek, as adjectives and as pronouns, cannot be clearly drawn. Marshman says, the Sanscrit grammarians call all these words pronouns. If they can stand without a substantive, they should be called pronouns, otherwise they are adjectives.
Obs. iii. 總 ’tsóng,all, is found only in the compounded forms, 共總kóng‘ ’tsóng, 攏總 ’lóng ’tsóngin all; 攏總个百性 ’lóng ’tsóng kú‘ pák sing‘,all the people. The substantive must accompany 衆 ’tsóng‘, as in 衆弟兄 tsóng‘ ’ti h’iúng,all the brothers, and therefore, it must be considered an adjective. 衆 is not found compounded.
Obs. iv.Allis also expressed by repetition of the substantive, 處處有個 t’sû‘ t’sû‘ ’yeu ku‘,every-where they are to be had. v. Art, 129. Another mode is by phrases, such as 一共 ih góng‘, 一切 ih t’sih,the whole.
Obs. v. Another translation ofallis by 大凡ta‘ van. Vanis used in the sense ofallin books, but in the dialect of Shánghái is only met with in this form.
203.Other different, are expressed bypih 別 or by 勿同 veh dóng, or by 兩樣 ’liángyáng‘,not the same, or by the particle 又 proceeding the substantive verb or by 另 ling‘.The sameis ihyáng‘ 一樣, or 相同 siáng dóng.
Words used as pronouns. 204. The use of some other words in combinations, where they occur instead of the pronouns will now be illustrated.
a. 本 ’pun;belonging to this place, as demonstrative pronoun.
b. 今 kiun,now, the present. As demonstrative pronoun,thisin reference to time.
c. 親 t’sing,one’s own, as reflexive pronounself; 親身 t’sing sun,himself; 親口 t’sing ’k’eu,his own mouth.
d. 多少 tú ’sau,how many?as an interrogative pronoun.
205. The adjectives that follow, are used to avoid the personal pronouns. Those that describe the speaker are depreciatory in their meaning, while if others are addressed, the adjectives employed are respectful.
尊 tsun,honoured, 貴 kwé‘,ib. 高 kau,high, combine with 姓 sing,family name, 國 kóh,kingdom, etc.
Obs. i. 府 ’fú, also forms part of the combination 府上 ’fú long‘,residence; e.g. 府上那裏 ’fú long‘ ’a’lí,where do you reside?
Obs. ii. 貴國 kwé‘ kóh askof what honoured country are you?貴地 kwé‘ dí‘,what is your place of residence?高徒 kau dú is translatedyour scholar;尊駕 tsun ká‘ and 相公 siáng‘ kóng, are used in place ofyou, among those who are not in an inferior social position.
206. 令 ling,honoured, good, applied to persons, enters into many combinations, where it represents the possessiveyour.
207. 老 ’lau and 大tá‘ are found in similar combinations.
Obs. i.老 ’lau is also prefixed to 先生 síensáng and 夫子 fú ’tsz, addressed to teachers, and to 相公 síang‘ kong, addressed by servants to masters. The form of address to priests, is 老師太 ’lau sz t’á‘, and to instructors 老師 ’lau sz.
Obs. ii. Some other terms are employed in a similar way, instead of the pronouns of the second person; 台 t’é,honouredwith 甫 ’fú or 篆 dzén‘,what it your honoured name?In the plural are found 衆位 tsóng‘wé‘ or 列位 lihwé‘,all you gentlemen!
208. Self depreciatory phrases employed instead of pronouns of the first person are equally numerous. 寒hön,cold; 敝pí,spoilt, inferior; 賤 dzíen,poor, cheap, form such groups, as—
Obs. One’s wife is also denominated 拙荆 tseh kiung,stupid thorn.
209. The antithesis of 令 ling, is usually 舍 só‘,a cottage. Among the groups into which it enters, are—
210. Many groups take 小 ’siau,small, 家 ká,family,both being regarded as sufficiently depreciatory to represent the pronounmy.
Obs. i. These words form a principal part of the complimentary style of speech, or 客氣個說話 k’áh k’í‘ kú‘ seh wó‘. In the every day colloquial of the lower class, i.e. the majority of the people, they are little used.ThouandI,thineandmineare prefixed.
Obs. ii. While these words are given as substitutes for the pronouns, it should be remembered that the tendencies of the language are against the introduction of the pronouns, whether there be a substitute or not. Thus instead of asking, “Is your eye better?” The Chinese say 眼睛好點否 ’ngantsing ’hau ’tíen’vá,eye better, eh?So, for “what is your name?” 姓啥 sing‘ sá‘,name, what?While the pronoun is thus entirely omitted, room is left for the speaker to introduce whatever terms of adulation or humility he may think fit. Those of the former kind are for convenience taken to meanyouandyour, while their opposites areIandmine.
Obs. iii. Many other phrases of the same kind are used in letters, but as they do not occur in conversation they are here omitted. Many of them are collected in Gutzlaff’s “Notices of Chinese Grammar.”
211. Pih Hwa-tsun says, “One use of verbs is to connect the parts of proposition” 活虛字之用, 一以聯綴上下, “Thus if it be said, books instruct mankind,” 如云文傳世 (lit. writings delivered down to mankind); “the word books is the subject, mankind the predicate, and instruct the copula.” 文爲主字, 世爲賓字, 而以傳字, 聯綴上下也. “Another use is to express actions.” 一以寫出人事. “Thus if it be said, write a book, or correct an essay,” 如云作文評文之類. “write and correct are both actions;” 作字,評字,皆人事也. “for both these uses, verbs are indispensable.” “Verbs are very numerous; of those in constant use, there are about two thousand.” “There are also verbs of two inseparable characters; e.g. 婆娑pú sú,move confusedly, and 盤桓pénwén,to linger.”
Where our author speaks of 2,000 verbs, he means from among the single characters commonly used in writing. Manyof these are, in colloquial dialects, expressed only in a dissyllabic form; thus, 慕 mú‘,to desire, is only used in common conversation in such compounded forms, as 愛慕 é‘ mú‘,to love. The number of inseparable compounds is thus rendered greater in the colloquial than in the written style. With regard to monosyllabic verbs, there are many in the books which are not in the colloquial, and vice versâ. For examples of verbs found in written colloquial mandarin, v.page 63.
Verbs will be treated (1.) according to their modes of grouping; (2.) according to their most general nature, as transitive, intransitive, or substantive (voice); (3.) according to the particular modes in which their sense may be conveyed (moods); (4.) according to time (tenses).
(1.)Grouping of verbs.
Simple and compound verbs. 212. Examples of verbs of one word have been already given. A few more will be sufficient here.
213. Many combinations of two words consist of verbs similar in meaning, but with no reason except custom for the order in which they are employed.
Obs. i. The tautology existing in examples of this sort is no objection whatever to their use. Thus, 埋 má and 葬 tsong‘, may be used separately or together, as the speaker pleases. There is an advantage to the foreigner in using the compounded forms, because a mispronunciation of the tone of a single word is nearly compensated by the repetition of the idea. So also for natives speaking different dialects.
Obs. ii. The principle of antithesis may be noticed in some of these dissyllabic combinations; e.g. 往來 ’wong lé,go and come; 買賣 ’má má‘,buy and sell.
214. In many instances the first verb governs the second, as a verb does a substantive.
Obs. In these examples, were the language one that admitted grammatical forms, the second verb in each case would become either a substantive, or an infinitive, (i.e. they would be always substantives, infinitives as destitute of time, person and number, being not true verbs). In reality 笑, 打 siau‘, ’táng, etc. are according to the principles of classical grammar, neither verbs nor substantives, not being able to take the necessary changes of form. They are bare roots, and their grammatical sense is determined by position. Verb however, is the most convenient denomination for them, because when taken alone, they are necessarily translated as verbs.
215. In some of these dissyllabic forms, the first verb qualifies the second; as in other languages, participles and adverbs qualify verbs.
Obs. i. The verb of more general meaning 去 k’í‘,go, is limited by that which precedes, 歸 kü, to the sense of returning home. If the idiom be compared with the English phrasego back, 歸 kü is the adverb placed before instead of after its verb. In 轉來 ’tsénlé,come back; the verb ’tsénis also best translated in English, as an adverbback.
Obs. ii. Substantives sometimes by ellipsis stand for verbs, as qualifying the following verb. 馬來呢轎子來 ’mó (horse) lé ní, giau‘ ’tsz (sedan) lé,did you ride or come in a chair?
216. The order of the words in many of these phrases, may also properly be referred to priority and sequence in time. That is, two actions are successively expressed.
Obs. The English verbopen, which is an adjective, verb, or adverb, like the Chinese, has evidently nothing to indicate to which part of speech it belongs, but position. It is on the principle of position, that in such phrases asan open door,knock open a door, andto open a door, the word is referred to its proper place in the parts of speech. There is this difference; (1) that in k’au k’é 敲開, the latter word is still a verb, while in the corresponding English example, it becomes a true adverb; (2) the Chinese word cannot be used as an adjective. The qualifying notion contained in the adjective, is expressed as a separate proposition; e.g.for an open door, 門開拉 mun k’é ’lá,the door is open.
217. In verbs of two syllables, many auxiliary words occur, which have nearly or quite lost their primary meaning as independent verbs. In the following examples, it will be observed, that these enclitics or proclitics, as they may be termed, often add nothing to the meaning of the principal verb. They are 得 tuh, 脫 t’eh, 打 ’táng, 見 kíen‘, 着 záh, 住 dzû‘.
a. 得 tuh,get, may.
Obs. This term, though here it has no meaning, will be seen to be a very important word among the mood particles, as giving a permissive sense to the principal verb. Such is its most common signification is such phrases as 做得 tsú‘ tuh,it may be done.
b. 脫 t’eh,let go, escape, remove out of the way.
Obs. This word may be regarded as forming a derivative verb. Its primary meaning is seen in 脱衣裳 t’öh í zong,take off one’s clothes, where the book sound t’öh is employed.
c. 打 ’táng,to beat, apply one’s-self to.
Obs. The primary meaning of 打 ’táng, is seen in such phrases as 打樁 ’táng tsong,drive piles; 打火 ’táng ’hú,strike a light.
d. 見 kíen‘, indicates a single act of perception.
e. 着 dzáh. This word expresses that the object implied in the verb is effected.
Obs. i. In these examples, this meaning of the auxiliary is preserved, and must be regarded as additional to the sense of the principal verb, except in the first two instances.
Obs. ii. In 想着 ’siáng záh,think of, the word 着 záh limits 想 think to the sense ofthink of some particular thing. In 覺着 koh záh,become aware of, the verb 覺 koh, cannot in our dialect be used separately. It is however found in 勿知勿覺 veh tsz veh koh,not be aware of.
f. 殺 sah,to kill.
g. 住 dzû‘,resist, take firm hold. This word always preserves its meaning, but it occurs so frequently in union with verbs of resistance and interruption, that it deserves a place with the preceding enclitics.
h. 到 tau‘,arrived.
218. In many cases a substantive follows the verb, when it is unnecessary in English.
Obs. i. So also 話說話wó‘ sehwó‘,to speak. The words sehwó‘,words, are as to sense superfluous. Yet many of these examples may be closely translated; e.g. 領路 ’ling lú‘,lead the way; 燒飯 sau van‘,to boil rice, to cook.
Obs. ii. When the substantive comes under the government of another verb its usual companion is frequently appended; e.g. 尋飯吃 dzing van‘ k’iuh,seek for food, where 吃 is superfluous.
Obs. iii. When the sense does not require a substantive, the reason of its introduction must be sought in the rhythmical construction of sentences, peculiar and essential to the Chinese language.
219. Compound verbs are formed by the apposition of a transitive verb and adjective.
Obs. i. The word 好 ’hau,good, is found appended to many verbs, giving to them the sense of completeness, 做好 tsú‘ ’hau,complete the making of.
Obs. ii. These examples shew how in Chinese, compensation is made for that class of words called derivatives in languages possessing a system of terminations. Instead of a formation likeprolongare,to lengthen, fromlongusorlongin Latin, orlengthenfromlengthin English, we have a separate word prefixed to the adjectivedzáng,long. Many English phrases are compounded in the same manner; e.g.rub smooth, rub dry, which are equivalent in sense and grammatical construction to the Chinese forms, 磨光 mú kwong, 揩乾 k’á kûn.
Obs. iii. 差 t’só,wrong, is found after many other verbs; e.g. 懂 ’tóng,understand; 聽 t’ing,to hear; 待té‘treat any one. In every case, it is predicated of the action, that it is wrong.
220. In some dissyllabic verbs used transitively, one of the constituent words is a substantive.
Obs. These may be seen to be transitive, in such sentences as 勿好弄 神朋友 veh ’hau lóng‘ zun báng ’yeu,you should not deceive friends; 就來囘頭我 dzieu léwé deu ’ngú,come at once and tell me.
221. Some colloquial verbs, with examples of the manner in which they combine with other words, are here inserted.
Obs. At Súng-kiáng ’pun, is used for peh, in the sense ofgive. 跑 has two pronunciations, ’paurun, and pau‘walk.
222. Some adverbs enter into combination with verbs.
Groups of three. 223. Propositions and words equivalent to them combine with 來 lé,come, and 去 k’i‘,go, to express the direction of the action of verbs.
Obs. i. Thus we have an idiom similar to the English, except that the verbs of motion are added. The common prepositions annexed to verbs (and therefore sometimes called adverbs), follow the verbs in both instances. Of the Chinese five are verbs, which are all used as prepositions, 出 t’seh,to go out, outward; 進 tsing‘,to go in, inward; 起 ’k’í,to raise up, upward; 過 kú‘,to pass, through, across; 轉 ’tsén,to return, back; 開 k’é,to open, away. Of the prepositions 上 ’zong,forward, 下 ’aubackward, downward, 前 zíen,before, the two former are also frequently employed as verbs in the dialect as well as in books; e.g. 上蘇州 ’zong Sú-tseu,go to Sú-cheú; 下船 ’au zén,to enter a boat.
Obs. ii. In the classical languages, the prepositions were put before the verbs instead of after them, as in the derived wordsascend,descend; and another numerous class of terms belonging to our western tongues, is thus seen to have its equivalent compound form in the Chinese language.
224. Thebeginningandcompletionof an action are expressed by appending, 起來 ’k’í lé,beginand 成功 zung kóng,completeto the verb 起 ’k’í is also used alone, and the words 完, 停,wén, ding,finish, and 好 ’hau,well, stand forcompletion.
Obs. i. In examples with 起, ’k’í, we have an equivalent to that class of Lat. derivative verbs called Inchoative or Inceptive; e.g. calesco,I grow warm, fromcalco.
Obs. ii. 起 ’k’í is sometimes omitted e.g. 做來勿好 tsú‘ lé veh ’hau,do a thing badly. But then the sense ofbeginningis lost also.
Obs. iii. This form is also assumed by adjectives, as 熱起來 nyih ’k’ílé,becomes hot; 熱來話勿得 nyih léwó veh tuh,it is excessively hot. In the dialects west of Shánghái 熱得來 nyih tuh lé, is used forit is hot.
Obs. iv. The substantive governed is place between 起 ’k’í and 來 lé; e.g. 動起手來 ’tóng ’k’í ’seu lé,to move ones hand. The same thing occurs with some of the other groups. 挬輔身體來 peh ’tsénsun ’t’í lé,turn one’s body round: 担出洋錢來 tant’sehyáng díenlé,bring out dollars.