FOOTNOTES:

"Custodiat UrnamCana Fides, vigilentque perenni lampade Musæ."

About half a mile below theChurch-Town, crossing the road to Marazion, is avallumthrown up in the civil war by the Parliament forces when they besieged Saint Michael's Mount.

FOOTNOTES:[66]Kenegie became the seat of the younger branch of Harris of Heyne, in about the year 1600.[67]There is also a very considerable similarity in their mode of migration. The wordHerringis derived from the German "Heer," an Army, to express their numbers, and order of array.[68]The first outfit of a Seine, with its boats, oars, ropes, sails, nets, and a quantity of salt sufficient to cure five hundred hogsheads of fish, if purchased new, cannot be estimated at less than a Thousand pounds. The preparations for the water consists of three boats, i. e. two large ones and a small one; each large boat containing seven men, and in the small one are the master, another man, and two boys. The "Seine Boat" and the "Follower" are the names by which the two large boats are distinguished; and the small one is called the "Lurker."[69]The whiteness of the sand in the Bay of St. Ives renders the shoals of fish easily distinguishable, and contributes very greatly to the success of the fishery upon this coast.[70]TheTunnyfish in the Archipelago was caught by a similar process, "Ascendebat quidam (Anglice theHuer, GræceThunnoscopos) in ultum promontorium, unde Thunnorum gregem specularetur, quo viso, signum piscatoribus dabat, qui ratibus totum gregem includebant."Vide Blomfield's Notes on the Persæ of Eschylus, p. 148.The seine was as familiar to the Athenians, as the Pilchard fishery is to the inhabitants of Cornwall; and it is said that Eschylus took great delight in witnessing it.[71]The boats which attend for the purpose of conveying the fish from thetuck netto the shore are termed "Dippers," the proprietors of which are differently compensated in different places; they either receive a certain proportion of the fish, as from one-fourth to one-sixth, according to the distance from the shore, or else they receive a certain sum of money for each boat load. When the fish are caught in the night, fires are instantly kindled on the nearest shore, as a signal for the boats in the bay to repair to the spot.[72]These nets are of far greater antiquity than theSeine, the latter having been introduced from Ireland.[73]These dregs are sold to the curriers, at about sixteen pence per gallon.[74]The skimmings which float on the water in which the pilchards are washed, bear the name ofGarbage, and are sold to the soap-boilers.[75]In salting, packing, pressing, and preparing the fish for the market, there are at least 5000, 4-5ths of which are women; the rope-makers, blacksmiths, shipwrights, &c. upwards of 400; the twine spinners are women, about 150 in number; the makers and menders of nets are chiefly women and children, in all about 600. Nets are also made during the winter season, by the fishermen and their families. These numbers are of course exclusive of the seamen employed.[76]One and All,—the motto of the Cornish arms.[77]Cornwall is exempted from the payment of any duties on coal, so far as it is used for the working of the mines.[78]All the walls in the neighbourhood are built of the same material; and since these vitreous cubes are so piled upon each other as to leave interstices, it has been facetiously observed that "in Cornwall the walls are built of glass, and that you may distinctly see through them."[79]The value of this useful rush in checking the progress of sand, has been long known; there was an act of parliament in Scotland, so long ago as the year 1695, to prevent persons who collected this rush (then known by the name ofStarreorBent) for the purpose of making mats, from plucking it up, and thereby loosening the sand. A clause to the same effect was introduced into a multifarious act of parliament in the year 1742. The operation of this clause extends generally to the north-west coast of England; but such persons as claimed prescriptive right of cutting it on the sea coast of Cumberland are exempted from its operation.[80]A highly illustrative series of this rock is deposited in the Geological Cabinet at Penzance.[81]Tin appears to have been formerly smelted by the Jews, who in the reign of King John monopolized the tin trade, by merely hollowing out a plot of ground, and fusing the oxide with wood, in an open fire. Many ancient remains of this operation have been discovered in different parts of Cornwall, in which portions of metallic tin embedded in a stratum of charred wood, or charcoal, have been found; and which have given rise to the fallacy respecting the discovery of this metal in anative state. In examining a fragment of this kind which was found under the surface of a low and boggy ground in the parish of Kea, the late eminent chemist,Mr. William Gregor, observed avein of saline matter running through the mass, which he ascertained to bemuriate of tin; a full account of this interesting phenomenon is published in the first volume of the Transactions of the Cornish Society.[82]Culm.A species of very pure coal containing no sulphur. It is imported from Wales.[83]It is a favourite custom to dress a beef-steak on the pure Tin in the mould, as soon as the surface becomes sufficiently hard to bear it; and it must be admitted to be very far superior to that which is cooked in the ordinary manner.

[66]Kenegie became the seat of the younger branch of Harris of Heyne, in about the year 1600.

[67]There is also a very considerable similarity in their mode of migration. The wordHerringis derived from the German "Heer," an Army, to express their numbers, and order of array.

[68]The first outfit of a Seine, with its boats, oars, ropes, sails, nets, and a quantity of salt sufficient to cure five hundred hogsheads of fish, if purchased new, cannot be estimated at less than a Thousand pounds. The preparations for the water consists of three boats, i. e. two large ones and a small one; each large boat containing seven men, and in the small one are the master, another man, and two boys. The "Seine Boat" and the "Follower" are the names by which the two large boats are distinguished; and the small one is called the "Lurker."

[69]The whiteness of the sand in the Bay of St. Ives renders the shoals of fish easily distinguishable, and contributes very greatly to the success of the fishery upon this coast.

[70]TheTunnyfish in the Archipelago was caught by a similar process, "Ascendebat quidam (Anglice theHuer, GræceThunnoscopos) in ultum promontorium, unde Thunnorum gregem specularetur, quo viso, signum piscatoribus dabat, qui ratibus totum gregem includebant."Vide Blomfield's Notes on the Persæ of Eschylus, p. 148.The seine was as familiar to the Athenians, as the Pilchard fishery is to the inhabitants of Cornwall; and it is said that Eschylus took great delight in witnessing it.

[71]The boats which attend for the purpose of conveying the fish from thetuck netto the shore are termed "Dippers," the proprietors of which are differently compensated in different places; they either receive a certain proportion of the fish, as from one-fourth to one-sixth, according to the distance from the shore, or else they receive a certain sum of money for each boat load. When the fish are caught in the night, fires are instantly kindled on the nearest shore, as a signal for the boats in the bay to repair to the spot.

[72]These nets are of far greater antiquity than theSeine, the latter having been introduced from Ireland.

[73]These dregs are sold to the curriers, at about sixteen pence per gallon.

[74]The skimmings which float on the water in which the pilchards are washed, bear the name ofGarbage, and are sold to the soap-boilers.

[75]In salting, packing, pressing, and preparing the fish for the market, there are at least 5000, 4-5ths of which are women; the rope-makers, blacksmiths, shipwrights, &c. upwards of 400; the twine spinners are women, about 150 in number; the makers and menders of nets are chiefly women and children, in all about 600. Nets are also made during the winter season, by the fishermen and their families. These numbers are of course exclusive of the seamen employed.

[76]One and All,—the motto of the Cornish arms.

[77]Cornwall is exempted from the payment of any duties on coal, so far as it is used for the working of the mines.

[78]All the walls in the neighbourhood are built of the same material; and since these vitreous cubes are so piled upon each other as to leave interstices, it has been facetiously observed that "in Cornwall the walls are built of glass, and that you may distinctly see through them."

[79]The value of this useful rush in checking the progress of sand, has been long known; there was an act of parliament in Scotland, so long ago as the year 1695, to prevent persons who collected this rush (then known by the name ofStarreorBent) for the purpose of making mats, from plucking it up, and thereby loosening the sand. A clause to the same effect was introduced into a multifarious act of parliament in the year 1742. The operation of this clause extends generally to the north-west coast of England; but such persons as claimed prescriptive right of cutting it on the sea coast of Cumberland are exempted from its operation.

[80]A highly illustrative series of this rock is deposited in the Geological Cabinet at Penzance.

[81]Tin appears to have been formerly smelted by the Jews, who in the reign of King John monopolized the tin trade, by merely hollowing out a plot of ground, and fusing the oxide with wood, in an open fire. Many ancient remains of this operation have been discovered in different parts of Cornwall, in which portions of metallic tin embedded in a stratum of charred wood, or charcoal, have been found; and which have given rise to the fallacy respecting the discovery of this metal in anative state. In examining a fragment of this kind which was found under the surface of a low and boggy ground in the parish of Kea, the late eminent chemist,Mr. William Gregor, observed avein of saline matter running through the mass, which he ascertained to bemuriate of tin; a full account of this interesting phenomenon is published in the first volume of the Transactions of the Cornish Society.

[82]Culm.A species of very pure coal containing no sulphur. It is imported from Wales.

[83]It is a favourite custom to dress a beef-steak on the pure Tin in the mould, as soon as the surface becomes sufficiently hard to bear it; and it must be admitted to be very far superior to that which is cooked in the ordinary manner.

TO REDRUTH, AND THE MINING DISTRICTS IN ITS VICINITY.

In the present excursion, the traveller in search of the Picturesque will meet with but meagre fare; for many a mile has the face of nature been robbed of all ornament, and the interior of the earth has been scattered over its surface in the anxious pursuit of mineral treasures. The unsightly mounds of rubbish thus produced have been accumulating for centuries, and are so highly impregnated with mineral matter that not a blade of grass will vegetate upon them.

The intelligent traveller, however, must not anticipate an excursion as destitute of interest and variety as the surface of the country which he is about to traverse, for like the shabby mien of the miser, its aspect but ill accords with its hoards; and the total absence of cultivation and rural ornament, is soon forgotten amidst therichest field of mineralogical enquiry which any country ever afforded.

As our present object is to afford the stranger such directions as may enable him to inspect this mining district with advantage, and to visit whatever is interesting and instructive in connection with it, it may in the first instance be expedient to offer a general outline of the modes in which the Cornish mines are worked, before we enter into the details of topographical description.

For many centuries[84]the Tin Mines in Cornwall have given to the country a very important place in the œconomical history of nations, and furnished a perpetual source of employment to a very large population, which exclusive of the artisans, tradesmen, and merchants, cannot be estimated at less than sixty thousand persons.

All the transactions connected with the Tin Mines are under the controul of the Stannary Laws. Courts are held every month, and they decide by juries of six persons, with a progressive appeal to the Lord Warden, and Lords of the Duke of Cornwall's council; no custom, however, or ancient law, prevails as to the working of Copper or Lead in the Stannaries, and therefore all agreements are made upon such terms as are decided on by the contracting parties.

At present the greatest metallic product of the county is Copper,[85]although this metal is, comparatively of modern discovery, and has not been worked longer than a century. The reason assigned for its having so long remained concealed is the assumed fact, that Copper generally occurs at a much greater depth than Tin, and that, consequently, the ancients for want of proper machinery to drain off the water were compelled to relinquish the metallic vein before they reached the Copper; it is stated by Pryce, in hisMineralogia Cornubiensis, as a general rule, that Tin seldom continued rich and worth working lower than 50 fathoms; but of late years the richest Tin mines in Cornwall have been much deeper.Trevenen Minewas 150,—HewasDowns140,—Poldice120, andHuel Voris now upwards of 130 fathoms in depth.

Upon the first discovery of Copper ore, the miner to whom its nature was entirely unknown, gave it the name ofPoder; and it will hardly be credited in these times, when it is stated, that he regarded it not only as useless, but upon its appearance was actually induced to abandon the mine, the common expression upon such an occasion was, that "the ore came in and spoilt the Tin."[86]About the year 1735, Mr. Coster, a mineralogist of Bristol, observed this saidPoderamong the heaps of rubbish, and seeing that the miners were wholly unacquainted with its value, he formed the design of converting it to his own advantage; he accordingly entered into a contract to purchase as much of it as could be supplied. The scheme succeeded, and Coster long continued to profit by Cornish ignorance.

The mines in the county of Cornwall consist chiefly of Tin and Copper, besides which there are some which yield Lead[87], Cobalt,[88]andSilver.[89]The ores are in veins which are provincially termedLodes, the most important of which run in an east and west direction; during their course they vary considerably in width, from that of a barley-corn to 36 feet;[90]the average may be stated at from one to four feet. It is, however, by no means regular, the same lode will vary in size from six inches to two feet, in the space of a few fathoms. No instance has yet occurred of lodes having been cut out in depth; the deepest mine now at work isDolcoath, which is about 235 fathoms from the surface to thelowest part.[91]CrenverandOatfieldhave lately been stopped; they were 240 fathoms deep. The rocks through which the lodes descend are of different kinds, thus are Copper and Tin found ingranite, as well as inslate.[92]The Tin in these veins[93]generally occurs in the state of anoxide; the only Copper ore of any consequence isCopper Pyrites, or Sulphuret of Copper; thearseniates,carbonates, &c. being too small in quantity to be of any importance in a mining point of view.IronandArsenical Pyritesare also very common attendants, and are both confounded under the name ofMundic. Besides the metalliferous veins which run easterly and westerly, we have already stated that there are others, not generally containing ore, which maintain a direction from North to South, and on that account are calledcross courses, and often prove to the miner a great source of trouble and vexation; for they not only cut through the other veins,but frequently alter their position, orheavethem, as it is termed; and it is a very curious fact that most of theTinandCopperlodes, thusheaved, are shifted in such a manner, as to be generally found by turning to therighthand;lefthanded heaves being comparatively rare. InHuel Peeverthis vexatious phenomenon occurred, and it was not until after a search of forty years that thelodewas recovered.[94]The discovery of metalliferous veins is effected by various methods, the most usual one is by sinking pits to the solid rock, and then driving a trench north and south, so as to meet with every vein in the tract through which it passes; the process is a very ancient one, and is termedCosteening.[95]The operation, however, of opening a new mine from the surface, or fromGrass,[96]as it is called, is not one of frequent occurrence.[97]The reworking ofmines which have been formerly abandoned, on account of the produce being insufficient to pay the costs, from the fall of the standard price of ore, is quite sufficient to absorb all the speculative spirit of the country.

But by whatever accident or method a lode may be discovered, the leave of the proprietor of the soil must be obtained before any operations can be commenced, except in such cases of Tin Mines as are ancientlyemboundedaccording to the provisions of the Stannary Laws. The owner of the land is technically called theLord, whose share (which is termed hisDish) is generally one-sixth, or one-eighth of the profits; the parties who engage to work the mine are calledAdventurers, their shares depending upon their original contributions and agreements.

When it has been determined to work a mine, three material points are to be considered; viz. the discharge of the water,—the removal of the barren rock and rubbish (deads),—and the raising of the ore. One of the first objects, therefore, is to cut anAdit,[98]as it is called, which in an inclined underground passage, about six feet high,and 2½ wide, and is generally commenced at the bottom of a neighbouring valley, and is driven up to the vein, for the purpose of draining it of water above their point of contact; theseAditsare sometimes continued to a very considerable distance, and although the expense of forming them is necessarily very considerable, yet they are found to afford the most œconomical method of getting rid of the water, in as much as it saves the labour of the steam-engine in raising it to (Grass) the surface. As soon as the vertical aperture, orShaft, is sunk to some depth, a machine called aWhimis erected, to bring up thedeads, and ore. It consists of a perpendicular axis on which a large hollow cylinder of timber, termed theCage, revolves; and around this a rope, directed down theShaftby a pulley, winds horizontally. In the axis a transverse beam is fixed, at the ends of which two horses are fastened, and going their rounds haul up a basket (orKibbul) full of ore, ordeads, whilst an empty one is descending.[99]As the lode never runs down perpendicularly it is necessary to cut galleries, calledLevels, horizontally on the vein, one aboveanother. These levels are, in the first instance, about two feet wide, and six feet high, but varying according to circumstances, and being frequently extended much beyond their original dimensions. They are driven one above the other at intervals of from 10 to 20, or 30 fathoms. When extended to a certain distance from the original verticalShaft, it is necessary, for the sake of ventilation, as well as for other reasons, to form a second which is made to traverse all the levels in the same manner as the first. A communication is frequently only made between two galleries by a partial shaft (called aWins) in the interval between the two great shafts. When there are more than one lode worked in the same mine, as frequently happens,Levelsoften run parallel to each other at the same depth. In this case they communicate by intermediateLevelsdriven through the rock (orCountryas it is called) which are denominatedCross-cuts. A mine thus consists of a series of horizontal galleries, generally one above the other, but sometimes running parallel, traversed at irregular intervals by vertical shafts, and all, either directly or indirectly, communicating with each other.[100]The subterranean excavations are effected bybreaking down the looser parts by the pickaxe, and byblastingthe more solid rock by gunpowder.[101]In accomplishing this latter operation the most melancholy accidents have occurred, in consequence of the iron rammer coming in contact with some siliceous substance, and thus striking fire. The recurrence of this evil it is hoped has been prevented by the laudable efforts of the Geological Society as above related (see page30), and that the "Iron Age" has taken its final departure.

If the traveller is inclined to descend into a mine he is to be first accoutred in a flannel jacket and trowsers, a close cap, an old broad-brimmed hat, and a thick pair of shoes; a lighted candle is put into one hand, and a spare one suspended to a button of his jacket. The flannel dress is worn close to the skin, in order to absorb the perspiration, and every part of the ordinary dress is laid aside; thus equipped, if he possess sufficient strength of nerve, he may descend the vertical ladders with the most perfect ease and security;—but will a view of the mine repay all this trouble and fatigue?—let us hear what Dr. Forbes has said upon this occasion.[102]"A person unacquainted with the details of mining, on being informed of many hundreds of men being employed in a single mine, might naturally imagine that a visit to their deep recesses would afford a picturesque and imposing spectacle of gregarious labour and bustle, tremendous noise, and much artificial brilliancy to cheer the gloom. Nothing, however, is further from the truth, as far as regards the mines of Cornwall; for, like their fellow labourers the moles, the miners are solitary in their operations. Seldom do we find more than three or four men in onelevel, or gallery, at a time, where they are seen pursuing the common operations of digging or boring the rock, by the feeble glimmering of a small candle, stuck close by them, with very little noise or much latitude for bodily movement; besides whom there are generally one or two boys employed in wheeling the broken ore, &c. to the shaft. Each of these boys has also a candle affixed to his wheelbarrow, by the universal subterranean candlestick, a piece of clay. A certain band of men, who, however numerous, are always called "a Pair," generally undertake the working of a particularLevel. These subdivide themselves into smaller bodies,which, by relieving each other at the end of every six or eight hours, keep up the work uninterruptedly, except on Sunday. By means of this subdivision ofthe Pairs, there is in general not more than one-third of the underground labourers below at any one time. Very seldom are the miners within the sound of each other's operations, except occasionally when they hear the dull report of the explosions. In the vicinity of the main shaft, indeed, the incessant action of the huge chain of pumps, produces a constant, but not very loud noise, while the occasional rattling of the metallic buckets against the walls of the shaft, as they ascend and descend, relieves the monotony both of the silence and the sound. Still every thing is dreary, dull, and cheerless; and you can be with difficulty persuaded, even when in the richest and most populous mines, that you are in the centre of such extensive and important operations." For keeping the workings from being inundated, each mine is furnished with a chain of pumps, extending from the bottom to theadit-level, worked by a single pump-rod; each pump receiving the water brought up by the one immediately below it. All the water of the deepest level finds its way into the bottom of the mine, technically called theSump, whence it isfinally elevated to the adit, through which it flows by a gentle descent to the surface.[103]

We have yet to notice a fact connected with the natural history of these subterranean recesses, which has lately excited a very considerable share of interest in the members of the Cornish Geological Society,—thatthe natural temperature of the earth in these mines is considerably above that of the mean of the climate, and increases with the depth, at the rate of about one degree for every 50 or 60 feet.[104]Does there exist then a permanent source of heat in the interior of the earth?

The business of a mine is managed by a foreman, called theCaptain, who keeps the accounts, and pays and regulates the miners; there are alsoUnder-ground Captains, who have the immediate inspection of the works below. There exists a popular belief that the Cornish miner frequently lives under ground for many days, or weeks, without ever visiting the surface. This is neverthe case at any time, or under any circumstances. He does not even eat, much less sleep, in the mine, but returnsto grass, and to his home, often many miles distant, at whatever depth he may have been working, when relieved from his labours.

With respect to the value of the mines, considered as property, it may be observed, that the whole concern is a Lottery, in which there exist many blanks to a prize, and were the whole of the speculation to be invested in any one individual, there is no doubt but that, after paying the required dues to the lords of the soil, and defraying the necessary expenses for working the mines, he would at the conclusion of the year be a loser by many thousand pounds. It is very true that there are many cases of extraordinary gain,[105]but these are balanced by more numerous concerns in which loss is incurred. How then does it happen that any capitalists can be inducedto engage in the speculation? The answer is obvious, for the very same reason that they are induced to purchase tickets in the State Lottery. There are moreover additional motives which induce individuals of a certain description to embark in the speculation, although, as simple adventurers, they may scarcely anticipate success, such are landholders, who are naturally desirous of promoting an undertaking from which they must necessarily receive considerable dues; or merchants, who by becoming shareholders, are empowered to supply the mines with timber, candles,[106]gunpowder, and other articles which are required for its working.

Having thus considered the mode in which the ore is excavated from the mine, and brought to the surface, let us examine the processes which it ultimately assumes the state of marketable metal.

The Tin ore is firstspalled, as it is termed, that is, broken into smaller fragments, and separated from the worthless parts; it is then poundedin theStamping mill,[107]an operation which is essential to the complete separation of the oxide from the hard matrix through which it is disseminated: if full of slime it is first thrown into a pit called abuddle, where it is worked in order to render theStampingmore free, and to prevent it from choaking the grates; if however it is free from slime, the ore is shoveled into a kind of sloping canal of timber, called thePass, whence it slides by its own, weight, and the assistance of a small stream of water, into the box where theLifterswork; theLiftersare raised by a water wheel, and they are armed at the bottom with large masses of iron weighing nearly two hundred weight, which pound orstampthe ore small enough for its passage through the holes of an iron grate fixed in one end of the box, a rill of water carries it by a small gutter into thefore pit, where it makes its first settlement, the lighter particles running forward with the water into themiddle pit, and thence into the third, where what is called theslime, or finest portion, settles; from these pits the ore is carried to theKeeve, which is a large vat containing water, in which it is farther purified by an operation calledtozing,and which consists in stirring the water round by means of a small shovel, with such velocity as to keep thetin stuffin a state of suspension, until the whole quantity which can be managed by one operation is thrown into the vat, and when theTozerslackens his efforts, the Tin subsides to the bottom, from its greater specific gravity, leaving the sand and other impurities at the top; while this is going on the upper part of the vessel is beaten with mallets for some minutes, in order more effectually to ensure this separation.

A third process still remains to be described, that of Dressing the sand on an inclined plain with the assistance of a small stream of water; a great degree of manual dexterity is here requisite; the object, however, is effected with less trouble and expense, and much more completely, by the German "Repercussion Frames," of which there is a model in the Geological Museum at Penzance.

Upon the same mechanical principle of separation, founded on the relative specific gravities of the Tin oxide, and the earthy matters with which it may be mixed, the Tinner is at once enabled to estimate the value of any given sample of ore; for which purpose theTin stuffis placed on ashovel, and washed under a stream of water, until the impure earthy particles are carried off from its sides, when by a peculiar and dextrous motion, not easily described, all the particles of the ore are collected together on the fore part of the shovel. This operation is calledVanning.

When the Tin ore is contaminated withMundic, that is, withArsenicalandIron Pyrites, it is first roasted in theBurning House, and then washed; by which means the Tin, which is heavy, is easily separated from the other ores, which are comparatively light. If anySulphuret of Copperbe present, the same process is calculated to separate it, by thus converting it into aSulphate,[108]as described at page128.

When the ore is dressed, the lord of the soil receives that portion which is his due, after which it is divided into as manydolesor shares, as there are adventurers; and these are measured out by barrows, an account of which is kept, in the manner of the old times, by a person who notches a stick.

The manner of dressing and cleansingCopperore is nearly similar to that of Tin, except indeed that as it is raised in large masses, and is tolerably pure, it does not generally requireStamping, nor much washing.

All these different processes furnish employment for a great number of women and children, and it is really interesting to see the dexterity and cheerfulness with which they pursue the occupation. There is, however, one practice which ought to be reformed—the burthen of theStandard Barrowused in carrying Copper, and which is said to contain three hundred weight; in addition to which we must allow for the weight of the barrow itself, and that of the water held by the recently washed ore, so that it cannot be estimated at less than four hundred weight. This is an enormous burthen, which is borne by all descriptions of persons who are employed in dressing and weighing, and it has given rise to many evils.

Those who work below have generally a wretched and emaciated appearance, although they seldom continue longer under ground than six hours in the twenty-four, but are relieved by a fresh corps. Pulmonary consumption may be said to be the disease to which they are more particularly liable.

The names by which the Cornish mines are distinguished are usually invented by the first adventurers, and are often whimsical enough, the usual prefix,Huel, (always pronounced, and generally erroneously spelt,Wheel) signifies in the Cornish languagea hole; while the specific name of the mine is taken from some trivial or accidental circumstance, thusDolcoathwas the name of an old woman,Dorothy Koath, who lived upon the spot where the working of the mine commenced;Huel Providencewas so called from the accidental way in which it was discovered; andHuel Boysfrom the lode having been first noticed by children who had been playing, and digging pits in imitation of shafts.

By a rough calculation it may be stated that there are about 130 mines in the county, but the number is of course subject to variation; old workings being frequently given up, and new mines opened, or forsaken ones resumed.

Besides the mines, there are also "Stream Works," which afford a large quantity of the purestoxide.[109]They occur in vallies, and derive their name from the manner in which they are worked; which merely consists in washing the alluvial soil by directing a stream of water overit, when the finer particles being washed away, theTin oreis procured in a separate form.[110]The process is termedStreaming for Tin. It is a singular fact that the only traces of Gold to be found in Cornwall[111]are in these alluvial depositions, in which it sometimes occurs in small grains, mostly detached, but occasionally adhering to quartz. The miners engaged in the stream works are generally prepared with quills, into which they drop these particles as they find them, and when the quill is full, it is carried to the goldsmith for sale, and considered as a perquisite.

But it is time for us to resume our topographical descriptions—

In our road to Redruth we passClowancethe seat of Sir John St. Aubyn, Baronet.Pendarvesthe residence of Edward William Wynne Pendarves, Esq. son of the late John Stackhouse, Esq. the elegant author of "Nereis Britannica," andTehidy Park, the mansion of Francis Basset, Lord de Dunstanville, &c.

About two miles west of Redruth, isDolcoath, a copper mine which every intelligent traveller ought to visit, not only on account of the immensity of the concern, and the ability and liberality with which it is conducted, but because it is so situated on the brow of a hill, that the spectator can at one glance see all the principal machinery by which it is worked. It is quite impossible to convey an idea of this singular and interesting scene;—Steam Engines;—Water Wheels;—Horse Whims;—Stamping Mills,—are all in motion before us, while in the glen beneath us many hundred labourers are to be seen busily engaged in the different operations of separating, dressing, and carrying the ore. The same stream of water pouring down the hill turns successively numerous overshot wheels, and serves various other purposes in its course;and, having thus performed upon the surface, all that ingenuity could devise, or the operations of mining require, it is conducted into the bowels of the earth, where, at a hundred and fifty feet beneath its surface, it again turns an overshot wheel of fifty feet in diameter, and becomes again subservient to the skilful exertions of the miner. In the whole circle of human inventions there is nothing which so fully manifests the resources of intellect, for the production of immense effects, as the stupendous art of mining; and it is impossible that the workings of Dolcoath can be viewed without the strongest sensation of wonder and exultation. The works of the mine stretch upwards of a mile in length from east to west; an extent of ground penetrated by innumerable shafts, and honey-combed by subterranean galleries. Upon the summit of the hill is another rich copper mine,Cook's Kitchen, which is on the same suite of lodes asDolcoath, but separated by a cross-course which forms a natural boundary to both. This cross-course has soheavedthe lodes, that many which are worked with great profit in the former mine cannot be discovered in the latter, notwithstanding the laborious search which has been made for that purpose.

The picturesque effect of this scenery is not a little heightened by the bold elevation ofCarn-breh Hill, which, crowned with the mouldering remains of past ages, rises, as if in mockery of the boasted prowess of art, and forms a most striking and impressive contrast to the active scene before us.

Redruthis a very populous town of high antiquity, situated in the bosom of the mining district, and capable of affording very excellent accommodation to the mineralogist who may be desirous of remaining some days for the purpose of inspecting, at his leisure, the numerous mines by which it is surrounded. The general level of this metalliferous district is from 350 to 450 feet above the sea; and being frequently intersected by vallies, great opportunities are presented for the advantageous construction ofAdits.

We next proceed to visit the great Steam-Engine of Chacewater mine, situated three miles south of Redruth. It was erected about the year 1813, and was at that period the most powerful machine in the world. It is a double engine upon the improved principle of Bolton and Watt, and the style and elegance with which its different parts are finished, reflect no inconsiderable credit upon the engineer. The followingare its dimensions; the cylinder is 66 inches, the box 19, in diameter. The depth of the engine shaft is 128 fathoms. From theAditto the bottom 90 fathoms. It makes eight strokes in a minute, and at every stroke it raises 108 gallons of water to theAdit;[112]and, at the same time also, 60 gallons, 10 fathoms high, for the purpose of condensing the steam. The quantity of coals consumed in twenty-four hours is estimated at about eight chaldrons. To give at once a popular idea of its immense power, it may be stated that, if it were applied as a mill, it could grind a Winchester bushel of wheat every minute. Notwithstanding the immensity of its force, and complexity of parts, so completely is it under the discretion and guidance of the engineer, that in one instant he is able to stop its motions by the mere application of his finger and thumb to a screw.—"We put a hook in the nose of the Leviathian;—play with him as a child, and take him as a servant for ever."

From Chacewater we proceed southward about two miles to visit the extensive Copper mines, called "The Consolidated Mines," the working of which has been lately resumed. Here we shall find two immense Steam Engines, with cylinders of 90 inches in diameter, constantly at work; the interior of which is kept as clean as a drawing-room. The capital expended in setting these mines at work was not less than £65,000, and under the arrangement of Mr. William Davey, the concern has proved so profitable, that shares are now selling in London at £100 per cent. profit.

Near theConsolidated MinesareHuel UnityandPoldice; the former is a Copper mine; the latter produces both Copper and Tin. The most beautiful specimens ofArseniate of Copper, andArseniate of Leadhave been found in these mines.

Having concluded our account of the mining district, it remains for us to offer to the mineralogical tourist a few observations upon the subject of Cornish Minerals, and upon the best method of procuring them; before the stranger, however, attempts to purchase any specimens, it will be well for him to inspect the several splendid cabinets in the county; besides that in the museum of the Royal Geological Society,at Penzance, he should see those in the possession of William Rashleigh, Esq. M. P. ofMenabilly;[113]John Williams, Esq. ofScorrier House, and Joseph Carne, Esq. ofPenzance. The one in possession of Mr. Rashleigh, if not the most accessible to the mineralogist, must be confessed to be without comparison, the most splendid. Its chief excellence consists in the magnificence and variety of theOxide of Tin,[114]Fluors,Malachite, and some of the rarer varieties ofSulphuret of Copper, from mines which have long since ceased to be worked. Among the more remarkable specimens are those ofOxide of Tin(from Saint Agnes) some of the more interesting varieties of which present the following forms,—very large octohedrons with, and without, truncations;—the crystal described by Klaproth as one of the rarest occurrence,viz.—the four-sided prism, with a four-sided pyramid at each extremity; this is to be seen in its simple form, and also with a rich variety of truncations;—a group of four-sided pyramids covered with a thin coating ofCalcedony, which, beinghydrophanous, shewsthe form of the crystal very distinctly after immersion in water;Wood-tinforming a vein in a matrix of quartz, to one side of which adheres a fragment of rock; it is hardly necessary to remind the mineralogist of the importance of this specimen in a geognostic point of view;[115]Tin crystals having a coating of blackhæmatite;Sulphuret of Tin, a mineral which has never been found in any part of the world except atHuel Rock, in Saint Agnes,Stenna-gwyn, in Saint Stephen's, andHuel Scorrierin Gwennap.[116]In the collection of Tins may be seen several small blocks[117]of that metal, as prepared by the Jews, for commerce, during the early workings of the Cornish mines, among which is a fraudulent one consisting of a mass of stone covered with a thin coating of metal. In the collection of Coppers may be noticedYellowCopper orewithOpal(from Roskeir);the triple Sulphuret of Antimony, Copper, and Leadinvarious forms;Ruby Copperin cubes;Quartzcontaining globules of water; theHydrargylliteorWavellite, in a plumose form accompanied byApatitein a matrix of Quartz (from Saint Stephen's),Topazesof considerable lustre (from Saint Agnes),Green Fluorin crystals of twenty-four sides (Saint Agnes). A most beautiful and instructive cube ofFluor, the surface of which reflects a delicate green hue, but upon being held to the light the crystal exhibits its octohedral nucleus of a purple colour. The mineralogist should also notice a superb octohedronof Gold, and a mass ofStalactitical Arragonitefrom the grotto of Antiparos. Before quitting Menabilly he ought to visit the grotto, built in a beautiful and secluded part of the grounds, near the shore in the port of Polredmouth. It stands at the extremity of a large grove, and is constructed with the finest species of marble and serpentine, with brilliant crystals, pebbles, and shells; its form is that of an octagon, two of the sides of which are appropriated to the door and window which front each other, while the six remaining sides form receptacles for minerals, four of which contain specimens of ores found in the county, and two are filled with organic fossils, polished agates,and jaspers; the intermediate spaces are occupied by shells, coralloids, and various other substances. The roof is composed ofStalactitesof singular beauty, and which produce a very striking effect as they are seen through the roughly formed arch which composes the entrance. In this grotto are preserved two links of the chain which were found in Fowey harbour by some fishermen in the year 1776; they are of a triangular form, incrusted with shells and corals, and are supposed to have formed a part of the chain which extended from tower to tower, for the ancient defence of the harbour. Among the mineralogical specimens in this place there is one ofCalcedonywhich deserves particular notice for its beauty as well as magnitude. In the centre of the grotto is a table inlaid with thirty-two polished specimens of granite, all found in the county of Cornwall.

The Cabinet of John Williams, Esq.is at Scorrier House, about two miles east of Redruth, and may therefore be visited by the mineralogist in the present excursion. This collection stands unrivalled in the magnificence of its specimens ofRed Oxide of Copper, in octohedrons, cubes, and capillary crystals; it also contains thefinest specimens ofArseniate of Copperin very perfect obtuse octahedrons;—a mass ofUranite, which in size and beauty is superior to any specimens ever discovered;—Blende, in octohedrons and cubes;—Native, and Ruby Silver; and a specimen of theMuriateof that metal (HornSilver) so well known for its value, that it may be said to constitute one of the most interesting objects in the collection. TheArseniate of Lead, in six-sided prisms, a most beautiful mineral, which was first analysed by Mr. Gregor, and has been found only inHuel Unity, may be seen in this cabinet in its most perfect forms.

The collection of Mr. Carne has been already noticed in our account of Penzance, atpage31.

In order to collect the various minerals of the county the stranger must apply to the different dealers,[118](rapax et sordidum pecus) and make the best bargain he is able; he may also occasionally purchase some good specimens of the miners at the various mines he may happen to visit. In his rambles we recommend him to visit Saint Agnes, where are theTrevaunance,andSeal Holemines, from which have been raised the most beautiful specimens of crystallized Tin in the world, accompanied occasionally withTopazes, and twenty-four-sidedFluor. Here too may be seen a geological phenomenon of considerable interest,—the slate of the coast intersected withPorphyry Dykes, Saint Agnes' Beacon is also well worthy of observation; it is an insulated eminence of a pyramidal form, entirely covered withdebris, and is composed ofSlate, although it rises 664 feet above the level of the sea. Saint Agnes is the birth place of the celebrated artistOpie,[119]and the tourist may be gratified by inspecting many of the earlier productions of his pencil. But we now take our leave of the Mineralogist, and shall attend the Antiquary in order to inspectCarn-breh hill, which rises a little to the south-west of Redruth, to an elevation of 697 feet; its principal interest is derived from the lucubrations of Dr. Borlase,who regarded it as having been the grand centre of Druidical worship, and he asserts that, in his time, the remains of the monuments which were peculiar to that priesthood were to be easily recognized, such asRock Basins;Circles;Cromlechs;Rock Idols;Karns;Caves;religious enclosures;Logan Stones; aGorseddau, or place of elevation, whence the Druids pronounced their decrees; and the traces of aGrove of Oaks!—this is all very ingenious and imposing, but is there any rational testimony in support of such an hypothesis? are there any just grounds for considering the objects to which he alludes as the works of art?—most certainly none, they are unquestionably the results of the operation of time and the elements, and have never been formed by any agents except those which Nature employs in the decomposition of granitic masses; but the age of Antiquarian illusion is past; the light of geological science dispels the phantoms which the wizard fancy had created, just as the rising sun dissolves the mystic forms which the most common object assumes in twilight, when viewed through the medium of credulity and superstition. Therock basinsof Antiquaries are rounded cavities on the surface of rocks, and are occasionally as spheroidal, internally, as if theyhad been actually shaped by a turning lathe; it was this artificial appearance which first suggested the hypothesis concerning their origin, and induced the Antiquary to regard them as pools of lustration. Dr. Mac Culloch,[120]however, very justly observes, that their true nature is very easily traced by inspecting the rocks themselves; on examining the excavations they will be always found to contain distinct grains ofQuartz, and fragments of the other constituent parts of the granite; a small force is sufficient to detach from the sides of these cavities additional fragments, shewing beyond doubt, that a process of decomposition is still going on under favourable circumstances; these circumstances are the presence of water, or rather the alternate action of air and moisture; if a drop of water can only make an effectual lodgement on a surface of this granite a small cavity must be sooner or later produced, this insensibly enlarges as it becomes capable of holding more water, and the sides as they continue to waste necessarily retain an even and rounded cavity, on account of the uniform texture of the granite. This explanation is sufficientlysatisfactory; in addition to which it may be further stated, that these verybasinsnot unfrequently occur on the perpendicular sides of rocks,[121]which at once excludes the idea of their artificial origin.

The other grotesque and whimsical appearances of rocky masses, such as "rock idols,logan stones," &c. are to be explained upon the tendency which granite possesses of wearing more rapidly on the parts which are most exposed to the action of the weather, as already explained at page104. There occurs upon the western part of the ridge ofCarn-brehan equipoised stone, about 20 feet in diameter, affording a very singular illustration of these views, and of which we shall here present a sketch to our readers.

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