VIII.Elements of History.
1. Time Element: The when, or chronology.
(a) Units of measurement: day, month, year, decade, century, administration, sovereignty, ministry, epoch, era, and the unit determined by the movement of the events themselves as they naturally cohere.
(b) Dates as agencies for assigning definite position in time.
2. Place Element: The where, or geography.
(a) Units of location: continent, nation, empire, kingdom, state, section, region, district, town, city, county, and the geographical groups or centers formed by the events themselves as they cohere.
3. Physical Element:
(a) Climate and meteorology affecting
(1) Character of the people.
(2) Occupations.
(b) Topography, affecting
(1) Movement of races, armies, productions, etc.
(2) Size and boundaries of states.
(3) Location and character of cities.
(4) Industries.
(5) Trade and transportation.
(c) Natural resources, soil, and products, affecting
(1) Livelihood.
(2) Character of people.
(d) Violent and infrequent phenomena of nature, earthquakes, storms, eclipses, comets, volcanic eruptions, etc., affecting
(1) Beliefs and actions of people.
4. Human Element.
(a) The national or race spirit.
(b) The religious emotions and aspirations.
(c) The sentimental interests.
(d) TheZeitgeistor spirit of the age.
(e) The genius of individuals.
5. Superhuman Element.
(a) The moral order in the universe, or the seeming law that rules thoughts, feelings, and actions of men—the law of cause and effect.
Queries
1. Which time-units are most commonly used in the classes you have observed? Do you approve of the custom?
2. What advantage is gained from the use of such units over what is gained in using other units?
3. Are there any of the units mentioned that ought to be used sparingly, if at all?
4. Does the teacher observed stress dates sufficiently? Does she over-stress them?
5. Under what circumstances should a date be learned?
6. What is the best method of getting pupils to remember dates?
7. How many dates ought to be required in any course in history in the high school?
8. What principle of selection ought to guide in the choice?
9. Is it wise to require the learning of some dates for the recitation period only with the expectation that they shall then fade from the mind?
10. Is it wise to drill on dates frequently?
11. What is the value of memorized dates?
12. What would be your views respecting the following list of dates (learned in their full significance) as the only fixed required dates for the entire high school course:b.c.1000; 776; 594; 500; 459; 323; 264; 146; 59; 31;a.d.313; 395; 476; 527; 622; 732; 800; 843; 962; 1066; 1095; 1215; 1400; 1453; 1492; 1517; 1588; 1598; 1603; 1609; 1620; 1648; 1688; 1776; 1789: 1815; 1830; 1848; 1861; 1867; 1871; 1898.
13. Does the teacher always seek to connect historical events with geography?
14. Is such connection real or merely verbal?
15. What methods are used to bring about this permanent association of event and place in the minds of the pupils?
16. What "unit of location" is chiefly used? Is this wise?
17. What is the real importance of stressing geography while studying history?
18. Are students expected to make use of outline maps?
19. How many such maps does each student make during the semester?
20. Are the maps made during given recitation periods under the supervision of the teacher, or at the convenience of the students? Which is the better plan?
21. Do the students devote much time to map-making?
22. Do they merely "color" the map, or do they fill in all important geographical and historical items?
23. Are maps ever drawn, roughly, on the blackboards by either teacher or pupils? If so, is there decided merit in so doing?
24. Are wall maps used frequently? If so, who indicates locations—teacher or pupils?
25. Is it advisable to conduct the class in person to near-by historic places?
26. Would it be wise to employ analogously formed geographical territory that is familiar to the students to vivify and interpret far-distant historical places?
27. Does the teacher seek to impress the importance of "physical elements" in shaping history?
28. Does the teacher emphasize this element of history sufficiently?
29. How, in detail, can such influences be revealed to high school students so that their real significance can be recognized?
30. Is the significance of national or race spirit in producing history sufficiently emphasized by the teacher?
31. Can you give an illustration of its notable operation?
32. Has the influence of religious emotions and aspirations been shown by the teacher in its full significance?
33. Can you give an illustration of the complete modification of history because of "sentimental interests"?
34. Are such modifications somewhat common and important?
35. Does the teacher impress this fact upon his pupils?
36. Does the teacher make clear the significance of theZeitgeist, or spirit of the age, in shaping history?
37. How much attention is given to the study of notable characters in history?
38. Ought biography to occupy a more important place in the high school course in history?
39. How is such study secured in the school you have observed,—through collateral readings by the class, individual reports, or incidental classroom discussions?
40. Does the teacher sufficiently stress the fact that all history is but the operation of cause and effect?
41. Are studentsrequiredto seek for causes back of the events?
42. Are students encouraged and expected totrace causesthrough the various sequences of effects?
IX.Methods of Approach to the Study of History.
1. Chronologically, since there is a continuity in the subject, and cause precedes effect. "The childhood of history is best for the child, the boyhood of history for the boy, the youthhood of history for the youth, and the manhood of history for the man."—S. S. Laurie, Sch. Rev. 4:650.
2. Counter-chronologically, i.e., from the present time and immediate surroundings to remote ages and distant peoples.
3. Spirally, i.e., covering the entire field of study in an elementary manner; then repeating the course on a more advanced plane; then taking up the work a third and fourth time, supplementing and expanding with each new attack.
4. Biographically, i.e., by means of biographies only.
5. Topically, i.e., tracing the development of particular elements in history, continuously and uninterruptedly, from the early stages to complete forms.
Queries
1. Which, to you, seems the best approach to the study of history?
2. May several of the above-mentioned modes be employed simultaneously?
3. Is it largely true that the personal or biographic appeals most to the child; the speculative, to the boy; the vitally and concretely constructive, to the youth; and the critical and philosophical to the adult? If so, what should be the character of the work in history in the high school?
X.The Process of Learning History.
1. Acquiring and relating detailed facts.
2. Formulating a mental picture of the events.
3. Analyzing the conditions and determining the vital, distinguishing characteristics.
4. Getting back of the outer forms, visible expression, or the vital facts to the real life of the people—their ideals, ideas, emotions, and beliefs.
5. Discovering the motives that produced the events considered.
6. Deducing the principles that operate in human relations.
7. Applying those principles to contemporary civilization to-day, and foreshadowing the probable trend of society in the future.
8. Holding consciously to the fact that history is dynamic, not static, i.e., that all historical material constitutes a unity that is revealed under the two laws of continuity and differentiation.
"There are no breaks or leaps in the life of a people. Development may hasten or may slacken, and may seem to cease for a time, but it is always continuous; it always proceeds out of antecedent conditions, and if it be arrested for a time it begins again at the point where it ended."
"Since the essence of history is the real life of a people—their ideas and feelings—history develops as ideas and feelings develop. But thoughts and feelings never exhibit themselves repeatedly in the same forms, but take on new modes of expression in the very process of growth."—Mace.
Queries
1. Does the teacher observed lay emphasis on details as ends in themselves or as means to other ends?
2. Is there a "richness" of details or is there a dearth of them?
3. Are details presented in a vivid manner, with many gripping tentacles, or are they set forth in bold, uninteresting forms only?
4. Are the details intimately fused or correlated?
5. Is effort made to get each pupil to develop a mental picture of the scene represented by the details?
6. When the image is fashioned, is an effort made to discriminate and to abstract the dominant characteristics?
7. Is effort made to get at the spirit of the historical fact, and to discover the motives that operated to produce it?
8. Are generalizations and principles of human thought, feeling, and conduct deduced from the study?
9. Is effort made to test the validity of such principles among social relationships of to-day?
10. Does the teacher make history appear what it is, i.e., a ceaseless development, a unity, or does she leave the impression among the pupils that history is a mass of disconnected dead facts?
XI.The Organization of History in High Schools.
Queries
1. Which of the above plans appeals to you most? Why so?
2. What is the plan of organization in the school observed?
3. What courses are prescribed, and what are elective? Do you approve?
4. How many recitation periods per week are allotted to the work in each course? Is this wise?
5. Is there one period per week devoted to "unassigned" or "unprepared" class work?
6. If so, how is the period employed?
7. Do you approve of such a period as a regular feature of the course?
8. What justification is there in making the first year's work consist of "Local History, Civics, and Industries"?
9. What argument is there for placing Ancient History in the 12th grade, and making it an elective study?
10. Is the work in Advanced Civics presented in a separate course, or is it correlated and interwoven with the work in U. S. History?
11. What arguments can you give for and against the practice?
12. What is the scope and aim of each of the courses Of history you have observed?
XII.The History Teacher's Preparation and Equipment.
1. Has the teacher the kind of personality you could wish for yourself?
2. Is her voice melodious and pleasing?
3. Has she winsome manners?
4. Is she sympathetic with her students?
5. Does she show distinctive qualities of leadership?
6. Has she evidently had a good general training in literature, sociology, philosophy, biology, and psychology?
7. Has she evidently had extensive and special training in history and political science?
8. Has she had professional training in educational psychology, history of education, methods, and general administration of school work?
9. Is she tied to the textbook?
10. Does she have a fund of explanatory and illustrative material at her command?
11. Is she accurate, positive, and confident?
12. Has she a sense of humor and of the fitness of things? Has she self-control, or does she, for example, use sarcasm and ridicule?
13. Has she clearly prepared herself anew for the lesson in hand? What evidences have you of this?
14. Does she inspire her pupils? How?
15. Is there good discipline? If so, how is it secured?
16. Does the teacher seem to be familiar with local history, local geography, and both local and general industrial, political, and social conditions?
17. Does she seem to be familiar with the local library and its equipment?
18. Does she know her pupils—their interests, home life, and ambitions?
19. Does she possess enthusiasm, energy, optimism, sympathy, imagination, force, incisiveness, tact, judgment, geniality, social graces, courtesy, and kindliness?
20. Does she grasp the subject in its unity and entirety?
21. Can she tell a tale simply and pleasingly?
22. Is she interested in current events?
23. Does she possess a clear insight into character and life?
24. Has she traveled?
XIII.The Pupil's Preparation and Equipment.
1. Have the pupils evidently had a good elementary school training?
2. Do the pupils give evidence of having had previous historical training in the high school? What is the basis of your conclusion?
3. Have the pupils thoroughly prepared for the day's recitation?
4. Have they apparently confined themselves to the text, or have they gone outside this for material?
5. Have they "studied the lesson together"? Do you approve of such study?
6. If pupils show they have not sought to prepare the lesson well, what procedure does the teacher follow? Do you approve?
7. Have the pupils "outlined the lesson"? Is it well that they should do so?
8. Apparently, have the pupils been shownhowto study, i.e., how to prepare the work most advantageously? What was the mode of doing this?
9. Have the pupils attacked the lesson because it was made to appear vital to the solution of some really interesting problem?
10. Have the pupils really gotten behind the facts to the spirit of the movement?
11. Have the pupils apparently attempted to correlate geography with the history? What evidences have you of this?
12. Have the pupils acquainted themselves with all unusual words and phrases used in the text?
XIV.The Classroom.
1. Is there anything distinctive about the classrooms you have observed that suggests their special uses?
2. Are sittings arranged in fixed and regular forms, or is it possible for the class to gather about the teacher's chair in a "social" group?
3. Are there good wall maps in the room?
4. Are there atlases, globes, and geographical dictionaries at hand?
5. Are there reference books of common use?
6. Does the teacher's desk contain copies of textbooks other than the text in chief?
7. Are there sufficient good blackboards?
8. Is there a stereopticon?
9. Does the school provide an adequate number of stereopticon slides?
10. Are the walls adorned with historical pictures or other historical materials? Is there a "museum of history" in the room?
11. Are pupils encouraged to beautify the room with significant objects of historical interest?
XV.The Assignment of the Lesson.
1. Is the assignment given sufficient attention by the teacher?
2. Is it made at the beginning of the recitation period or near the close? What advantages and disadvantages does each practice offer?
3. Does the assignment take into consideration the character of the work to be studied? In what ways is this true?
4. Does the assignment vary with the stage of advancement of the students? How?
5. Does it "blaze a way," so to speak, through the mass of facts so that the pupils really glimpse the significance of the material before them, and are stimulated to attack it?
6. Does it raise real problems for the students to solve?
7. Does it suggest too much or too little?
8. Does it take individual differences sufficiently into account?
9. Does it include material outside the textbook?
10. If so, is the material well chosen and clearly indicated?
11. Does the assignment correlate the textbook material with contemporary life and with the experiences of the pupils?
12. Is the assignment made so clearly and definitely thatallpupils thoroughly understand what it is? What evidences have you that such is the case?
13. Is the assignment too long for adequate preparation?
14. Does it contemplate that the pupils will devote "home study" to it?
15. How much time ought the assignment to require of a moderately good student? Is this adequate?
16. Does the assignment suggest what portions of the text are to be touched upon lightly, what to be studied for appreciation only, what to be critically studied and mastered?
17. Does the assignment include a "review" of previous work? How much?
18. Does the assignment stress dates too much?
19. Is the assignment made with enthusiasm and interest, and does it thus at once strike a responsive chord in the pupils?
XVI.The Study Lesson.
1. Are pupils encouraged to follow a definite daily schedule in studying their lessons? Do you advise this?
2. Is there supervised study in the school?
3. What is the nature of the supervision given in such a period?
4. Judging from results, have the pupils made good use of their study periods?
5. Is there in the school a weekly period for consultation and advice?
6. If pupils are absent from school, is opportunity given for "making up work"? How is this administered so far as the study of history is concerned?
7. Is there ever provided a period for "unassigned work"?
8. If so, how is the period employed?
9. Just what is the secret of getting pupils to study their lessons?
10. Are pupils encouraged to outline the lesson?
11. Are they encouraged to make personal notes on the margin of the textbook pages? Are they shown how to annotate?
12. Are they advised to use notebooks? If so, what is the character of these?
13. Do pupils seem merely to try to "learn the text" or really to comprehend the spirit?
14. Can you suggest ways and means of making the study-lesson more beneficial?
15. Does the teacher sometimes require abstracts to be made in order to teach selection of important points?
XVII.The Recitation Lesson.
1. Does the class enter the room in a happy, expectant state of mind, or does it appear as though it were about to undergo a disagreeable operation?
2. Does the class come to "attention" as soon as the signal is given?
3. Is the aim of the day clearly set forth? Who does it, the teacher or the pupils?
4. Does the work of the day seem to grow out of some previous discussions or conclusions?
5. Are the "five formal steps" followed?
6. Is emphasis placed on information, drill, review, testing, or historical mindedness?
7. Does the work have balance and proportion?
8. Is there interest and attention? What is the secret of it?
9. Are questions clear, concrete, and definite?
10. Is appeal made to more than one sense, i.e., audile, visual, tactile, muscular?
11. Does the teacher really guide and lead, or does she carry most of the burden?
12. Do the pupils coöperate as a team—each seeking to contribute his portion freely and all aiming to attain a definite goal?
13. Does the recitation take on the spirit of comradeship, i.e., of courteous and familiar discussion?
14. Is the lesson enlivened by means of anecdotes, illustrations, stories, dramatic postures, readings, etc.?
15. Is the history lesson correlated with geography, English, foreign language study, science, manual training, and other school studies?
16. Is it correlated with the common life experiences of the pupils, and with the important contemporary institutions and interests of to-day?
17. Are criticisms by the teacher made sufficiently frequent and direct to make pupils careful, but not so frequently and pointedly as to discourage pupils?
18. Are pupils expected to present a connected account of the topics studied and to do this in a clear, forceful, logical manner?
19. Are dates and other mere facts properly subordinated to the real ideas for which they stand?
20. Are the salient points of the lesson collected and tabulated as the lesson proceeds?
21. Is this done by the teacher, or by the pupils, or by both?
22. Do pupils show by their attitude, facial expression, and responsiveness that they are satisfied with the recitation as it progresses?
23. Are formal debates and informal discussions ever permitted in the class?
24. Is use made of the dramatic powers of pupils to interpret and assimilate history?
25. Are visits with the class made to places and institutions of historic interest?
26. Are mock elections and other civic procedures allowed?
27. Is map drawing required? If so, is the work done in class under the supervision of the teacher, or at the pleasure and convenience of the pupils?
28. Is the stress laid on artistic effects in map drawing, or on a graphic presentation of the facts in their relations?
29. Is any use made of genealogical tables or historical charts? What value is there in so doing?
30. Does the teacher demand thoroughness, completeness, and clearness in the recitation of the pupils, or does she accept vague, incomplete, and general statements?
31. Does she interrupt the pupils while they are reciting, or wait until they are through before commenting or criticizing? Does she ask other pupils to criticize?
32. Is the teacher alert, vivacious, enthusiastic?
33. Is she herself thoroughly interested in the work of the day?
34. Is there unexpected variety in the class procedure?
35. Does the teacher seem to enjoy clean, harmless jokes and amusing incidents with her pupils?
36. Is everybody "into the game" all the time?
37. Is the aim of the recitation kept constantly before the class?
38. Is there steady progress toward it?
39. Does the teacher praise discriminatingly the good efforts of the pupils?
40. Is the teacher at all times a friend of the pupils?
41. Is a definite, clear summary of the significant points of the lesson made by the teacher at the close of the period?
42. Are important generalizations formed, and valid principles deduced?
43. Is the fifth formal step (that of application) taken? If so, how is it done?
44. Has the recitation period seemed short or has it been a long, tedious hour?
45. Do pupils leave the room with faces aglow and minds keyed to earnest thought, or do they seem to go as if freed from a prison?
46. Do pupils comment on the day's work as they pass out? Are such comments favorable or unfavorable?
47. Is the pupil's judgment here of any great weight?
48. How does the teacher busy herself between the change of classes?
49. Has the work been such as to make pupils interested in pursuing the study of history for themselves?
50. Has the work been such as to help pupils to think for themselves, to be accurate, to be resourceful, to develop the historical habit of mind?
51. What was the chief weakness of the recitation period?
52. Did pupils rise and recite by topic?
53. Did pupils outline the lesson and then talk from their outlines? What value has this?
54. Were mnemonic devices used? If so, was advantage gained thereby?
XVIII.The Review Lesson.
1. Is there a stated time for "reviews"? If so, how long is the time devoted to reviews? Is this wise?
2. Is the review lesson really anewview of the subject matter, or merely a going over the material a second time?
3. Are definite unifying questions given out for guidance of pupils in preparing for the review lesson?
4. Is the review lesson conducted orally or in written form?
5. Is there interest and enthusiasm in the review lesson?
6. What seems to be the purpose of the review lesson—to drill, to test, or to organize the material in new connections?
7. Is the final review worth while, or can the same results be obtained by constant daily reviewing?
8. Do pupils make comparisons, judgments, reactions?
9. Does the teacher employ any but the large organizing questions while carrying on the review?
10. Are review questions of the kind that will confront the pupils in real life?
XIX.The Lesson in Civics.
1. Does instruction in civics occupy a separate period or separate term in the history work?
2. Is a special textbook used?
3. How much time is devoted to civics?
4. On what phase of civics is emphasis laid—national, state, or local?
5. Is the civics instruction closely correlated with history?
6. Is it vitalized by visits to contemporary governmental institutions?
7. Are current political events employed to illustrate the course?
8. Is the class encouraged to organize as a civic or political body?
9. Are governmental forms and practices brought into the school work?
10. Is emphasis placed too much on details or is effort made to get back of practices to discover the origin, development, and purpose of such practices?
11. Are there mock elections, court trials, debates?
XX.Some Principles of History Dogmatically Stated.
1. "A people's life of thought and feeling obeys the law of continuity and of differentiation. The law of continuity means there are no breaks or leaps in the life of a people. Development may hasten or slacken and may cease for a time, but it is always continuous; the law of differentiation means that thoughts and feelings of a people take on new forms in the process of growth."—Mace.
2. History is an evolution—a continuous movement, and causes always precede effects.
3. The historical attitude is this: Ascertainment of facts, interpretation of actions, investigation of motives, but regarding all events as "portions of human life."
4. The notable characteristics of the 19th century are:
(a) Rise of nationality.
(b) Struggle for constitutional government.
(c) Enthusiasm for natural science.
(d) Development of the doctrine of evolution.
(e) Industrial changes.
(f) Economic theory and reform.
Hence, the study of history demands that such items shall be discovered as explain and support these elements.
5. It is desirable to develop the historic sense by working outward from the industrial activities of the community.
6. It is necessary to reduce diversity to unity.
7. "What is logically first in a subject, i.e., the law or principle, comes last into the possession of the unfolding mind."
8. "The worst possible form of education is an abortive education—one that falls back on some mysterious disciplinary claim for its justification—as if there were any true discipline in failing to master a subject."
9. "History shows that men's actions are governed by some kind of calculable law." The problem is to discover these laws.
XXI.Some Positive Guides and Suggestions.
1. Clearly set forth the problem to be investigated.
2. Discover the facts that bear upon this problem—but only the significant facts.
3. Relate the facts to each other.
4. Formulate a mental picture of the events or scenes.
5. Seek to discover the causes that lie back of the facts—the geographical, meteorological, geological, biological, physiographic, and human.
6. Seek to discover the motives, interests, and intentions of men and societies in producing the events.
7. Seek to discover the means employed to realize or attain the ideal, motive, or purpose.
8. Seek to trace the results—both immediate and remote, and both subjective and objective—of the actions thus made.
9. Seek for principles of unity and diversity in interpreting the events.
10. Make use of time-wholes, space-wholes, and organic-wholes, but avoid making artificial divisions.
11. Guide the pupils, but do not dictate their reactions.
12. Make the study stimulate the intellect, the emotions, the will.
13. Force the pupils to think for themselves—to analyze, compare, reason, judge, and apply.
14. Show that all history,—battles, institutions, constitutions, etc.,—are the result of conflicts of ideas, emotions, ideals, and wills.
15. Correlate constantly.
16. Show that institutions of to-day strike their roots deep in the past, and are but the complex development of simpler forms.
17. Put life into the dead facts; be interested and enthusiastic.
18. Be honest with the facts and with the pupils; confess ignorance rather than endeavor to "bluff."
19. Be free from the textbook.
20. Adapt the work to the pupils' capacities.
21. Arouse, stir, stimulate the pupils and fill with a burning zeal to study history.
22. Have variety.
23. Feed the interest once it is aroused.
24. Drill—but by means of use, not by precept.
25. Do not do for pupils what they should do for themselves.
26. Multiply associations.
27. Anticipate for the pupils what is to come, i.e., stimulate interest by giving a bird's-eye view of the movement before it is analyzed.
28. Emphasize the operation of cause and effect—what a nation or a people sows, so it also reaps.
29. Avoid rote memorizing.
30. Employ recapitulation, summary, and review frequently.
31. Always have a lesson plan.
32. Have "everybody into the game."
33. Shape the work so that it presents the appearance of a real, vital, personal problem.
34. Appear to be a learner with the pupils.
35. Make much use of blackboards and concrete material.
36. Emphasize the value of written work, outlines, map study, and personal reactions.
37. Illustrate, expound, vivify.
38. Keep pupils looking for resemblances.
39. Teach with reference to applications.
40. Show pupils how to study history.
41. Keep in touch with current events and devote some time each week to such events.
42. Have frequent written work, as,
(a) Condensation of a few pages of notable historical works.
(b) Abstracts of accounts of definite events.
(c) Tests, examinations, written lessons.
(d) Notebooks.
(e) Outline maps.
43. Occasionally read selections of historical material before the class.