PLATE 28.(Fig. 1): The despoiled slab of Bishop Beaumont of Durham, about 1335A.D., showing the matrix for the brass in the slab, and also the form of a canopy brass. The place where the inscription was fixed is shown in the white band just inside the edge. (Fig. 2): The brass of a Notary (name lost), about 1475A.D., in St. Mary Tower Church, Ipswich. “Notaries wore a plain gown, with an ink-horn and pen-case suspended from the belt, and a scarf and cap on the left shoulder.” (Macklin.) (Fig. 3): The brass of Dame Elizabeth Harvey, Benedictine Abbess of Elstow, Bedfordshire, about 1525A.D.Figs. 2 and 3 show the actual appearance of “rubbings” of brasses.
PLATE 28.
(Fig. 1): The despoiled slab of Bishop Beaumont of Durham, about 1335A.D., showing the matrix for the brass in the slab, and also the form of a canopy brass. The place where the inscription was fixed is shown in the white band just inside the edge. (Fig. 2): The brass of a Notary (name lost), about 1475A.D., in St. Mary Tower Church, Ipswich. “Notaries wore a plain gown, with an ink-horn and pen-case suspended from the belt, and a scarf and cap on the left shoulder.” (Macklin.) (Fig. 3): The brass of Dame Elizabeth Harvey, Benedictine Abbess of Elstow, Bedfordshire, about 1525A.D.Figs. 2 and 3 show the actual appearance of “rubbings” of brasses.
Heraldry has been called the “shorthand of history,” and “the critical desire for accuracy, which fortunately seems to have been the keynote of research” during recent times, necessitates an inquiry into the history and practice of Heraldry, which played such an important part in the life of the Middle Ages.
It is not believed that the Normans at the Conquest bore any “arms” on their shields. There are certain markings shown on the shields in the Bayeux Tapestry, but they were probably bands and bosses used for the purpose of strengthening them.
As a system, heraldry was not organised until the twelfth or thirteenth century. It was probably introduced into England from France, as all the terms used in the practice are French.
The two great factors in the extensive and almost universal practice of heraldry were the tournaments and jousts, and the Crusades. All the sovereigns of Europe, and particularly the Kings of England, encouraged the former, because of the excellent practice in the use of arms and the rigorous training they gave.
Clothed, as the combatants were, in their armour, their features concealed within the heaumes or helmets, it became a necessity for them to bear some distinctive marks or devices, either as “crests” on their helmets or as armorial bearings or “arms” upon their shields, their surcoats, their pennons and banners.
The retainers of a knight followed their master, and rallied around him, recognising him by these features, and their battle cry became, in many cases, the family motto, and has so remained until this day.
At first the crest, which was of large size, was made of leather, but later on it was made of wood or steel. Originally the devices upon the shields were few and simple, and consisted of bands fastened to the shields in various positions (Figs. 1 to 18) to strengthen them. These were termed “honourable ordinaries.” When the surface of the shield was coloured, these bands would be coloured differently. As the custom of bearing these devices became more universal, and the number of knights increased, it became necessary to add many others and to modify and differentiate in many ways the existing ones. The simplest “arms” are consequently held to be the most honourable, as they imply greater antiquity. Many devices were granted and borne in recognition of feats of arms or of important duties performed, as, in later days, the Douglas family were privileged to bear on their shield a heart (later on surmounted by a crown), in commemoration of the fact that a Douglas had the honour of bearing the heart of Robert Bruce to the Holy Land. (Fig. 21.) Often, after the performance of a particularly heroic deedon the battlefield, knights were rewarded by being granted the right to wear some suitable commemorative device upon their shields. These had a similar significance to the V.C. or D.S.O. awarded nowadays, with the additional advantage that they were hereditary.
In the Crusades, which formed the other great factor in the growth and practice of heraldry, it became necessary to distinguish the knights of different nations from one another. The English wore a white cross on the right shoulder of their cloaks. Similarly the French wore a red one, the Flemings a green one, and the warriors from the Roman States two keys crossed as in a St. Andrew’s cross or Saltire.
As a special inducement to the warriors of the West, the Pope promised that any soldier, whatever his rank or station, who slew an infidel in battle, should be declared noble, and be at liberty to adopt any device he might choose as a memento of the part he had taken in the Wars of the Cross. Hence, many devices connected with the Holy Land and the Crusades were introduced into and remain in heraldry—e.g., the scalloped shell, the palmer’s staff, bezants (gold coins of Byzantium), water bougets (leathern water-bottles), crescents, stars, scimitars, Saracens’ heads, and the numerous forms of the cross. Probably from the same source came such mythical creatures as the dragon, the wyvern, and the cockatrice.
In time, the arms of knights became hereditary. A man, on the death of his father, received proudly his father’s sword and his shield, and appreciated the dignity of thus being associated with the honourable achievements of his parent.
Before this practice had become general, a young knight commenced his knightly career with a perfectly plain (argent) shield, and heachievedor won the right to bear devices upon it; hence the arms which were displayed on it were called hisachievements. The whole surface of the shield was called “the field” because he performed his deeds, recorded on the shield, on the “field of battle.”
Sometimes a knight adopted arms representing his name—e.g., the arms of Lucy were “three luce or pike”; the family of Colthurst had “a colt” as crest. These were called “canting arms,” and were obviously not granted for any feat of daring. Symbolism played a prominent part in the selection of arms and crests, for kings and leaders displayed on their shields lions and eagles—the emblems of courage and power and kingly authority. The castle was an emblem of stability, and this device was also granted to knights who successfully defended or reduced a castle.
The followers of knights and nobles adopted the habit of wearing a device called abadge, taken from the arms of their lord, and they wore costumes of the chief colours of his shield. These were called liveries, and from this is derived the modern custom of the liveries of men-servants. Mostfamous of these liveries were the Plantagenets—scarlet and white; the Lancastrians—blue and white; the Yorkists—blue and crimson; the Tudors—white and green. The common people, at the time when heraldry was most generally practised, were quite illiterate, but everyone could read and understand the devices of heraldry.
Among the most famous badges worn by retainers were thePlanta genista, or broom plant of the Plantagenets, and the roses, red and white, of the Lancastrians and Yorkists. The Tudor family fittingly adopted as a badge a double rose, consisting of a white rose within a red one, to signify the union of the two great families. Village inns were named after a prominent device borne upon the shield of the local lord of the manor, and in this way we get such names as the Red Lion, the Blue Boar, the White Hart, the Rose and Crown, etc.
Many knights were spoken of by their badges—e.g., Henry Tudor speaks to his followers of “the wretched, bloody, and usurping boar,” meaning Richard III., one of whose badges was the boar.
The surcoat, or sleeveless coat, was adopted, worn over the armour, to lessen the discomfort caused by the sun’s rays striking directly on the armour. It became a magnificent garment of velvet or silk, elaborately embroidered with the armorial bearings in silk and gold (hence the origin of the word “coat-of-arms”).
This garment still survives in the Tabard of the Royal Heralds, on which are embroidered the arms of the sovereign.
During the reigns of Edward III. and Henry V., owing to the French Wars and their effect upon the martial population of England, heraldry was practised most extensively and had its noblest application, but during the reign of that butterfly king, Richard II., it reached its most fantastic heights.
After the reign of Edward IV., the value and importance attached to the correct practice of heraldry declined, for during the Wars of the Roses many noble families became exterminated, and Henry VII. ennobled many of the upper middle classes to take their places. To this, and the profuse creation of knights’ bannerets or baronets by James I., may be attributed the gradual decline of heraldry, and the ridiculous grants of arms made in the Georgian period contributed still further to that effect.
PLATE 29.The various tinctures (or colours), metals, and furs are represented by lines, etc., in black-and-white drawings. (Figs. 1 to 8): Showing those most commonly in use. (1): Gold (or). (2): Silver (argent). (3): Red (gules). (4): Blue (azure). (5): Black (sable). (6): Green (vert). (7): Ermine. (8): Vair. Nos. 1 and 2 are metals, 3-6 colours, 7 and 8 furs.82The heraldic names are given in brackets. (Figs. 9 to 18): Honorouble ordinaries (bands upon the shields). (9): A chief. (10): A pale. (11): A fess. (12): A bend dexter. (13): A bend sinister. (14): A chevron. (15): A cross. (16): A saltire or St. Andrew’s cross. (17): A pile. (18): A bordure. The shields were also divided or “parted” into differently coloured portions by lines following the position of these ordinaries—e.g.(Fig. 19): Shows a shield “parted per pale” (see 10.) (Fig. 20): “Parted per chevron” (see 14). (Fig. 20): Also shows the different portions of a shield—A, the chief; B, the base; C, the dexter (right) side; D, the sinister (left) side; E, the dexter chief; F. the sinister chief. (Fig. 21): Arms of the Douglas family. (Fig. 22): A lion rampant—typical of animals borne upon the shield. (Fig. 23): A castle—typical of inanimate objects. (Fig. 24): The banner of the Knights Templars, the renownedBeauseant, black above and white below, to denote that while fierce to their foes they were gracious to their friends. (Fig. 25): Badge of Henry VIII., typifying the union of England (the rose) with Spain (the pomegranate) in the persons of Henry and Katherine of Aragon. (Fig. 26): A Tabard from a brass of 1444. The arms: Argent, a chevron between three crosses patée sable. (In describing a coat of arms, the colour of the shield or field is always given first, in this case being argent or white.) (Fig. 27): Crest of the Duke of Hamilton, “an oak tree covered with golden acorns, the trunk being cut transversely by a frame saw, on the blade of which is inscribed the word ‘Through’.” This commemorates the fact that an ancestor of the Duke of Hamilton, when fleeing before his enemies, was pursued closely into a wood, accompanied only by a faithful retainer. He bribed two woodcutters, who were sawing the trunk of an oak tree, to let him and his servant take their places. Soon after the fugitives had commenced sawing, their pursuers came up and questioned them (thinking them to be woodcutters) as to the whereabouts of the men they were pursuing. The servant, frightened, began to falter, but Hambledon sternly bade him go on with his sawing and cut “through.” After reaching a place of safety, Sir Gilbert de Hambledon adopted the above crest and motto, and they have continued in the family to this day. (Fig. 28): “Shield for Peace” of the Black Prince, described heraldically as “sable, three ostrich feathers, two and one, the quill of each passing through a scroll argent.” The Black Prince was, according to Mr. Fox-Davies, probably so called on account of black being his livery colour, and that his own retainers and followers wore the livery of black. (Fig. 29): Badge of Richard II.—a white hart. (Fig. 30): Upper part of a heraldic achievement. Over the shield is placed an esquire’s helmet surmounted by a crest upon a torse or wreath, with a lambrequin or mantling between the wreath and the helmet. Thetorse, representing two twisted silken scarves, was worn to hide the junction of the crest with the helmet. It must consist of six links alternatively of metal and colour (the livery83-84colours of the arms). The mantling was a “little mantle” depending from the crown of the helmet and hanging over the back of the neck as a protection against heat. In the course of a fight it would become rent and slashed. Hence it has become the custom to make it very ragged as a sign of honour. (Fig. 31): Crest of William Earl of Salisbury, c. 1344, from his seal.
PLATE 29.
The various tinctures (or colours), metals, and furs are represented by lines, etc., in black-and-white drawings. (Figs. 1 to 8): Showing those most commonly in use. (1): Gold (or). (2): Silver (argent). (3): Red (gules). (4): Blue (azure). (5): Black (sable). (6): Green (vert). (7): Ermine. (8): Vair. Nos. 1 and 2 are metals, 3-6 colours, 7 and 8 furs.82The heraldic names are given in brackets. (Figs. 9 to 18): Honorouble ordinaries (bands upon the shields). (9): A chief. (10): A pale. (11): A fess. (12): A bend dexter. (13): A bend sinister. (14): A chevron. (15): A cross. (16): A saltire or St. Andrew’s cross. (17): A pile. (18): A bordure. The shields were also divided or “parted” into differently coloured portions by lines following the position of these ordinaries—e.g.(Fig. 19): Shows a shield “parted per pale” (see 10.) (Fig. 20): “Parted per chevron” (see 14). (Fig. 20): Also shows the different portions of a shield—A, the chief; B, the base; C, the dexter (right) side; D, the sinister (left) side; E, the dexter chief; F. the sinister chief. (Fig. 21): Arms of the Douglas family. (Fig. 22): A lion rampant—typical of animals borne upon the shield. (Fig. 23): A castle—typical of inanimate objects. (Fig. 24): The banner of the Knights Templars, the renownedBeauseant, black above and white below, to denote that while fierce to their foes they were gracious to their friends. (Fig. 25): Badge of Henry VIII., typifying the union of England (the rose) with Spain (the pomegranate) in the persons of Henry and Katherine of Aragon. (Fig. 26): A Tabard from a brass of 1444. The arms: Argent, a chevron between three crosses patée sable. (In describing a coat of arms, the colour of the shield or field is always given first, in this case being argent or white.) (Fig. 27): Crest of the Duke of Hamilton, “an oak tree covered with golden acorns, the trunk being cut transversely by a frame saw, on the blade of which is inscribed the word ‘Through’.” This commemorates the fact that an ancestor of the Duke of Hamilton, when fleeing before his enemies, was pursued closely into a wood, accompanied only by a faithful retainer. He bribed two woodcutters, who were sawing the trunk of an oak tree, to let him and his servant take their places. Soon after the fugitives had commenced sawing, their pursuers came up and questioned them (thinking them to be woodcutters) as to the whereabouts of the men they were pursuing. The servant, frightened, began to falter, but Hambledon sternly bade him go on with his sawing and cut “through.” After reaching a place of safety, Sir Gilbert de Hambledon adopted the above crest and motto, and they have continued in the family to this day. (Fig. 28): “Shield for Peace” of the Black Prince, described heraldically as “sable, three ostrich feathers, two and one, the quill of each passing through a scroll argent.” The Black Prince was, according to Mr. Fox-Davies, probably so called on account of black being his livery colour, and that his own retainers and followers wore the livery of black. (Fig. 29): Badge of Richard II.—a white hart. (Fig. 30): Upper part of a heraldic achievement. Over the shield is placed an esquire’s helmet surmounted by a crest upon a torse or wreath, with a lambrequin or mantling between the wreath and the helmet. Thetorse, representing two twisted silken scarves, was worn to hide the junction of the crest with the helmet. It must consist of six links alternatively of metal and colour (the livery83-84colours of the arms). The mantling was a “little mantle” depending from the crown of the helmet and hanging over the back of the neck as a protection against heat. In the course of a fight it would become rent and slashed. Hence it has become the custom to make it very ragged as a sign of honour. (Fig. 31): Crest of William Earl of Salisbury, c. 1344, from his seal.
Henry VII. founded the first English permanent dockyard at Portsmouth, and built in 1495 the first dry dock in England. During his reign 85 vessels at least were added to the Navy, some being purchased, some taken as prizes, and others (about 46) built.
The first great ship in mediæval times was theGreat Harry, built by Henry VII. in 1488, and costing £14,000; but up to this time vessels had no portholes from which the guns could be fired.
This was the invention of a ship-builder of Brest, named Descharges, in 1500, and by its adoption, guns could be fired from the lower decks. The early portholes, however, were so small that the guns could consequently only be worked in one direction. This did not matter very much, as it was usual, on account of the difficulties of loading, only to fire the guns once or twice, and then to run alongside the enemy and board him.
In 1515 the great English man-of-war,Harry Grace à Dieu, was built by Henry VIII. She had two decks, and carried 14 heavy guns on the lower deck, 12 on the upper deck, and 46 other guns arranged in different quarters of the vessel—a total of 72 guns. The heavy guns weighed from 2,000 to 3,000 lbs., and gave the English ships a distinct advantage over their less heavily armed enemies.
She had four masts and a bowsprit, all square rigged. There were two sails on each of the first and second masts (“foer” and “mayne”), and a lateen sail on each of the other two masts (“mayne mizzen” and “bonaventure”).
TheHarrywas estimated at 1,000 or 1,500 tons, the system of measuring a ship at the time being to estimate how many tons or tun casks of wine she could carry.
The other ships of war built in this reign were constructed on similar lines to theHarry, but on a smaller scale. At this time the larger ships of the Navy were divided into two classes, “ships” and “galliasses,” the latter being huge galleys propelled by sweeps or large oars.
As progress was made, the height of the fore-castles was lowered, and the keels of these ships were covered with a lead sheathing. In the reign ofElizabeth there was a considerable improvement in the general construction of the vessels. They were not made of large size, but under the direction of Sir John Hawkins they were built on longer keels, with finer lines and lower superstructures than before, and on account of these improvements they were capable of carrying more sail and sailing more swiftly. The sides of ships were painted black and white or green and white or timber colour. Figureheads (lions or dragons) at the bows and the Royal Arms in gold and colours at the stern were used to decorate them. It is interesting to note that the cooking galley was solidly built of bricks and mortar upon the gravel ballast down in the hold.
The large vessels continued to have four masts, and the armament was the same as in the reign of Henry VIII., the largest guns, “great ordnance,” being 12 feet long, with a bore of 8½ inches, and an extreme range of about one mile. The largest ships had from 40 to 60 of these “great ordnance,” and there were also provided for each ship 200 arquebuses or cross-bows, 40 longbows, and 180 sheaves of arrows.
It had been the custom for many years to carry a great many soldiers in each ship, in addition to the crew of sailors. TheGreat Harrycarried “soldiers 349, marines 301, and gunners 50.” The soldiers consisted of musketeers and archers, allotted to each ship under their own officers. The captain was not selected for his skill as a sailor; in fact, he was also the King’s Master of the Horse and a soldier by profession.
The actual handling of the ship was left to the Master. At the end of the sixteenth century the war vessels no longer carried soldiers, the sailors being trained to fight and sail the ships themselves. In the reign of Elizabeth, too, the custom of putting landsmen in command was modified, and seamen-captains, such as Drake, Hawkins, and Frobisher, commanded some of the fighting ships of the Royal Navy.
After any special service on which the vessels had been engaged was completed, the ships were laid up, the captains retired to private life, and the seamen, who were paid by the week or the month, were discharged; only a small body of officers and men, ship-keepers, being retained to take charge of the vessel in harbour.
It is interesting to find that the following was the pay of some of the various ranks of the Navy about 1588:
Admiral, from £3 6s. 8d. to 15s. per day; Captain, 2s. 6d. per day. All the other ranks were paid by the month: Lieutenant (one only on each ship), £3; Master, £1 to £3 2s. 6d.; Preacher, £2 to £3; Boatswain, 13s. 9d. to £1 10s.; Master Carpenter, 17s. 6d. to £1 5s.; Surgeon, £1; Cook, 13s. 9d. to 17s. 6d.; Sailor, 10s. (In the time of Henry VIII. the sailor only received 5s. per month.) As an instance of the religious feeling that existed in those times, the Preachers said prayers twice a day, “and there was,besides, the singing of a psalm at watch setting, a very old custom in the English sea service.”
With regard to the clothing of the sailors, Edward IV. is said to have provided “jackets,” probably a kind of uniform, and the practice was continued by Henry VII. Henry VIII. also, as long as he had ample funds (from his late father’s treasury), clothed the sailors in the Tudor colours (white and green), cloth being worn by the sailors and damask and satin, by the officers.
Sailors were allowed a gallon of beer a day, as water was not carried on men-of-war until the middle of the seventeenth century.
Henry VIII. is said to have “refashioned the Navy in the direction of shipbuilding, armament, and administration. He may be said to have created it, since from his reign it has been recognised as the special national arm.” In Elizabeth’s time the standing strength of the Navy was about 2,000 to 3,000 men.
PLATE 30.(Fig. 1): TheAnn Gallant, a man-of-war constructed in the reign of Henry VIII. (1546). The lofty forecastle and poop were still found in the ships of this reign. Vessels were now built “carrel” fashion,i.e., with the planks laid edge to edge, instead of “clincher” built, where the planks overlap one another; for it was considered that the former style of building gave greater strength. (Fig. 2): An Elizabethan man-of-war. The St. George’s Cross, which was the national flag, and was only permitted to men-of-war, is carried at the main-top, while the Tudor flag of green and white is carried at the stern. Fighting tops will be seen on all the masts; the high poop is very noticeable, while the forecastle has almost disappeared.
PLATE 30.
(Fig. 1): TheAnn Gallant, a man-of-war constructed in the reign of Henry VIII. (1546). The lofty forecastle and poop were still found in the ships of this reign. Vessels were now built “carrel” fashion,i.e., with the planks laid edge to edge, instead of “clincher” built, where the planks overlap one another; for it was considered that the former style of building gave greater strength. (Fig. 2): An Elizabethan man-of-war. The St. George’s Cross, which was the national flag, and was only permitted to men-of-war, is carried at the main-top, while the Tudor flag of green and white is carried at the stern. Fighting tops will be seen on all the masts; the high poop is very noticeable, while the forecastle has almost disappeared.
During the Plantagenet period, for the first times the effigies of English sovereigns give authentic representation of regal costume in form and colour (having been painted to imitate the actual clothing).
The Royal Robes of Henry II., Richard I., and John consist of (1) an undergarment with close-fitting sleeves; (2) a tunic-like garment with loose sleeves, called adalmatica, which is girded round the waist by a belt; (3) a mantle, richly embroidered, covering all. The costume of the nobles was similar in form and style to these, stockings and chausses being worn, and the habit of “cross-gartering” the leg from the toe to above the knee was continued; but during the reigns of these soverigns, splendour of appearance was studied rather than quaintness of shape.
The costume of ladies consisted of (1) an under robe with sleeves, close-fitting at the wrist; (2) a loose garment, like the dalmatica, but without sleeves; (3) a mantle. A head-dress, called thewimple, was worn. This consisted of a piece of silk or linen passing under the chin, with the ends gathered overhead, and was first mentioned in the reign of John. It was worn with a veil hanging down by the sides of the face and over the back of the head.
A purse to hold money for the giving of alms was suspended from the girdle. It is worthy of note that the general costume of nuns at the present day is, in all but colour, the usual dress of women of the thirteenth century.
The dress of the lower classes did not vary much from that of the preceding period. It consisted of a plain tunic, strong boots, and a hood or hat for the head, with coarsely made gloves without separate fingers. A cap called acoif, fitting close to the head and fastened under the chin, was often worn by men of all classes.
During the reign of Henry III. the general costume of men consisted of the tunic, open in front to the waist, chausses or stockings and drawers. Mantles and cloaks were only used for State or for travelling, the materials used for these being very rich.
A garment called asuper-totus(over-all), acting as an overcoat, was commonly worn. It consisted of a circular piece of cloth with a hole in the centre, through which the head was passed, and to it was often attached a hood orcapuchon, which became very popular and held its own for about 300 years.
The costumes of women and of ordinary citizens were essentially the same as in the preceding reigns, but the hair of the ladies was gathered up into a network or caul of gold and silver filigree, instead of being arranged in plaits.
Edward I. dressed in a very plain manner, differing little from an ordinary citizen, and consequently there was little extravagance of dress in his reign. The ladies, however, wore their garments unconfined at the waist, very full, and with long trains.
On account of their extravagance in this respect, they were very much satirised by contemporary writers. They also wore a very ugly form of the wimple. There was no change in the dress of the lower classes excepting that a kind of smock frock, made generally of canvas or fustian, was worn by both sexes. Edward II., with his favourites, Gaveston and the Despensers, made the Court “a wild debauch of costume and foppish eccentricities.”
The costume of ladies changed very little during this reign, but the practice of wearing the head uncovered became more general.
In the costume of men, the greatest change was the displacement of the loose tunic or dalmatica by a garment called thecôte-hardi, fitting tightly from the neck to the waist, with a skirt below.
The hood or capuchon was modified by the tail or point at the back, being extended until it reached to the waist, this tail being often wound round the neck in cold weather as a kind of muffler.
A similar kind of hood was also in use, covering the head and shoulders and reaching to the elbow.
In this reign a new source of authentic information is available in the brasses which are found in our churches. They are very well preserved, and show the details of costume very clearly and accurately. For this reason they are invaluable.
Edward III. has been called “the King who taught the English people how to dress,” and it is worthy of note that the costumes worn during his reign followed the lines of the body itself.
The use of the côti-hardi increased. It was often made of very expensive materials, and long narrow strips of white cloth calledtippetswere added to the sleeves, reaching from the elbow to the knee.
Many garments were parti-coloured,i.e., one side was one colour and the other side of another colour. It is interesting to note that black came into use as a mourning colour during the fourteenth century. A mantle was worn by men over the côti-hardi, reaching to the ankles and fastened on the right shoulder by several buttons, while the hood was fastened to the mantle. In this reign the chausses were made like trunk hose, and fitted tightly to the limbs. Pointed shoes were worn, and a curious form of hat with turned-up brim and tall feathers was introduced. The lower class of labourers dressed as their fancy guided them, so that all the fashions of preceding reigns may be recognised in their attire.
The ladies dressed very sumptuously during the reign of Edward III. An innovation in their costume was a kind of spencer or waistcoat, faced and bordered with fur, to which sometimes sleeves reaching to the waist were worn. The côti-hardi was also adopted as a feminine garment.
In the reign of Richard II. the costumes were ever changing, the King himself being the greatest fop, and extravagances in form and sumptuousness of material was carried to a remarkable excess. Holinshed says “he had one cote which he caused to be made for him of gold and (precious) stones, valued at 30,000 marks” (a mark being 13s. 4d.).
The famous portrait of Richard II. in Westminster Abbey is a fine example of the dress of an extravagant King of that time. The fashion of embroidering the dress with heraldic devices, family badges, initials, and mottoes became common during this period. The edges of the garments werealso cut and scalloped, very richly decorated, and often set with precious stones.
The servants of the nobility were sumptuously attired, and there was universal extravagance throughout the nation. So extreme was the dress of the courtiers that it was said to be difficult to distinguish the sex of the wearer if the face were turned away. Costumes were not only worn wide and flowing, but they sometimes went to the other extreme, the garments being worn very short and tight-fitting.
The shoes were made with very long points calledcrackowes(so named from Cracow, in Poland). Sometimes the points were so long that they were fastened to the knee by chains of gold and silver.
Ladies’ dresses in this reign did not differ much from those of Edward III.’s, but tippets were discarded, and the dresses were ornamented, like the men’s, with heraldic devices, initials, etc.
Chaucer has given us the best information regarding the costumes of the different grades of English society during this reign.
The upper classes wore a shortjupon, or tight-fitting vest, parti-coloured, with narrow waist belt and tight sleeves. A loose body garment, with full-hanging scalloped sleeves, was also worn. Over all was worn a great gown, trailing on the ground, with full, long sleeves and a high collar fitting tightly under the chin. Both hoods and felt caps were worn, and a peculiar variety of the latter was in fashion formed of strips arranged in fan fashion.
The hair of the men was worn long, and was curled with great care. The beard was forked, and the moustaches were long and drooping.
The lower orders varied little in their dress from that of the reign of Edward III.
PLATE 31.(Fig. 1): A nobleman of the thirteenth century. (MS. Bod. Auct. D., iv. 17.) A good example of the costume of the nobility of the time. The dalmatica is plainly shown, open up the front. In the MS. it is red, decorated with groups of spots, with a white lining. The mantle is blue; the long gloves are green. Red chausses are worn on the legs, with a cross-gartering of gold from the toes upwards. The hat is blue, and a small portion of the knickers is also shown. (Fig. 2): The hood or capuchon, with a long tail as worn in the reign of Edward II. (Fig. 3): Costume of a man in the reign of Edward III., from the brass of Robert Braunche, 1364, at King’s Lynn. He is dressed in the plain costume of the period, while a hat with a feather is worn over the hood. (Figs. 4 and 5): Hats of the time of Edward III., probably made of white felt, with coloured turned-up brims and long feathers. (Fig. 6): Costume of a youth in Early Plantagenet times. He wears an ornamental tippet round the neck, with a plain, bordered tunic, tight at the91-92waist, and closed all round. He also wears chausses and high boots. (Fig. 7): Costume of a lady in the reign of Henry III., from Matthew Paris’s “Lives of the Offas.” (Cotton MS., Nero D 1.) The dress is very simple, there is an absence of ornament or decoration, and the gown is loose, falling to the feet in ample folds. (Figs. 8 and 9): Hoods at the time of Edward II. (Fig. 8): Shows the hood, closely fitting to the head and neck, with the point that usually hangs down drawn up over the head. (Fig 9): Shows the long tail of the hood wound around the head. (Figs. 10 and 11): The ordinary costume of the labouring classes during the time of Edward II. (Royal MS., 14 E 3.) The man wears a long gown, buttoned from the neck to the waist, with loose hanging sleeves below the elbow, showing the tight sleeve of the time. The head and shoulders are covered by a hood hanging down. The shoes reach to the ankle, are slightly ornamented, and have pointed toes. The woman carries a distaff, and wears a hood or kerchief swathed round the head and knotted at the side. She has a wide, short gown, which, being caught up under the arm, shows the under garment and high buttoned boots. (Fig 12): Bronze figure of a daughter of Edward III., from his tomb in Westminster Abbey (1377). She wears a dress, however, which was in vogue twenty years earlier. The hair is arranged in square plaits at the sides of the head. There is an absence of any decorative material round the low-cut neck, and she has vertical front pockets in her tightly fitting gown, with long streamers hanging from the arms down to the feet. (Figs. 13 and 14): Two methods of “doing the hair” in the time of Edward I. (Fig. 14): Shows the hair enclosed in a caul or net, and is spoken of as “the reticulated head-dress.” (Fig. 15): Head-dress from the Braunche Brass. (King’s Lynn, 1354.) (Fig. 16): The Coif.
PLATE 31.
(Fig. 1): A nobleman of the thirteenth century. (MS. Bod. Auct. D., iv. 17.) A good example of the costume of the nobility of the time. The dalmatica is plainly shown, open up the front. In the MS. it is red, decorated with groups of spots, with a white lining. The mantle is blue; the long gloves are green. Red chausses are worn on the legs, with a cross-gartering of gold from the toes upwards. The hat is blue, and a small portion of the knickers is also shown. (Fig. 2): The hood or capuchon, with a long tail as worn in the reign of Edward II. (Fig. 3): Costume of a man in the reign of Edward III., from the brass of Robert Braunche, 1364, at King’s Lynn. He is dressed in the plain costume of the period, while a hat with a feather is worn over the hood. (Figs. 4 and 5): Hats of the time of Edward III., probably made of white felt, with coloured turned-up brims and long feathers. (Fig. 6): Costume of a youth in Early Plantagenet times. He wears an ornamental tippet round the neck, with a plain, bordered tunic, tight at the91-92waist, and closed all round. He also wears chausses and high boots. (Fig. 7): Costume of a lady in the reign of Henry III., from Matthew Paris’s “Lives of the Offas.” (Cotton MS., Nero D 1.) The dress is very simple, there is an absence of ornament or decoration, and the gown is loose, falling to the feet in ample folds. (Figs. 8 and 9): Hoods at the time of Edward II. (Fig. 8): Shows the hood, closely fitting to the head and neck, with the point that usually hangs down drawn up over the head. (Fig 9): Shows the long tail of the hood wound around the head. (Figs. 10 and 11): The ordinary costume of the labouring classes during the time of Edward II. (Royal MS., 14 E 3.) The man wears a long gown, buttoned from the neck to the waist, with loose hanging sleeves below the elbow, showing the tight sleeve of the time. The head and shoulders are covered by a hood hanging down. The shoes reach to the ankle, are slightly ornamented, and have pointed toes. The woman carries a distaff, and wears a hood or kerchief swathed round the head and knotted at the side. She has a wide, short gown, which, being caught up under the arm, shows the under garment and high buttoned boots. (Fig 12): Bronze figure of a daughter of Edward III., from his tomb in Westminster Abbey (1377). She wears a dress, however, which was in vogue twenty years earlier. The hair is arranged in square plaits at the sides of the head. There is an absence of any decorative material round the low-cut neck, and she has vertical front pockets in her tightly fitting gown, with long streamers hanging from the arms down to the feet. (Figs. 13 and 14): Two methods of “doing the hair” in the time of Edward I. (Fig. 14): Shows the hair enclosed in a caul or net, and is spoken of as “the reticulated head-dress.” (Fig. 15): Head-dress from the Braunche Brass. (King’s Lynn, 1354.) (Fig. 16): The Coif.
PLATE 32.(Fig. 1): Bronze figure of Lionel Duke of Clarence (a son of Edward III.), from the tomb of the latter in Westminster Abbey (1377). It illustrates the ordinary costume of a gentleman at the end of the fourteenth century. He is attired in the côti-hardi or jupon, fastened down the front with buttons, and wears an ornamented girdle around the hips, while a large, full mantle reaches down to the ankles. The chausses are very similar in appearance to trunk hose, and fit tightly to the limbs; while the beard is forked after the fashion of the period. (Fig 2): Brass of Joan, Lady de Cobham, 1320, at Cobham, Kent. She wears a kind of wimple under the chin called thegorget(which copies a part of the knightly armour of the period), with a couvre-chef over the head falling on to the shoulders, completing the head-dress. She wears an under garment with tight-fitting sleeves, which are closely buttoned to the wrist, and a loose robe with loose sleeves terminating93below the elbow. (Fig 3): A fop of the reign of Richard II., when the fashion of “cutting” the mantles in patterns reached a very absurd limit. The sleeves are cut at the edges into a number of acanthus-like lobes, and are lined with another colour. The robe has a high collar, is very full, and hangs in loose folds to the ground. The shoes, which are elaborately pierced and cut, are of the long-toed variety known as “crackowes,” and the point of the toe is fastened to the leg below the knee. He also carries a long purse or bag suspended from the girdle. (Harl. MS., 1319.) (Fig. 4): Costume of the early part of Edward III.’s reign. A semi-military dress with a breastplate worn under the côte-hardi. A very characteristic feature of the costume is formed by the tippets—long strips of white cloth, which are fastened to the arms above the elbow. (MS. 17 E vi.) (Fig. 5): Costume of a labourer of the better class of the time of Edward III. The tail of the hood is worn around the head. (Fig 6): Costume of a nobleman in the reign of Richard II., probably representing one of his royal uncles. (Royal MS., 20 B vi.) It shows another extravagant dress of the period. The gown is abbreviated to the hips; the sleeves are wide, and the chausses are tight-fitting to the limbs; while the shoes have long pointed toes. He wears a jewelled circlet around the forehead. (Figs. 7, 8, 9): Costumes of ladies in the reign of Richard II. (Fig. 7): Shows the sideless garment faced with fur, terminating in long, full skirts worn over the kirtle (or loose gown). (Fig. 9): Shows a lady with the outer sleeveless garment, so long as to be gathered up and carried under the arm. (Figs. 10, 11, 12): Various forms of head-dresses of men of the reign of Richard II. (Fig. 13): A singular kind of hood covering the head and shoulders, reaching to the elbows, and having pointed ends spreading out at each side. This was worn in the time of Edward III.
PLATE 32.
(Fig. 1): Bronze figure of Lionel Duke of Clarence (a son of Edward III.), from the tomb of the latter in Westminster Abbey (1377). It illustrates the ordinary costume of a gentleman at the end of the fourteenth century. He is attired in the côti-hardi or jupon, fastened down the front with buttons, and wears an ornamented girdle around the hips, while a large, full mantle reaches down to the ankles. The chausses are very similar in appearance to trunk hose, and fit tightly to the limbs; while the beard is forked after the fashion of the period. (Fig 2): Brass of Joan, Lady de Cobham, 1320, at Cobham, Kent. She wears a kind of wimple under the chin called thegorget(which copies a part of the knightly armour of the period), with a couvre-chef over the head falling on to the shoulders, completing the head-dress. She wears an under garment with tight-fitting sleeves, which are closely buttoned to the wrist, and a loose robe with loose sleeves terminating93below the elbow. (Fig 3): A fop of the reign of Richard II., when the fashion of “cutting” the mantles in patterns reached a very absurd limit. The sleeves are cut at the edges into a number of acanthus-like lobes, and are lined with another colour. The robe has a high collar, is very full, and hangs in loose folds to the ground. The shoes, which are elaborately pierced and cut, are of the long-toed variety known as “crackowes,” and the point of the toe is fastened to the leg below the knee. He also carries a long purse or bag suspended from the girdle. (Harl. MS., 1319.) (Fig. 4): Costume of the early part of Edward III.’s reign. A semi-military dress with a breastplate worn under the côte-hardi. A very characteristic feature of the costume is formed by the tippets—long strips of white cloth, which are fastened to the arms above the elbow. (MS. 17 E vi.) (Fig. 5): Costume of a labourer of the better class of the time of Edward III. The tail of the hood is worn around the head. (Fig 6): Costume of a nobleman in the reign of Richard II., probably representing one of his royal uncles. (Royal MS., 20 B vi.) It shows another extravagant dress of the period. The gown is abbreviated to the hips; the sleeves are wide, and the chausses are tight-fitting to the limbs; while the shoes have long pointed toes. He wears a jewelled circlet around the forehead. (Figs. 7, 8, 9): Costumes of ladies in the reign of Richard II. (Fig. 7): Shows the sideless garment faced with fur, terminating in long, full skirts worn over the kirtle (or loose gown). (Fig. 9): Shows a lady with the outer sleeveless garment, so long as to be gathered up and carried under the arm. (Figs. 10, 11, 12): Various forms of head-dresses of men of the reign of Richard II. (Fig. 13): A singular kind of hood covering the head and shoulders, reaching to the elbows, and having pointed ends spreading out at each side. This was worn in the time of Edward III.
Pure mail armour,i.e., armour worn without additional defence over the mail but the heaume, was in use from 1150A.D.to 1300A.D., but its use was finally discontinued about 1350A.D.
There were several kinds of mail, and different ways of representing it on effigies, brasses, etc.,viz.:
(a) Mail apparently formed of rings ormailles, sewn on to a leather garment by the edge only, and arranged so that one ring overlapped the next.
(b) Mail formed of rows of rings sewn on strips of linen or leather, the strips being then applied to the garment.
(c) Mail formed of rings interlocked with each other (chain mail).
(d) Mail called “banded mail,” in which double lines separated each row of links.
(e) Armour formed of rings or small discs of metal sewn flat all over the garment.
Another similar kind of armour was formed of scales or overlapping plates of leather or metal, fastened to a leather or linen foundation.
The chain mail or armour formed of interlacing rings was finally adopted throughout Western Europe, being copied from that of the Saracens in the Crusades.
We have not many contemporary illustrations of the armour and knightly apparel in the period between the Norman Conquest and the Edwardian era.
There are but few illuminated MSS.; sepulchral monuments are not numerous, and the valuable series of monumental brasses had not begun.
The plaited or mail shirt of the Early Norman was superseded by a stout, quilted tunic, also called thehauberk, reaching to the knees and with short sleeves, and acoifor hood of mail on the head.
Frequently a metal breastplate orplastron-de-fer, and a steel cap orchapel-de-fer, were worn under the mail. Sometimes over the coif a close-fitting iron helmet was worn. The hauberk sleeves were lengthened, covering the hands as mittens or fingerless gloves of strong leather strengthened by mail or pieces of metal.
The legs were covered with long leggings or trews of mail calledchausses, protecting all the lower limbs from the thighs to the toes. In the twelfth century the chain mail was made very light, like that of the Saracens. It was made of steel rings, connected with each other, without being fastened to the leather garment worn underneath—similar, in fact, to the ordinary steel purse. On account of it great cost, this mail was not worn by the common soldiers. Beneath the mail hauberk, as an additional defence, and to relieve the pressure of the mail, a quilted tunic was worn, known as ahaketon, or agambeson.
The haketon was made of buckram, stuffed with cotton-wool and quilted. The gambeson was a sleeved tunic, of stout, coarse linen, stuffed with flax or wool, and sewn longitudinally.
In the reign of Richard I., the close-fitting helmet was superseded by theHeaume, great helm or tilting helmet. It was large enough to put easily over the head, and long enough to rest on the shoulders.
It was at first nearly cylindrical, and generally had a flat top. There were openings in front to allow the wearer to see and breathe. During the mail period, no heaume is represented with a movable visor.
In monumental effigies and brasses, a knight is often represented with his heaume under his head as a pillow, and it was the custom actually to use it for that purpose when resting after a day’s journey or fighting.
The heaume was only put on when actual fighting in battle or in the lists was about to commence. At other times, it was carried at the saddle-bow, and, lest it should be dropped or struck off when on the head, it was fastened to the body armour by a chain, passing through a ring in front. Towards the close of the twelfth century the use of armorial bearings was introduced.
Each knight assumed a device, which was exclusively used by him, by which he was recognised, and which became hereditary in his family. This device was usually displayed on the shield, and on the surcoat, when the use of that garment was adopted.
The form of the shield was changed from that of a kite to that of a “heater,” or flat-iron. It was also made much smaller.
The arms of the knight were the sword, the lance, the mace, the battle-axe, the military flail, and the martel. The sword belt, slung over the shoulder in Norman times, was now fastened around the waist or hips. The sword varied little in form from that of Norman times.
The lance was never used as a javelin, but was made strong, generally of uniform thickness, and varied in length. The head was very broad, and without barbs.
All knights had a pointed or swallow-tailed pennon fastened to the lance; but nobles who brought a number of retainers to battle displayed a square banner on the lance. These knights were calledBannerets.
Foot soldiers were armed with the cross-bow—a formidable weapon with which short, stout missiles, called bolts or quarrels, were shot—the long-bow, the halberd, the bill, the guisarme (all shafted weapons), and the sling. In time, the chausses were cut into two pieces at the knees; the lower part, corresponding with the modern stocking, protected the leg, and the upper portion protected the thigh. In order to protect the knee, a knee-cap, orgenouillièreof cuir bouilli, was fastened over it.
The sleeves of the hauberk were similarly cut into two parts at the elbow, and elbow caps, orcoudières, of leather came into use over the elbow joint.
At the end of the 12th century, a flowing surcoat of linen or silk was worn over the armour. This generally bore the same heraldic device as the shield, and its use was probably to lessen the effect of the sun’s rays upon the mail. At first, this surcoat had no sleeve, but in the second half of the 13th century sleeves were added to it, and at the same time the hauberk was shortened.
About 1270, the mailed mittens were divided into fingers, and the helmet was rounded at the top.
The spurs consisted of single spikes, and were called “pryck” spurs.
PLATE 33.(Fig. 1): Brass of Sir Roger de Trumpington, in Trumpington Church, Cambridge, 1289. The head rests on the Heaume, which is of large size. The latter is fastened to a rope around the waist, by means of a chain. The knight is represented with his legs crossed. It was thought at one time that this showed that the knight had taken part in the Crusades, but it is now considered by some that he was probably a benefactor to the church. Others think that it was merely a device of the engraver to lessen the stiff appearance of the figure. All the features of mail armour to which attention has already been directed, may easily be seen in this figure, and the knees are covered by genouillières (probably of cuir bouilli), which are the first pieces of additional armour worn over the mail. It will be noticed in this plate that there are four ways in which mail armour is represented, viz., in Figs. 1, 2, and 3, 5, and 9. (Fig. 2): Head of the effigy of William Earl of Pembroke, which shows very clearly the way in which thecoif de mailleswas secured to the head, and lapped round the face, being fastened to the left side, near the temple, by a strap and buckle. (Fig. 3): Head of an effigy in Pershore Church, Worcestershire, in which the lappet of thecoifis represented as unloosed. (Fig. 4): A great heaume of the 13th century, found at Eynesford Castle, Kent. The ring at the bottom is for the attachment of the heaume to the body armour. (Fig. 5): The heads of a group of soldiers, from the Painted Chamber at Westminster. In this will be seen the great diversity of equipment found among knights. In the rear are shown two banners and a pennon. (Fig. 6): Heaume at Staunton, Notts., 1312. On the top is seen the staple for affixing the crest to the heaume. (Fig. 7): The heaume of Richard I., taken from his Great Seal, showing a fan-shaped ornament at the top, with a lion painted upon the crown. (Fig. 8): Soldiers in a boat, engaged in siege operations. One has a staff sling, which is apparently charged with some combustibles. The archer is also discharging either a bag of quick-lime or some combustible. The slingers were generally bare-headed, and wore no body armour. The archer wears a coif of mail or leather on his head, and a sleeveless hauberk on his body. The third soldier carries a pole-axe, a sword, and a spear. (Fig. 9): Head from the brass of Sir John D’Abernoun, in Stoke D’Abernoun Church, Surrey, 1277. This is the earliest known example of brass. The chain mail is represented in great detail, every link being shown. Fig. A is a portion of the mail enlarged. (Fig. 10): A spear with pennon, from the same brass. (Fig. 11): A martel-de-fer, which was used for breaking or dragging off the rings of the hauberk, and opening a passage for other deadly weapons. (Fig. 12): A guisarme, a powerful, scythe-shaped, shafted weapon, used by foot soldiers. (Fig. 13): A banner, such as was carried by Knights Bannerets, who must have a following of at least fifty men-at-arms before they were qualified to carry this.
PLATE 33.
(Fig. 1): Brass of Sir Roger de Trumpington, in Trumpington Church, Cambridge, 1289. The head rests on the Heaume, which is of large size. The latter is fastened to a rope around the waist, by means of a chain. The knight is represented with his legs crossed. It was thought at one time that this showed that the knight had taken part in the Crusades, but it is now considered by some that he was probably a benefactor to the church. Others think that it was merely a device of the engraver to lessen the stiff appearance of the figure. All the features of mail armour to which attention has already been directed, may easily be seen in this figure, and the knees are covered by genouillières (probably of cuir bouilli), which are the first pieces of additional armour worn over the mail. It will be noticed in this plate that there are four ways in which mail armour is represented, viz., in Figs. 1, 2, and 3, 5, and 9. (Fig. 2): Head of the effigy of William Earl of Pembroke, which shows very clearly the way in which thecoif de mailleswas secured to the head, and lapped round the face, being fastened to the left side, near the temple, by a strap and buckle. (Fig. 3): Head of an effigy in Pershore Church, Worcestershire, in which the lappet of thecoifis represented as unloosed. (Fig. 4): A great heaume of the 13th century, found at Eynesford Castle, Kent. The ring at the bottom is for the attachment of the heaume to the body armour. (Fig. 5): The heads of a group of soldiers, from the Painted Chamber at Westminster. In this will be seen the great diversity of equipment found among knights. In the rear are shown two banners and a pennon. (Fig. 6): Heaume at Staunton, Notts., 1312. On the top is seen the staple for affixing the crest to the heaume. (Fig. 7): The heaume of Richard I., taken from his Great Seal, showing a fan-shaped ornament at the top, with a lion painted upon the crown. (Fig. 8): Soldiers in a boat, engaged in siege operations. One has a staff sling, which is apparently charged with some combustibles. The archer is also discharging either a bag of quick-lime or some combustible. The slingers were generally bare-headed, and wore no body armour. The archer wears a coif of mail or leather on his head, and a sleeveless hauberk on his body. The third soldier carries a pole-axe, a sword, and a spear. (Fig. 9): Head from the brass of Sir John D’Abernoun, in Stoke D’Abernoun Church, Surrey, 1277. This is the earliest known example of brass. The chain mail is represented in great detail, every link being shown. Fig. A is a portion of the mail enlarged. (Fig. 10): A spear with pennon, from the same brass. (Fig. 11): A martel-de-fer, which was used for breaking or dragging off the rings of the hauberk, and opening a passage for other deadly weapons. (Fig. 12): A guisarme, a powerful, scythe-shaped, shafted weapon, used by foot soldiers. (Fig. 13): A banner, such as was carried by Knights Bannerets, who must have a following of at least fifty men-at-arms before they were qualified to carry this.
The Transition.—At the close of the Norman period, the quality of the masonry was very good, and the workmen had learnt how to economise their materials. The improvement continued until the work reached a high degree of perfection. The mouldings, the ornament, the sculpture, and all other details are of a lighter style, and more highly finished. The architecture that remains of this period is aptly termed “Transitional.” The transition, from the round-arched Norman style, with its heavy and massive appearance, and its strongly-marked horizontal lines, to the graceful Early English style, with its prominent vertical lines, is very gradual, and the first step in this direction was the introduction to general use of the pointed arch. This is considered the most characteristic element of Gothic architecture—its ever-increasing use permitting the slenderness of proportion, lightness, and loftiness of effect to be carried out to a marvellous extent.
Professor Freeman has traced the adoption of the pointed arch in Western Europe to influence of Saracenic architecture, which was extended in the West through the Crusades.
In the early examples, the features and general characteristics of the buildings are, in the main, the same as in the Norman style, but with the pointed arch employed in place of the round-headed one.
Gothic Architecture.—This term was originally applied to the mediæval styles at the time of the Renaissance. It was given as a term of contempt when it was the fashion to write Latin and to expect it to become the universal language.
English Gothic is usually divided into three periods or styles, viz.: Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular, prevailing (approximately) during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries respectively, although there was no strict division between them.
Early EnglishReigns of Richard I., John and Henry III. (A.D.1189-1272).—The characteristics of this style as compared with the Norman are, “the comparative lightness of the structures, the long, narrow, lancet-shaped, pointed windows, the boldly projecting buttresses and pinnacles, the acute pitch of the roof, and generally the variety, the beauty of proportion, and the singular grace and vigour of the ornaments.”
Internally, we have pointed arches, supported on slender and lofty pillars. When the style had become fully established, the builders appear to have revelled in it even to exuberance and excess.
Church building had received a severe check in the reign of John, during the interdict of 16 years that rested upon the kingdom, but soon after the accession of Henry III., who was himself an enthusiast, architecture revived and developed very rapidly.
One of the chief characteristics of the Early English styles consists in themouldings, in which a new principle was embodied. This was the idea of obtaining effective combinations of light and shade by means of “undercutting.” Such a combination of projecting rounds and deep hollows would present to the eye the appearance of alternate bands of light and shade, the depths of the hollows causing them to appear almost black.
The most characteristic ornament of this style is the “dog-tooth” or “tooth” ornament. (Pl.34, Figs. 9 and 11.) It consists of a series of flowers, each of the four petals, bent backwards, the division between the petals being placed in the middle of the sides of the pyramid thus formed.
A very striking peculiarity is the foliage used in sculpture, which is technically known as “stiff-leaf foliage,” though the stiffness is in the stems rather than in the leaves. The latter take the form of a conventional three-lobed foliage. (Pl.35, Fig. 1.) It copied no individual leaf, “though it has all the essential qualities of Nature.” Its use gives great richness of effect to the building, and is supposed to have been developed by gradual change from the Classical Orders, chiefly from the Ionic Volute.
TheCrocketwas also introduced as a new feature in this style. It is an ornament used to decorate the edges of the architectural units, and is supposed to be derived from the crook of a bishop’s pastoral staff. In fine Early English work the Abacus (Pl.35, Fig. 1A) is circular, and is deeply undercut.
ThePillarsare usually round or octagonal. They are built of large blocks of dressed stone, and so differ from the Norman pillars, which consisted of rubble with a facing of stone. In the more important buildings they are formed of four or more slender shafts of Purbeck marble, which are placed around a large circular column of stone, and their dark colour causes them to “stand out” against the paler central stone pier.
TheArchesvary in form from a very blunt to a very sharp point, but they are generally acutely pointed, and are often richly moulded, as in Westminster Abbey. The mouldings, however, are the safest guide to the style, as the form of the pointed arch largely depends on convenience. As a rule, they are generally more acutely pointed in the cathedrals and large churches, whilst they are broader in small churches.
TheWindowsin earlier examples are plain, long, and narrow, with acutely pointed heads. They are frequently spoken of as “lancet-shaped.”
The earliest form is that of a single light, with arched head and without moulding of any kind, external or internal. (Pl.34, Fig. 1.) Windows of four lights are occasionally met with, but generally they consist of three, five, or seven lights, rising in height to the central one. They are often included under an arched moulding called a “dripstone.” (Pl.34, Figs. 2, 3, 4A.)
Square-headed windows are not uncommon, but sometimes in these cases there is an arch or a dripstone in the form of an arch over the window.
When two lights were combined under one arch, a blank space called a “tympanum” was left between the heads of the lights and the arch; but in time this space began to be pierced with another small light, generally in the form of a circle, a trefoil, or a quatrefoil, which both relieved the blank space and admitted more light. (Pl.34, Fig. 3.) When this is done in the stone work, it is calledplate tracery, and from this is developed the window tracery of later times.
The Normans were doubtful about their skill in making ceilings of stone to cover large spaces, and consequently they generally built timber roofs. Over small spaces, however, they erected stone ceilings or “vaults,” which were quite plain. In this period the vaults are distinguished by having ribs in the angles of the groins, with carved masses of foliage in stone, called bosses, at the intersection of the ribs. (Pl.34, Fig. 5.)
TheButtresses(Pl.35, Figs. 4, 5, and 6), instead of being merely flat strips of masonry, slightly projecting from the wall, as in the Norman Period, have now a bold projection, generally diminished upwards by stages, and terminate in a plain slope or a gable. By the use of this form of buttress it was possible to reduce the thickness of the wall. The corner of the building had a pair of buttresses at right angles to the wall, as if each wall had been continued beyond the point of junction—never one buttress placed diagonally, as in subsequent periods.
Flying Buttressesat this period became prominent features in large buildings. They are arches springing from the wall buttresses to the walls, and they carry off the weight and consequent “thrust” of the roof, over the central space, obliquely down to the external buttress, and so down to the ground.
TheRoofwas formed of timber, and was covered with the material most easily procurable in the district. A thatch of straw or reeds was probably the most common; shingles were procured where oak was plentiful, and slabs of stone and slate or tiles where they were obtainable. Lead was generally used only on very important buildings.
Spires were also often constructed of timber, and where the framework has become warped and twisted by the weather, we have a grotesque appearance, as in the twisted spire of Chesterfield.