PLATE 7.(Fig. 1): Section of Roman masonry, showing the outer facing of regularly shaped stones and the interior of rubble and mortar. (Fig. 2): View of outside of wall. (Fig. 3): Roman arch at Colchester Castle, Hampshire, showing alternate layers of tiles or flat bricks and stones. (Figs. 4, 5 and 6): Fragments of Roman ornamental mouldings built in at Hexham. Roman building material is often used again in other buildings near the site of the Roman Station, as at Colchester Castle (Essex), St. Martin’s Church, Canterbury, and St. Alban’s Abbey (Herts.). (Fig. 7): Basement of Station on the Roman Wall. (Fig. 8): Arch of Roman gate at Lincoln. It was the north gate of the Roman city of Lindum, and still forms the principal entrance into the city from the north. There was a smaller arch on either side, but only the one on the east remains. It appears to have been without ornament of any kind. (Fig. 9): A stone capital, probably from the portico of a temple, found at Cilurnum (Chesters). It is elaborately sculptured with acanthus, is 17 inches in height, with a diameter, at its widest part, of 18 inches. (Fig. 10): A portion of the Roman Wall passing over a hill. The Roman Wall consistently passed in a straight direction over the country, and only swerved from a straight line to take, in the route, the boldest elevations. (Fig. 11): Section of the Wall in Northumberland. (a) Ditch of the Wall; (b) the stone wall; (c) the military way; (d) the ditch of the vallum; (e) the vallum (of earth).
PLATE 7.
(Fig. 1): Section of Roman masonry, showing the outer facing of regularly shaped stones and the interior of rubble and mortar. (Fig. 2): View of outside of wall. (Fig. 3): Roman arch at Colchester Castle, Hampshire, showing alternate layers of tiles or flat bricks and stones. (Figs. 4, 5 and 6): Fragments of Roman ornamental mouldings built in at Hexham. Roman building material is often used again in other buildings near the site of the Roman Station, as at Colchester Castle (Essex), St. Martin’s Church, Canterbury, and St. Alban’s Abbey (Herts.). (Fig. 7): Basement of Station on the Roman Wall. (Fig. 8): Arch of Roman gate at Lincoln. It was the north gate of the Roman city of Lindum, and still forms the principal entrance into the city from the north. There was a smaller arch on either side, but only the one on the east remains. It appears to have been without ornament of any kind. (Fig. 9): A stone capital, probably from the portico of a temple, found at Cilurnum (Chesters). It is elaborately sculptured with acanthus, is 17 inches in height, with a diameter, at its widest part, of 18 inches. (Fig. 10): A portion of the Roman Wall passing over a hill. The Roman Wall consistently passed in a straight direction over the country, and only swerved from a straight line to take, in the route, the boldest elevations. (Fig. 11): Section of the Wall in Northumberland. (a) Ditch of the Wall; (b) the stone wall; (c) the military way; (d) the ditch of the vallum; (e) the vallum (of earth).
PLATE 8.(Fig. 1): A Roman galley (from Pompeii). (Fig. 2): A Roman Eagle. This was mounted on a pole and carried before the Legion. The soldiers rallied round it and fought for its honour. It corresponded with the regimental flags of our time. (Fig. 3): A Roman sword. This was remarkable for the25shortness of its blade. It was suspended from a shoulder belt passing over the left shoulder, so that the sword hung on therightside, a custom which was possible on account of the shortness of the blade. The length was about twenty-two inches. The blade was straight, of uniform width, double-edged, and cut at the end in an obtuse angle to form the point. (Fig. 4): A short sword or sword dagger. (Fig. 5): Scabbard of the same. (Fig. 6): A Roman Centurion, with an oval shield, such as was generally carried by horse soldiers. The body was protected by a metal cuirass formed of back and breast plates, strapped together at the sides, and fastened by broad belts passing over the shoulders. At the lower part of the cuirass were two bands of leather, one showing underneath the other, the edges of both being tagged or scalloped. Below this double border there was a kind of leather skirt, reaching nearly to the knee. A military cloak or mantle was picturesquely draped over the shoulder. Metal greaves covered the shins, and sandals, which were often highly ornamented, covered the feet. (Fig. 7): A Roman laminated cuirass worn by the heavily armed troops. It consisted of lames or plates of steel encircling the body, with curved lames passing over the shoulders, and several lames hanging vertically over the lower part of the trunk. They were sewn or rivetted to a tightly-fitting leather garment. (Figs. 8, 9 and 10): Roman helmets, all fitted with neck pieces to guard the neck—Figs. 8 and 9 with cheek pieces, hinged and fastening beneath the chin. (Fig. 11): Another form of shield, differing entirely from that in Fig. 6. “It is elongated and convex oblong, somewhat resembling a hollow watercourse tile.” It was carried by the legionaries, and was about 2 ft. 6 in. long. It was strengthened, at the top and bottom only, or all round, with additional bands of metal. With this form of shield, the well-known testudo or tortoise formation was made. (Fig. 12): A Roman sandal of leather.
PLATE 8.
(Fig. 1): A Roman galley (from Pompeii). (Fig. 2): A Roman Eagle. This was mounted on a pole and carried before the Legion. The soldiers rallied round it and fought for its honour. It corresponded with the regimental flags of our time. (Fig. 3): A Roman sword. This was remarkable for the25shortness of its blade. It was suspended from a shoulder belt passing over the left shoulder, so that the sword hung on therightside, a custom which was possible on account of the shortness of the blade. The length was about twenty-two inches. The blade was straight, of uniform width, double-edged, and cut at the end in an obtuse angle to form the point. (Fig. 4): A short sword or sword dagger. (Fig. 5): Scabbard of the same. (Fig. 6): A Roman Centurion, with an oval shield, such as was generally carried by horse soldiers. The body was protected by a metal cuirass formed of back and breast plates, strapped together at the sides, and fastened by broad belts passing over the shoulders. At the lower part of the cuirass were two bands of leather, one showing underneath the other, the edges of both being tagged or scalloped. Below this double border there was a kind of leather skirt, reaching nearly to the knee. A military cloak or mantle was picturesquely draped over the shoulder. Metal greaves covered the shins, and sandals, which were often highly ornamented, covered the feet. (Fig. 7): A Roman laminated cuirass worn by the heavily armed troops. It consisted of lames or plates of steel encircling the body, with curved lames passing over the shoulders, and several lames hanging vertically over the lower part of the trunk. They were sewn or rivetted to a tightly-fitting leather garment. (Figs. 8, 9 and 10): Roman helmets, all fitted with neck pieces to guard the neck—Figs. 8 and 9 with cheek pieces, hinged and fastening beneath the chin. (Fig. 11): Another form of shield, differing entirely from that in Fig. 6. “It is elongated and convex oblong, somewhat resembling a hollow watercourse tile.” It was carried by the legionaries, and was about 2 ft. 6 in. long. It was strengthened, at the top and bottom only, or all round, with additional bands of metal. With this form of shield, the well-known testudo or tortoise formation was made. (Fig. 12): A Roman sandal of leather.
The Saxon arms were the spear, the axe, the sword, the dagger, the long-bow, and the arrow.
The defensive armour consisted of helmet, shield, and byrnie.
TheSpearwas the chief weapon of the Saxons. It was of two forms: (1) 9 or 10 ft. long, for use against cavalry or as a cavalry weapon, and (2) about 6 ft. long, for use as a javelin or throwing spear. When the latter was used, it was generally carried in pairs.
The spear, or, rather, the spear-head is always found in Saxon graves, as it was buried with its owner. The shaft was generally of ash.
TheAxewas a very characteristic weapon of the Saxon and kindred races, but it is very seldom found in graves. There were several forms, particularly a long, tapering blade (Fig. 6) and a broader blade (Fig. 7).
Sometimes the axe-head was mounted on a short handle, and at other times on a long shaft, to form a pole-axe, as shown in the Bayeux tapestry.
TheSwordwas essentially the cavalry weapon, and was the weapon of the upper classes, no person below the rank of Thane carrying it.
The earliest swords which have been found have no quillon or cross guard. The sword was usually about 3 ft. long, the blade being 30 in. long and about 2 in. wide near the hilt. It was double-edged, and tapered slightly towards the point. It usually had a wooden scabbard, and was often ornamented with gold and precious stones on the hilt.
Thedaggeror knife was a very general weapon, and has been found in many graves. It varies considerably in size. The soldier probably carved his food with the same weapon with which he stabbed his enemy.
Thelong-bowwas not in general use among the Saxons. Our knowledge of it, and of arrows also, is mainly from MSS. It is a disputed point whether the English used the bow at Hastings, for only one archer is depicted on the English side.
For defensive purposes, the soldier wore ahelmetof metal, or of leather strengthened with metal bands and rims, and he carried ashield. The latter was of wood, and was circular or oval in form. The centre was formed of metal, and was called abossorumbo. As the shield was buried with a warrior, many umbos have been found in the graves, the wooden portion of the shield having decayed.
In early Saxon times, a protective garment called abyrniewas worn by the leaders. It may have been mailed or quilted and padded. In later times, when the nation was in a more prosperous condition, the use of this garment probably became much more general. At the time of the Norman conquest, there was very little difference in arms and equipment between the Normans and Saxons, on account of the intercourse between the two Courts.
PLATE 9.(Fig. 1): A Saxon spear-head, 10½ in. long, with a socket for the shaft, found in Southwark. (Guildhall Museum, London.) (Fig. 2, 3 and 4): Saxon spear-heads, from MSS. The lateral projections from the shaft were probably guards, to prevent the shaft being severed by a sword cut. (Fig. 5): A spear-head of different form. (Fig. 6): A Saxon taper axe-head, 3½ in. wide and 6½ in. deep, found in the Thames. (Guildhall Museum, London.) (Fig. 7): Another and broader form of axe-head. (Fig. 8): A Saxon sword from an 8th century MS. (Figs. 9 and 10): Sword handles, found in Cambridgeshire. (Fig. 11): Umbo of Saxon shield. (Fig. 12): Saxon dagger or knife, with ornamental wooden handle. (Figs. 13, 14 and 15): Saxon arrow-heads. (Figs. 16 and 17): Saxon helmets. (Fig. 18): Saxon bow, from a MS.
PLATE 9.
(Fig. 1): A Saxon spear-head, 10½ in. long, with a socket for the shaft, found in Southwark. (Guildhall Museum, London.) (Fig. 2, 3 and 4): Saxon spear-heads, from MSS. The lateral projections from the shaft were probably guards, to prevent the shaft being severed by a sword cut. (Fig. 5): A spear-head of different form. (Fig. 6): A Saxon taper axe-head, 3½ in. wide and 6½ in. deep, found in the Thames. (Guildhall Museum, London.) (Fig. 7): Another and broader form of axe-head. (Fig. 8): A Saxon sword from an 8th century MS. (Figs. 9 and 10): Sword handles, found in Cambridgeshire. (Fig. 11): Umbo of Saxon shield. (Fig. 12): Saxon dagger or knife, with ornamental wooden handle. (Figs. 13, 14 and 15): Saxon arrow-heads. (Figs. 16 and 17): Saxon helmets. (Fig. 18): Saxon bow, from a MS.
The main sources from which we obtain our knowledge of Saxon Costume are the illuminated MSS. remaining to us. The earliest MS. we have was writtenA.D.720, about 200 years after the Saxon Conquest. Of this long period we have no reliable record.
We know, however, that on their first appearance in Britain, they were not so advanced in civilisation as the inhabitants, who had gained a considerable advantage, in this respect, from the Roman occupation. The only reliable source from which information can be gained of this period is in the tumuli or graves. In these have been found weapons and many personal ornaments of a rich character.
Saxon Male Costume.
A kind of shirt, reaching to the knee, worn next to the skin, was the universal, and, in the case of the humblest, the only garment, and it was always made of linen. Over this was worn atunica, which was generally short, but, in the case of persons of high rank, it was worn longer. It fitted closely around the neck, and was cut open in front, being also often open at the sides from the hips to the hem. Sleeves were worn to this garment, and for many years were worn rucked upon the fore-arm in a very peculiar manner, probably so that the sleeves could be drawn down over the hands in cold weather. The hem was often decorated with embroidered work.
A short cloak, or mantle, was generally worn over the tunica, fastened by a fibula or brooch upon the right shoulder or in the centre of the chest. In the case of a person of high degree, a larger cloak was also wrapped around the figure.
The head was generally uncovered, except in time of war. The hair was worn long, reaching down to the shoulders, parted carefully in the centre, and tucked behind the ears. When the head was covered, a cap of the Phrygian shape (Fig. 8) was worn. Persons of distinction, like the members of the Witan, wore a sugar-loaf shaped cap.
The beard was worn either round or long and flowing. In the latter case, it was divided in the centre like a fork, and was called the “bifid” beard.
The breeches were tight to the leg, and sometimes wide at the bottom, reaching to the middle of the thigh.
Stockings were worn, either long enough to join the breeches or short, reaching nearly to the knee. The rustic frequently wore no stockings.
Civilians often bound strips of coloured cloth, and soldiers strips of leather, around their stockings, forming what is calledcross-gartering.
Their shoes were generally low, and had an opening up the instep.
Female Costume.
The female costume was also very simple, and consisted of a long, tight-sleeved garment, thegunnaor gown, reaching to the feet, with a tunic over this, reaching to the knees. The tunica was girdled at the waist, and had wide sleeves extending to the elbow.
A wide mantle, a characteristic feature of the costume of both men and women, covered the upper part of the body, and a head-rail or hood consisting of a piece of material adjusted over the head, was always worn.
When making a journey, a large travelling cloak was also worn.
No illustration shows the complete arrangement of the hair, but, as the women of Continental nations at this period wore it in long plaits, we may conclude that the same fashion was followed here; but the hair was always covered. A kirtle was also probably worn, corresponding in form to the garment now known as a “princess petticoat.”
Military Costume.
There was but little difference between the civil and military costume of the men. In MSS., soldiers are often represented with no other weapon than a shield or spear, or an axe or a bow with arrows, and attired in ordinary costume. Occasionally, one is represented wearing a kind of cuirass formed of scales, made of overlapping slices of horn sewn upon coarse linen.
During the reigns of Edward the Confessor and Harold II., owing to the constant intercourse between the English and the Norman Courts, the English adopted many of the customs and much of the costume of the Normans, so that, among the upper and military classes, at any rate, when William of Normandy invaded England, the members of the two opposing armies were armed and attired in a very similar manner.
PLATE 10.(Fig. 1): A Saxon rustic, wearing only a solitary garment, with a pointed cap which has a comb, and shoes. (Cott. MS., Claudius B. iv.) (Fig. 2): A Saxon lady, attired in (1) the gunna, (2) the tunica, (3) the mantle, (4) the head-rail. (Harl. MS., 2,908.) (Fig. 3): A Saxon, dressed in (1) the tunica, (2) the mantle, (3) breeches, with cross-gartered stockings, and shoes, and (4) a banded Phrygian cap. (After Mrs. Ashdown.) (Fig. 4): Saxon, showing the bifid beard and the arrangement of the hair. (Cott. MS., Claudius B. iv.) (Fig. 5): An English Freeman, wearing a tunica, with short stockings and shoes, and armed with sword, spear, helmet, and shield. (From a MS.) (Fig. 6): A Saxon soldier, wearing a tunica covered with a mantle, stockings, and shoes, with spurs. (Note the manner in which31the mantle is fastened on the right shoulder.) He is armed with a spear, and has his head covered with a conical helmet. As is pointed out above, the military costume did not differ from the civil costume, except as regards the helmet and the arms. (Figs. 7 to 12): Saxon head-dresses. (Fig. 7): A form of the square helmet. (Fig. 8): A Phrygian-shaped cap of leather, bound with metal; the bifid beard is also shown again. (Fig. 9): Another form of the square helmet, with a kind of crest or comb. (Fig. 10): A pointed helmet of simple form. (Fig. 11): A pointed hat serrated along the back like a cock’s comb. (Fig. 12): The commonest form of helmet, a conical cap with a rim, probably of metal. (The other form of beard is shown in this figure.) (Figs. 13, 14 and 15): Saxon shoes, from MSS. (Figs. 16 and 17): Saxon crowns, from MSS.
PLATE 10.
(Fig. 1): A Saxon rustic, wearing only a solitary garment, with a pointed cap which has a comb, and shoes. (Cott. MS., Claudius B. iv.) (Fig. 2): A Saxon lady, attired in (1) the gunna, (2) the tunica, (3) the mantle, (4) the head-rail. (Harl. MS., 2,908.) (Fig. 3): A Saxon, dressed in (1) the tunica, (2) the mantle, (3) breeches, with cross-gartered stockings, and shoes, and (4) a banded Phrygian cap. (After Mrs. Ashdown.) (Fig. 4): Saxon, showing the bifid beard and the arrangement of the hair. (Cott. MS., Claudius B. iv.) (Fig. 5): An English Freeman, wearing a tunica, with short stockings and shoes, and armed with sword, spear, helmet, and shield. (From a MS.) (Fig. 6): A Saxon soldier, wearing a tunica covered with a mantle, stockings, and shoes, with spurs. (Note the manner in which31the mantle is fastened on the right shoulder.) He is armed with a spear, and has his head covered with a conical helmet. As is pointed out above, the military costume did not differ from the civil costume, except as regards the helmet and the arms. (Figs. 7 to 12): Saxon head-dresses. (Fig. 7): A form of the square helmet. (Fig. 8): A Phrygian-shaped cap of leather, bound with metal; the bifid beard is also shown again. (Fig. 9): Another form of the square helmet, with a kind of crest or comb. (Fig. 10): A pointed helmet of simple form. (Fig. 11): A pointed hat serrated along the back like a cock’s comb. (Fig. 12): The commonest form of helmet, a conical cap with a rim, probably of metal. (The other form of beard is shown in this figure.) (Figs. 13, 14 and 15): Saxon shoes, from MSS. (Figs. 16 and 17): Saxon crowns, from MSS.
PLATE 11.(Fig. 1): A Saxon monarch represented as seated on a throne, wearing a square crown, and holding a sceptre in his right hand. He is attired in a richly embroidered tunica and a mantle of ample proportions, gathered up with a brooch on the left shoulder. His stockings are cross-gartered and ornamented at the knees and in the lozenges formed by the gartering. (Cott. MS., Tiberius Cvi.) (Fig. 2): A fiddler, wearing the tunica, long stockings and shoes. (MS., Tib. Cvi.) (Fig. 3): A gleeman or juggler, attired similarly to the fiddler. (From the same MS.) (Fig. 4): A husbandman, engaged in digging. (From MS., after Strutt.) (Fig. 5): A blacksmith, working at the anvil. (From MS., after Strutt.) (Fig. 6): A Saxon king, with a bifid beard, on the seat of judgment, crowned and attired in a tunica, covered with a short mantle, which is fastened in the centre of the chest by a brooch of rectangular form. (Fig. 7): A Saxon noble, with long hair and a bifid beard, holding a sword of characteristic Saxon form. He is wearing an ornamented tunica reaching to the ankles, and over it a voluminous mantle. His head is covered with a conical helmet. The rucking of the sleeve on the fore-arm is plainly shown. (Figs. 6 and 7 from a MS., after Strutt.) (Fig. 8): A Saxon horn-blower, attired similarly to the fiddler and gleeman (Figs. 2 and 3), from the same MS. (Fig. 9): A carpenter at work with an axe. (From a MS., after Strutt.) (Note.—In Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 and 9, all the heads are bare.) (Figs. 10 to 14): Saxon personal ornaments, buckle, rings, etc., found in tumuli.
PLATE 11.
(Fig. 1): A Saxon monarch represented as seated on a throne, wearing a square crown, and holding a sceptre in his right hand. He is attired in a richly embroidered tunica and a mantle of ample proportions, gathered up with a brooch on the left shoulder. His stockings are cross-gartered and ornamented at the knees and in the lozenges formed by the gartering. (Cott. MS., Tiberius Cvi.) (Fig. 2): A fiddler, wearing the tunica, long stockings and shoes. (MS., Tib. Cvi.) (Fig. 3): A gleeman or juggler, attired similarly to the fiddler. (From the same MS.) (Fig. 4): A husbandman, engaged in digging. (From MS., after Strutt.) (Fig. 5): A blacksmith, working at the anvil. (From MS., after Strutt.) (Fig. 6): A Saxon king, with a bifid beard, on the seat of judgment, crowned and attired in a tunica, covered with a short mantle, which is fastened in the centre of the chest by a brooch of rectangular form. (Fig. 7): A Saxon noble, with long hair and a bifid beard, holding a sword of characteristic Saxon form. He is wearing an ornamented tunica reaching to the ankles, and over it a voluminous mantle. His head is covered with a conical helmet. The rucking of the sleeve on the fore-arm is plainly shown. (Figs. 6 and 7 from a MS., after Strutt.) (Fig. 8): A Saxon horn-blower, attired similarly to the fiddler and gleeman (Figs. 2 and 3), from the same MS. (Fig. 9): A carpenter at work with an axe. (From a MS., after Strutt.) (Note.—In Figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 and 9, all the heads are bare.) (Figs. 10 to 14): Saxon personal ornaments, buckle, rings, etc., found in tumuli.
Buildings erected from about 500A.D.to 1050A.D.are called Anglo-Saxon, or simply Saxon, in their style.
The Romans built in stone and brick, but the English, when they conquered Britain, razed the Roman buildings to the ground, and built their own structures of wood.
It is interesting to note that the Saxon word for “build” was “getimbrian,” to construct of wood.
From the middle of the 5th century, for nearly 700 years, until the time when the Norman Castle arose, well-nigh every building of architectural merit was in some way or other connected with the Church.
The English were essentially workers in wood, and profoundly ignorant of masonry. The churches that sprang up all over England after the conversion of the country to Christianity were, no doubt, of wood, and even in the 9th and 10th centuries we hear of “the worm-eaten walls of cathedrals.”
They were decorated internally with paintings in various bright colours, and the ornamentation was of metal work, bronze or the precious metals.
Before the end of the 7th century, stone churches were built at York, Ripon and Hexham, the latter being largely built of materials from the Roman Wall, which passes within a short distance of the place, and Roman inscribed slabs have been used in forming the roof of the crypt.
Bede tells us that Benedict crossed the sea to Gaul, and carried back with him masons to build churches of stone, “after the manner of the Romans that he loved,” at Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, about 680A.D.Each of these churches contains portions which are, without doubt, from their rude construction, parts of the original fabrics of Benedict. Anglo-Saxon stone churches were small, rectangular or cruciform in shape, and without aisles.
A lofty tower, without buttresses, stands at the west end, or at the intersection of the nave and transepts. The walls were usually of rubble or small stones, of very irregular shape, covered with “rough cast” or plaster. The kind of masonry termed “herring-bone” is often used, and Roman bricks, taken from the ruins of earlier buildings, seem to have been freely used.
It is probable that the sides of the towers terminated in acutely pointed gables, from which the roof is carried up, as at Sompting Church, in Sussex.
The towers were without staircases, the different storeys being reached by means of ladders.
The old church at Bradford, in Wiltshire, is one of the most perfect specimens of the Anglo-Saxon class. It is probably the small, original church of the Abbey, built by Adhelm, in the 8th century (A.D.705).
It is constructed of Bath stone, and it is considered, on account of the fineness of the building, that there may have been a certain amount of later restoration.
In the 9th century, many churches were destroyed by the Danes, and Canute rebuilt many churches which his father and his followers had destroyed.But, for a period before the year 1000A.D., the building of churches stopped on account of the expected millenium. After that date, when the hopes and fears of the people had proved groundless, the building of churches commenced again with renewed vigour.
PLATE 12.(Fig. 1): The Anglo-Saxon tower of Earl’s Barton Church, Northants. At the angles, there are “quoins,” or corner-stones, formed of long stones set upright, alternately with others laid horizontally, and technically known as “long and short work.” The surface of the walls is also divided up by “pilaster strips,” which are an imitation in stone of wooden construction, and are evidently intended to bind together the rude masonry of the walls. It is “the design of a carpenter executed by a mason.” The parapet is comparatively recent in construction. (Fig. 2): Tower arch of Anglo-Saxon character at Barnack, Northants. Barnack was one of the places where the old church was burnt by the Danes, in their raid through that part of the country, and rebuilt by order of Canute after the settlement of the Danes. The impost mouldings (b) appear to have been suggested by a pile of boards overlapping. (Fig. 3): An enlargement of the belfry window (a, Fig. 1). Double windows are usually round-headed or triangular-headed. The lights or single windows are not separated by a stone moulding, but by a kind of shaft or “baluster,” set in the middle of the wall, and supporting the impost. (Fig. 4): Belfry window in the tower of Deerhurst Church (1050A.D.). The windows are triangular-headed, the head being formed of two straight stones placed obliquely, and meeting at a point. (Fig. 5): A window at Caversfield, Bucks, with small opening and very wide “splay.” This window is splayed, or widened out, both outside and inside, the window itself being set in the middle of the wall, so that the wicker-work or oiled parchment, that did duty as a glass, was protected from the weather. (Fig. 6): Section of Anglo-Saxon wall, which consisted of two rows of fairly regular stones, the intervening space being filled with irregularly shaped stones, embedded in mortar, the latter comprising nearly half the substance of the wall. The layer of stones in the interior of the building was generally plastered over. (Fig. 7): An Anglo-Saxon triangular-headed doorway. (Figs. 8, 9 and 10): Different forms of Anglo-Saxon balusters.
PLATE 12.
(Fig. 1): The Anglo-Saxon tower of Earl’s Barton Church, Northants. At the angles, there are “quoins,” or corner-stones, formed of long stones set upright, alternately with others laid horizontally, and technically known as “long and short work.” The surface of the walls is also divided up by “pilaster strips,” which are an imitation in stone of wooden construction, and are evidently intended to bind together the rude masonry of the walls. It is “the design of a carpenter executed by a mason.” The parapet is comparatively recent in construction. (Fig. 2): Tower arch of Anglo-Saxon character at Barnack, Northants. Barnack was one of the places where the old church was burnt by the Danes, in their raid through that part of the country, and rebuilt by order of Canute after the settlement of the Danes. The impost mouldings (b) appear to have been suggested by a pile of boards overlapping. (Fig. 3): An enlargement of the belfry window (a, Fig. 1). Double windows are usually round-headed or triangular-headed. The lights or single windows are not separated by a stone moulding, but by a kind of shaft or “baluster,” set in the middle of the wall, and supporting the impost. (Fig. 4): Belfry window in the tower of Deerhurst Church (1050A.D.). The windows are triangular-headed, the head being formed of two straight stones placed obliquely, and meeting at a point. (Fig. 5): A window at Caversfield, Bucks, with small opening and very wide “splay.” This window is splayed, or widened out, both outside and inside, the window itself being set in the middle of the wall, so that the wicker-work or oiled parchment, that did duty as a glass, was protected from the weather. (Fig. 6): Section of Anglo-Saxon wall, which consisted of two rows of fairly regular stones, the intervening space being filled with irregularly shaped stones, embedded in mortar, the latter comprising nearly half the substance of the wall. The layer of stones in the interior of the building was generally plastered over. (Fig. 7): An Anglo-Saxon triangular-headed doorway. (Figs. 8, 9 and 10): Different forms of Anglo-Saxon balusters.
At meal-times the company sat down in the hall, the master, mistress, and honoured guests taking their places at a “high” table placed on a dais at the upper end of the apartment. Dinner was generally served either at noon or at about 3 o’clock in the afternoon.
The walls were decorated with coloured and embroidered curtains, for English ladies and their maidens were famed for their skill with the needle in embroidery and decorative needlework. The tables consisted of boards laid upon trestles, which could be easily removed when, the meal being over, the ladies retired to the bower and the men settled down to drinking.
Sometimes the tables were bare, at other times covered with a table-cloth. Some MSS. show a circular table arranged for the meal. On the table appear the round cakes which served the Saxons as bread, also dishes containing meat, fish, and other food. A few spoons and razor-shaped knives, and drinking vessels of varying sizes and shapes, were also placed upon the table.
While the meal was in progress, wandering minstrels played on their instruments and sang; jugglers and conjurers delighted their patrons with feats of balancing and sleight-of-hand; while others danced and postured, or exhibited the feats of dancing bears and other animals that they led about.
PLATE 13.(Fig. 1): A dinner party standing at a long table. (After Strutt.) MS., Claud. B. v. (Fig. 2): A dinner party seated around a circular table with embroidered curtains behind them, and serving men waiting upon them. (After Strutt.) Cott. MS. Tiberius Cvi. (Fig. 3): A Saxon bed. (After Strutt.) MS., Claud. B. iv. An apartment called the bower or bur was used chiefly by the women and children for sleeping and dwelling in. Sometimes there were recesses in the wall, covered by curtains, and in these the beds were placed. The bed furniture consisted of bolster, pillows, coverlets, and sheets, and, as far as can be gathered from the MSS., the sheets were wrapped about the naked body. (Fig. 4): A dancing girl with musicians. (After Strutt.) Cott. MS., Cleopatra C. viii. In MSS., women are represented almost invariably with the head covered by a hood or head-veil even when they have retired to rest (Fig. 3), and we may assume that it was considered disgraceful for a woman to appear in public with the head bare. When women are represented with the head uncovered they are people whose calling was considered more more or less of a questionable character, as dancers, strolling players, etc. (Fig. 5): A labourer threshing corn with a flail. (From a MS. after Strutt.)
PLATE 13.
(Fig. 1): A dinner party standing at a long table. (After Strutt.) MS., Claud. B. v. (Fig. 2): A dinner party seated around a circular table with embroidered curtains behind them, and serving men waiting upon them. (After Strutt.) Cott. MS. Tiberius Cvi. (Fig. 3): A Saxon bed. (After Strutt.) MS., Claud. B. iv. An apartment called the bower or bur was used chiefly by the women and children for sleeping and dwelling in. Sometimes there were recesses in the wall, covered by curtains, and in these the beds were placed. The bed furniture consisted of bolster, pillows, coverlets, and sheets, and, as far as can be gathered from the MSS., the sheets were wrapped about the naked body. (Fig. 4): A dancing girl with musicians. (After Strutt.) Cott. MS., Cleopatra C. viii. In MSS., women are represented almost invariably with the head covered by a hood or head-veil even when they have retired to rest (Fig. 3), and we may assume that it was considered disgraceful for a woman to appear in public with the head bare. When women are represented with the head uncovered they are people whose calling was considered more more or less of a questionable character, as dancers, strolling players, etc. (Fig. 5): A labourer threshing corn with a flail. (From a MS. after Strutt.)
Both these figures are taken from an Old English calendar of the eleventh century (after Strutt). Cott. MS., Julius A. vi.
This calendar is arranged as in a modern almanack, with a page to each month and a line to each day. At the foot of each page there is a drawing, typical of the work carried on during that month.
PLATE 14.(Fig. 1):January. This month was called by the English, when heathen, “Wolf-monath,” because the wolves were most troublesome at this period of the year. When the English became Christians it was called “Aefter-Yule,” i.e., After-Christmas. Here there is a ploughing scene. Four oxen yoked together in couples are drawing a plough of a very solid-looking type. (In those days horses were not employed in farm work.) A farm-hand, bare-headed, bare-footed, and wearing only a single garment, is goading the oxen with a sharp-pointed ox-goad, similar to a long spear in appearance. A man in superior attire is guiding the plough, while another is scattering seed as the plough passes. A good representation of the plough of that period is shown here. (Fig. 2):August. This month was called by the English “Arn-moneth” or “Barn-moneth,” i.e., “harvest-month.” This drawing gives a representation of a farm wagon of good construction, and of the costumes of the workers, who appear to be of at least two grades—some bare-footed, wearing a single garment, while others have better-cut garments, and wear shoes and stockings in addition. At the head of a party is a man with a spear in his right hand, blowing a horn, who may be either superintending the work or may be the “advance guard” of a hunting party entering the field. The implements, sickles, and forks appear to be very similar to those in use at the present time.
PLATE 14.
(Fig. 1):January. This month was called by the English, when heathen, “Wolf-monath,” because the wolves were most troublesome at this period of the year. When the English became Christians it was called “Aefter-Yule,” i.e., After-Christmas. Here there is a ploughing scene. Four oxen yoked together in couples are drawing a plough of a very solid-looking type. (In those days horses were not employed in farm work.) A farm-hand, bare-headed, bare-footed, and wearing only a single garment, is goading the oxen with a sharp-pointed ox-goad, similar to a long spear in appearance. A man in superior attire is guiding the plough, while another is scattering seed as the plough passes. A good representation of the plough of that period is shown here. (Fig. 2):August. This month was called by the English “Arn-moneth” or “Barn-moneth,” i.e., “harvest-month.” This drawing gives a representation of a farm wagon of good construction, and of the costumes of the workers, who appear to be of at least two grades—some bare-footed, wearing a single garment, while others have better-cut garments, and wear shoes and stockings in addition. At the head of a party is a man with a spear in his right hand, blowing a horn, who may be either superintending the work or may be the “advance guard” of a hunting party entering the field. The implements, sickles, and forks appear to be very similar to those in use at the present time.
PLATE 15.(Fig. 1): A long Saxon drinking glass, ornamented with raised and decorated ribbons of glass. The bottom is rounded, so that when filled with liquid it had to be emptied at one draught. (British Museum.) (Fig. 2): Another form of Saxon drinking vessel. (British Museum.) (Fig. 3): Old English bronze vessel found in a barrow at Taplow, in Bucks, in 1883, now in the British Museum. (Fig. 4): A silver spoon (Anglo-Saxon) found at Sevington, in Wiltshire, in 1834. (British Museum.) (Fig. 5): Great Seal of Edward the Confessor. The King is represented crowned and seated upon the throne, bearing the sceptre in his right hand and the orb in his left. Edward here calls himself “By the Grace of God, King of the English,” using the Greek and not the Latin term. (Figs. 6 and 7): A silver penny of Alfred the Great, minted at London—(6) the obverse bearing Alfred’s portrait and name; (7) the reverse with the word “Londini” (as a monogram). (Figs. 8 and 9): A silver penny of Edgar the Peaceful—(8) the obverse; (9) the reverse. (Figs. 10, 11, and 12): Three views of King Alfred’s jewel. This was found near the site of Athelney Abbey, Somersetshire, in 1693. Fig. 10, the obverse, is faced with an oval plate of crystal, having under it39-40a miniature of a man, in enamelled mosaic (probably St. Neot, Alfred’s special protector), holding in each hand a fleur-de-lys. Fig. 11, the reverse, is a detached plate of gold bearing a fleur-de-lys ornament. Fig. 12, the edge, on which is inscribed “Aelfred Mec Heht Gewyrcan” (Alfred bid me be wrought). The stalk end bears a grotesque figure, apparently the head of a sea monster. It may have been the head of a stylus or pen, or have served as a standard in battle. (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.) (Fig. 13): An ornamented fibula or brooch at Goldsborough, Yorkshire. (British Museum.) (Fig. 14): An Anglo-Saxon comb—St. Cuthbert’s comb, at Durham Cathedral.
PLATE 15.
(Fig. 1): A long Saxon drinking glass, ornamented with raised and decorated ribbons of glass. The bottom is rounded, so that when filled with liquid it had to be emptied at one draught. (British Museum.) (Fig. 2): Another form of Saxon drinking vessel. (British Museum.) (Fig. 3): Old English bronze vessel found in a barrow at Taplow, in Bucks, in 1883, now in the British Museum. (Fig. 4): A silver spoon (Anglo-Saxon) found at Sevington, in Wiltshire, in 1834. (British Museum.) (Fig. 5): Great Seal of Edward the Confessor. The King is represented crowned and seated upon the throne, bearing the sceptre in his right hand and the orb in his left. Edward here calls himself “By the Grace of God, King of the English,” using the Greek and not the Latin term. (Figs. 6 and 7): A silver penny of Alfred the Great, minted at London—(6) the obverse bearing Alfred’s portrait and name; (7) the reverse with the word “Londini” (as a monogram). (Figs. 8 and 9): A silver penny of Edgar the Peaceful—(8) the obverse; (9) the reverse. (Figs. 10, 11, and 12): Three views of King Alfred’s jewel. This was found near the site of Athelney Abbey, Somersetshire, in 1693. Fig. 10, the obverse, is faced with an oval plate of crystal, having under it39-40a miniature of a man, in enamelled mosaic (probably St. Neot, Alfred’s special protector), holding in each hand a fleur-de-lys. Fig. 11, the reverse, is a detached plate of gold bearing a fleur-de-lys ornament. Fig. 12, the edge, on which is inscribed “Aelfred Mec Heht Gewyrcan” (Alfred bid me be wrought). The stalk end bears a grotesque figure, apparently the head of a sea monster. It may have been the head of a stylus or pen, or have served as a standard in battle. (Ashmolean Museum, Oxford.) (Fig. 13): An ornamented fibula or brooch at Goldsborough, Yorkshire. (British Museum.) (Fig. 14): An Anglo-Saxon comb—St. Cuthbert’s comb, at Durham Cathedral.
PLATE 16.(Fig. 1): A Norseman’s boat found in a peat bog at Nydam, in South Jutland, in 1863. It is clincher-built of oak, is large, open and pointed at both ends, and is designed only for rowing, as there is no trace of a mast and no arrangement for stepping one. It is 78 ft. between the high points at the stem and the stern, and 10 ft. 9 in. broad amidships. It was rowed with fourteen pairs of oars, which are like those still used in the North, and are 11 ft. 2 in. long. The rudder is narrow, and was fastened to one side of the boat near the stern end. During the latter part of the heathen times, boats were drawn up on land for the winter or when they were not wanted for some time. This boat has holes at the ends for the ropes by which it was hauled up on land. (Montelius’ “Civilization of Sweden.”) (Fig. 2): A Danish vessel reconstructed from a representation of a Danish ship from the MS. of Caedmon Bodl. Junius ii., c.A.D.1000. It is steered, like the one in Fig. 1, by a rudder fastened near the stern of the ship on the side still called the starboard or steer-board. (Fig. 3): Noah’s Ark. Another drawing from the same MS. The Ark is represented in the form of a Danish ship, showing the dragon’s head at the bows and the stern. It is interesting, also, as it illustrates the fact that when the old illuminators wanted to represent any circumstance—Biblical or classical—pictorially, they made use of the material they saw around them, copying the buildings, the ships, the persons, and the costumes of their own time, so that MSS. form very reliable contemporary evidence of these things. (Fig. 4): A Danish sword found in the River Withalm, very similar in general design and construction to the Saxon sword illustrated on Plate 9. (Fig. 5): A Jutish or Danish shield, made of wood with a bronze rim and a boss or umbo of bronze in the centre, of the period beforeA.D.450, found in Jutland.
PLATE 16.
(Fig. 1): A Norseman’s boat found in a peat bog at Nydam, in South Jutland, in 1863. It is clincher-built of oak, is large, open and pointed at both ends, and is designed only for rowing, as there is no trace of a mast and no arrangement for stepping one. It is 78 ft. between the high points at the stem and the stern, and 10 ft. 9 in. broad amidships. It was rowed with fourteen pairs of oars, which are like those still used in the North, and are 11 ft. 2 in. long. The rudder is narrow, and was fastened to one side of the boat near the stern end. During the latter part of the heathen times, boats were drawn up on land for the winter or when they were not wanted for some time. This boat has holes at the ends for the ropes by which it was hauled up on land. (Montelius’ “Civilization of Sweden.”) (Fig. 2): A Danish vessel reconstructed from a representation of a Danish ship from the MS. of Caedmon Bodl. Junius ii., c.A.D.1000. It is steered, like the one in Fig. 1, by a rudder fastened near the stern of the ship on the side still called the starboard or steer-board. (Fig. 3): Noah’s Ark. Another drawing from the same MS. The Ark is represented in the form of a Danish ship, showing the dragon’s head at the bows and the stern. It is interesting, also, as it illustrates the fact that when the old illuminators wanted to represent any circumstance—Biblical or classical—pictorially, they made use of the material they saw around them, copying the buildings, the ships, the persons, and the costumes of their own time, so that MSS. form very reliable contemporary evidence of these things. (Fig. 4): A Danish sword found in the River Withalm, very similar in general design and construction to the Saxon sword illustrated on Plate 9. (Fig. 5): A Jutish or Danish shield, made of wood with a bronze rim and a boss or umbo of bronze in the centre, of the period beforeA.D.450, found in Jutland.
The ordinary costumes of people in early Norman times differed little from that of the Saxons.
At first the Norman warriors were clean-shaven, but after settling in England the courtiers gave way to a love of finery. They wore long, embroidered garments with long white sleeves, and they allowed their hair and beards to grow long so that they incurred the reproach of the clergy, who called them “filthy goats.”
The Norman ladies also changed from the simplicity of their costume to a great extravagance of shape and material. The gowns were very ample, and were sometimes worn with a kind of train.
The general garments of the men were the tunic, the super-tunic, and the mantle.
The upper classes wore a garment next to the skin, under the tunic, called thejust-au-corps; but amongst the lower classes the tunic was worn next to the skin. TheTunicwas made of linen or cloth, had short sleeves, and reached at first to the knees, but later to the ground. Over this was worn asuper-tuniccorresponding to the Saxon tunica, with tight sleeves, reaching to the wrist, and subject to the same modification as the tunic.
Themantlewas similar to the Saxon mantle, but was fuller. In later Norman times it was made of the finest cloth, and was lined with rich furs. There were several forms of cap, as illustrated in the plate. The lower limbs were covered with a kind of trousers calledchausses. The shoes in early Norman times were quite plain, but later they were very elaborate, coloured, and had pointed toes.
The costume of Norman ladies consisted of a robe, a mantle, and a couvre-chef.
Therobewas worn with long sleeves, and in later times with long pendulous strips at the wrists, often of such a length that they had to be tied into knots to keep them from trailing on the ground. The skirt of the robe was long, full, and hung in folds on the ground.
Themantlewas worn over the robe, and the head was covered, as in Saxon times, with a head-veil, which was now called thecouvre-chef.
The hair was worn plaited into two long tails. From illustrations in MSS. it is seen that the costumes of the lower classes during Norman times were similar to those worn during the three preceding centuries.
PLATE 17.(Fig. 1): The figure of Queen Matilda, wife of Henry I. The sculptured effigies of these two sovereigns are the earliest of those of English sovereigns in existence, and are at Rochester Cathedral. They are mutilated, but still43-44show clearly the details of royal costume. In the figure of Matilda the hair is plaited into two tails. She wears a long robe girded at the waist and having long sleeves. Over this she wears a long mantle. (Fig. 2): Costume of a young man of the middle classes. (Representing David with a sling in Cott. MS., Nero C4.) He wears a long tunic reaching to the ankles, having a collar, long cuffs extending nearly to the elbow, and an embroidered border along the bottom. He also wears tight-fitting chausses, and the lower parts of his legs are covered either with high boots or with leg bandages. (Fig. 3): Costume of an older man. (From the same MS., representing Noah with an axe about to build the Ark.) He wears a Phrygian hat with a band around it, a long, full tunic with hanging sleeves, and a green mantle bordered with gold thrown over it. He appears to be wearing stockings reaching to the knees, and his shoes are ornamented with diagonal lines crossing each other. He has long hair and a moustache and beard. This is considered to be a good example of the ordinary costume of the time. (Figs. 4 and 5): Examples of a covering for the lower part of the leg. (From the same MS.) (Fig. 4): A swathing for the leg worn by shepherds, similar in appearance to the hay bands of the modern carter. (Fig 5): Shows a leg of the breeches ornamented with diagonal stripes ending at the ankle, where there is a band or garter. No shoes are worn, as frequently appears to have been the case when persons were on a journey. (Fig. 6): A sock or half-boot ornamented around the top. (Fig. 7): A Norman shoe with stocking. (Fig. 8): A shoe of later Norman times, decorated with bands and coloured. (Fig. 9): Pointed military shoe from a seal. (Figs. 10, 11, 12, 13): The four commonest forms of head-dress in use. (Fig. 13): Shows that called the cowl. (Fig. 14): Figure of a Norman lady showing the robe with long sleeves, the mantle, and the couvre-chef.
PLATE 17.
(Fig. 1): The figure of Queen Matilda, wife of Henry I. The sculptured effigies of these two sovereigns are the earliest of those of English sovereigns in existence, and are at Rochester Cathedral. They are mutilated, but still43-44show clearly the details of royal costume. In the figure of Matilda the hair is plaited into two tails. She wears a long robe girded at the waist and having long sleeves. Over this she wears a long mantle. (Fig. 2): Costume of a young man of the middle classes. (Representing David with a sling in Cott. MS., Nero C4.) He wears a long tunic reaching to the ankles, having a collar, long cuffs extending nearly to the elbow, and an embroidered border along the bottom. He also wears tight-fitting chausses, and the lower parts of his legs are covered either with high boots or with leg bandages. (Fig. 3): Costume of an older man. (From the same MS., representing Noah with an axe about to build the Ark.) He wears a Phrygian hat with a band around it, a long, full tunic with hanging sleeves, and a green mantle bordered with gold thrown over it. He appears to be wearing stockings reaching to the knees, and his shoes are ornamented with diagonal lines crossing each other. He has long hair and a moustache and beard. This is considered to be a good example of the ordinary costume of the time. (Figs. 4 and 5): Examples of a covering for the lower part of the leg. (From the same MS.) (Fig. 4): A swathing for the leg worn by shepherds, similar in appearance to the hay bands of the modern carter. (Fig 5): Shows a leg of the breeches ornamented with diagonal stripes ending at the ankle, where there is a band or garter. No shoes are worn, as frequently appears to have been the case when persons were on a journey. (Fig. 6): A sock or half-boot ornamented around the top. (Fig. 7): A Norman shoe with stocking. (Fig. 8): A shoe of later Norman times, decorated with bands and coloured. (Fig. 9): Pointed military shoe from a seal. (Figs. 10, 11, 12, 13): The four commonest forms of head-dress in use. (Fig. 13): Shows that called the cowl. (Fig. 14): Figure of a Norman lady showing the robe with long sleeves, the mantle, and the couvre-chef.
The military costumes of the early Normans and the Saxons were very similar on account of the intercourse between the Courts of England and Normandy at the time immediately preceding the Conquest, and much of our knowledge of Norman military costume is obtained from the Bayeux Tapestry. The arms in use among the Normans were the sword (which only soldiers of superior rank were allowed to carry), the axe, the lance or spear, the mace, and the bow and arrows. Theswordwas, as might be expected, of the same type as the Danish or Norse sword—straight, long, and double-edged, with a slight taper to the acute point. The scabbard was worn on the left side, and was suspended by a cord or strap around the waist. Theaxewas of various forms, as may be seen from the plate. Thelanceor spear was generally similar to that used by the Saxons, but had a pennon with several points. Sometimes several lances were carried, and were probably thrown as javelins.
Themaceis depicted several times in the Bayeux Tapestry.
Thebowandarrowsplayed an important part in the Battle of Hastings, and were of the form used by the Saxons.
The defensive armour consisted of the helmet, the hauberk, and the shield.
Thehelmetwas generally conical in shape, with a nasal or nose-piece of iron to guard the forehead and nose against a horizontal stroke. The nasal was fixed or movable. Sometimes there was a peak behind the helmet to protect the neck. The nasal was generally discarded about 1140.
Thehauberk, or military tunic, was a garment in one piece, fitting almost tightly to the person and reaching to the knees, with sleeves reaching to the elbow. Occasionally it appears to have ended in close-fitting trousers at the knee. The hauberk was of quilted and padded material or of leather, covered with metal rings or plates or studs of metal and leather, and formed a very effective body armour. The plated or mailed tunic of William I. and his followers was superseded early in the twelfth century by a defensive hauberk, covered, as before, with various straps and plates of metal, or more generally formed of interwoven ring or chain mail. The legs and feet were enveloped in simple bandages or fillets bound around them.
Theshieldcompleted the defensive equipment, and was generally long, rounded or oval at the top, with a pointed base, so that the shape resembled that of a kite. Many of them were decorated (according to the Bayeux Tapestry).
PLATE 18.(Figs. 1 and 2): The ordinary costumes of Norman soldiers. Each is clothed in a military hauberk, which fitted the body very closely, and was probably slit a little before and behind. In the case of these two the hauberk ends in close-fitting trousers to the knee. The heads are protected by conical helmets with nasal pieces, fitting over hoods of mail. In Fig. 1 the warrior is armed with a sword, an axe, and a spear. The shield is of the kite shape. The hauberk is covered with ringed mail, and the sleeves reach to the wrist. In Fig. 2 the sleeves reach to the elbow only, and are covered with rings, but the body is covered with what is known as “trellised” armour, formed of strips of leather fastened on a body of quilted cloth and crossing each other diagonally, with knobs of steel fastened in the angular spaces as an additional protection. He holds in his hand agonfanonor lance with a small flag—carried only by the leaders of the army. (Fig. 3): A Norman sword.(From the Bayeux Tapestry.) (Fig. 4): Two Norman soldiers, each carrying a decorated shield and spear, one being armed with a sword. Each wears a flat-topped helmet, one only being fitted with a “nasal.” The shield of the right-hand one is curved to the form of the body. The hauberks of mail are shown, and also the tunics worn under them reaching nearly to the knee. (Figs. 5 and 6): Norman axes. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.) (Fig. 7): A Norman archer. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.) Dressed in a close-fitting vest with narrow sleeves, and full breeches, gathered apparently above and below the knee, and ornamented with large red spots. He carries a quiver of arrows slung over his back. Other archers are represented in the Tapestry fully dressed in ringed mail. (Fig. 8): The head of a mounted soldier. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.) A peculiar custom existed among the Normans at the Conquest of shaving the back of the head as well as the face. When spies sent by Harold reconnoitred the Norman camp, they saw the Normans with shaven heads, and they returned with the news that “the Duke had far more priests than knights or other troops.” (Fig. 9): Guy, Count of Ponthieu. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.) He is armed with an axe, and wears a hauberk of scale armour. These scales were either of iron, bronze, orcuir bouilli. (The latter was leather which had been softened by boiling in oil and stamped or moulded into a definite form while in that condition. When it was dry it became very hard and tough.) He also wears a mantle gathered on the right shoulder, but has no head covering.
PLATE 18.
(Figs. 1 and 2): The ordinary costumes of Norman soldiers. Each is clothed in a military hauberk, which fitted the body very closely, and was probably slit a little before and behind. In the case of these two the hauberk ends in close-fitting trousers to the knee. The heads are protected by conical helmets with nasal pieces, fitting over hoods of mail. In Fig. 1 the warrior is armed with a sword, an axe, and a spear. The shield is of the kite shape. The hauberk is covered with ringed mail, and the sleeves reach to the wrist. In Fig. 2 the sleeves reach to the elbow only, and are covered with rings, but the body is covered with what is known as “trellised” armour, formed of strips of leather fastened on a body of quilted cloth and crossing each other diagonally, with knobs of steel fastened in the angular spaces as an additional protection. He holds in his hand agonfanonor lance with a small flag—carried only by the leaders of the army. (Fig. 3): A Norman sword.(From the Bayeux Tapestry.) (Fig. 4): Two Norman soldiers, each carrying a decorated shield and spear, one being armed with a sword. Each wears a flat-topped helmet, one only being fitted with a “nasal.” The shield of the right-hand one is curved to the form of the body. The hauberks of mail are shown, and also the tunics worn under them reaching nearly to the knee. (Figs. 5 and 6): Norman axes. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.) (Fig. 7): A Norman archer. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.) Dressed in a close-fitting vest with narrow sleeves, and full breeches, gathered apparently above and below the knee, and ornamented with large red spots. He carries a quiver of arrows slung over his back. Other archers are represented in the Tapestry fully dressed in ringed mail. (Fig. 8): The head of a mounted soldier. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.) A peculiar custom existed among the Normans at the Conquest of shaving the back of the head as well as the face. When spies sent by Harold reconnoitred the Norman camp, they saw the Normans with shaven heads, and they returned with the news that “the Duke had far more priests than knights or other troops.” (Fig. 9): Guy, Count of Ponthieu. (From the Bayeux Tapestry.) He is armed with an axe, and wears a hauberk of scale armour. These scales were either of iron, bronze, orcuir bouilli. (The latter was leather which had been softened by boiling in oil and stamped or moulded into a definite form while in that condition. When it was dry it became very hard and tough.) He also wears a mantle gathered on the right shoulder, but has no head covering.
The Bayeux Tapestry is a valuable picture of the manners and costumes of the Normans and the English about the time of the Norman Conquest. It is traditionally recorded to have been worked by Queen Matilda (the wife of William the Conqueror) and the ladies of her Court, to commemorate the invasion and conquest of England by her husband.
There is no evidence to prove this, and consequently there is much doubt about it; but it is held on the best authority that though the Tapestry is acontemporarywork, Queen Matilda had no part in its manufacture, since it was probably ordered for his cathedral by Bishop Odo (the half-brother of William I.), and made by Norman workers at Bayeux.
It is preserved in the Hotel-de-Ville at Bayeux, and consists of a long band of linen about 231 ft. long and 20 in. wide.
It is divided into 72 scenes or compartments, separated from one another by trees or buildings, worked in the material in a conventional manner. On it are represented 623 people, 202 horses and mules, 55 dogs, 505 otheranimals, 37 buildings, 41 ships and boats, and 49 trees, making a total of 1,512 objects. It has always been known as “tapestry,” but it is really an enormous piece of woolwork or embroidery, yet it has been known so long by the previous name that it will probably continue to bear it.
No attempt has been made to depict the figures in their natural colours, for we find horses coloured yellow, red, blue, and green, and perspective has been totally disregarded. But “if the drawing be rude, the composition is bold and spirited, and is always rendered with great truth of expression, which is, at times, exaggerated.”
The narrow border which runs along both the top and the bottom of the Tapestry (Pl.19, Fig. 3) is for the greater part not connected with the thread of the story, and is decorated with animals, real and fabulous, and scenes of husbandry and the chase; but in some parts it contains allegorical allusions to the scenes depicted.
Over most of the scenes are worked Latin inscriptions in Roman capitals about an inch high, explaining the pictures. The reasons for supposing that, although not made by Matilda, it is nevertheless contemporary work, are:
(1) The accurate representation of the civil and military costumes of the eleventh century.
(2) The attempt to represent Edward the Confessor and William I. as they appeared on their seals.
(3) Certain words used in it suggest an English origin, but admit of the explanation that the dialect spoken in Bayeux was a mixture of Saxon and Norman.
(4) The prominence given to Odo and to less-known persons.
(5) The introduction of the local form of wine barrel and certain dialectic peculiarities of the district.
The Bayeux Tapestry is not mentioned in any historical document until 1476, when it appears among an inventory of the ornaments of the Cathedral of Bayeux.
In 1522 its safety was threatened by the Calvinists who pillaged the cathedral, but it was restored to the authorities and was used to decorate the nave on festive occasions.
It remained forgotten till 1724, when, a drawing having been made of it by an antiquarian, public interest was aroused in it, both in France and in our own country.
In order to preserve it, it was lined and strengthened, for it was used to decorate the nave for eight days at the time of St. John’s Day. It has passed through many vicissitudes, and once or twice it was nearly destroyed, but a number of the leading inhabitants of Bayeux formed themselves into a committee to protect it.
Napoleon I. went to see it, and was much impressed by it when it was exhibited in Paris. It was afterwards returned to Bayeux, where it was visited by Mr. Charles Stothard, a clever and accurate young artist, and at the request of the Society of Antiquaries of London he made drawings of it, the work occupying him for two years.
In 1842 the Municipal Council of Bayeux provided a permanent resting place for the Tapestry in the Hotel de Ville, where it is still exhibited under glass, and where it has been visited by artists and archæologists from every part of the world. During the Franco-German war it was taken down, sealed in a zinc cylinder, and hidden away till all danger was past.
In 1871 permission was given to the English Government to make a photographic reproduction of the Tapestry, and a copy of this full-sized reproduction, coloured after the original, is now preserved at South Kensington.
The Tapestry commences with a picture of Edward the Confessor, and continues with scenes illustrating Harold’s visit to Normandy; his capture and appearance before William; his taking the oath of allegiance to William; his return to England and to Edward the Confessor; the death of the latter; the crowning of Harold; the preparations made by William (building ships, assembling soldiers, collecting food and arms) for the invasion of England; the passage of the English Channel; the landing at Pevensey; the march to Hastings; the preparations for the fight; a long and spirited picture of the battle, illustrating various incidents in it and culminating in the death of Harold and the flight of the defeated English.
(The writer wishes to express his great obligation for the above to Mr. Frank R. Fowke’s very complete work onThe Bayeux Tapestry. Geo. Bell and Sons.)