car-wn= am-amus.car-ych= am-atis.car-ant= am-ant.
car-wn= am-amus.car-ych= am-atis.car-ant= am-ant.
car-wn= am-amus.
car-ych= am-atis.
car-ant= am-ant.
Now the-wn,-ych, and-ant, of the persons of the verbs are the personal pronouns, so that the inflection is really a verb and a pronoun in a state ofagglutination;i.e., in a state where the original separate existence of the two sorts of words is still manifest. This is probably the case with languages in general. The Celtic, however, has the peculiarity of exhibiting it in an unmistakable manner; showing, as it were, an inflection in the process of formation, and (as such) exhibiting an early stage of language.
§ 60.The system of initial mutations.—The Celtic, as has been seen, is deficient in the ordinary means of expressing case. How does it make up for this? Even thus. The noun changes its initial letter according to its relation to the other words of the sentence. Of course this is subject to rule. As, however, I am only writing for the sake of illustrating in a general way the peculiarities of the Celtic tongues, the following table, from Prichard's "Eastern Origin of the Celtic Nations," is sufficient.
Câr,a kinsman.
Tâd,a father.
Pen,a head.
Gwas,a servant.
Duw,a god.
Bara,bread.
Lhaw,a hand.
Mam,a mother.
Rhwyd,a net.
From the Erse.
Súil,an eye.
Sláinte,health.
§ 61. The Celtic tongues have lately received especial illustration from the researches of Mr. Garnett. Amongst others, the two following points are particularly investigated by him:—
1. The affinities of the ancient language of Gaul.
2. The affinities of the Pictish language or dialect.
§ 62.The ancient language of Gaul Cambrian.—The evidence in favour of the ancient language of Gaul being Cambrian rather than Gaelic, lies in the following facts:—
The old Gallic glosses are more Welsh than Gaelic.
a.Petorritum=a four-wheeled carriage, from the Welsh,peder=four, andrhod=a wheel. The Gaelicforfourisceathair, and the Gaelic compound would have been different.
b.Pempedula, thecinque-foil, from the Welshpump=five, anddalen=a leaf. The Gaelic forfiveiscuig, and the Gaelic compound would have been different.
c.Candetum= a measure of 100 feet, from the Welshcant= 100. The Gaelic fora hundrediscead, and the Gaelic compound would have been different.
d.Epona=the goddess of horses.In the old Armorican the rootep=horse. The Gaelic for a horse iseach.
e.The evidence from the names of geographical localities in Gaul, both ancient and modern, goes the same way:Nantuates,Nantouin,Nanteuil, are derived from the Welshnant=a valley, a word unknown in Gaelic.
f.The evidence of certain French provincial words, which are Welsh and Armorican rather than Erse or Gaelic.
§ 63.The Pictish most probably Cambrian.—The evidence in favour of the Pictish being Cambrian rather than Gaelic lies in the following facts:
a.When St. Columbanus preached, whose mother-tongue was Irish Gaelic, he used an interpreter. This shows thedifferencebetween the Pict and Gaelic. What follows shows the affinity between the Pict and Welsh.
b.A manuscript in the Colbertine library contains a list of Pictish kings from the fifth century downwards. These names are more Welsh than Gaelic.Taran=thunderin Welsh.Uvenis the WelshOwen. The first syllable inTalorg( =forehead) is thetalinTalhaiarn=iron forehead,Taliessin=splendid forehead, Welsh names.Wrgustis nearer to the WelshGwrgustthan to the IrishFergus. Finally,Drust,Drostan,Wrad,Necton, closely resemble the WelshTrwst,Trwstan,Gwriad,Nwython.CineodandDomhnall(KennethandDonnell) are the only true Erse forms in the list.
c.The only Pictish common name extant is the well-known compoundpen val, which is, in the oldest MS. of Beda,peann fahel. This meanscaput valli, and is the name for the eastern termination of the Vallum of Antoninus. Hereinpenis unequivocally Welsh, meaninghead. It is an impossible form in Gaelic.Fal, on the other hand, is apparently Gaelic, the Welsh for arampartbeinggwall.Fal, however, occurs in Welsh also, and meansinclosure.
The evidence just indicated is rendered nearly conclusive by an interpolation, apparently of the twelfth century, of the Durham MS. of Nennius, whereby it is stated that the spot in question was called in GaelicCenail. Now Cenail is the modern nameKinneil, and it is also a Gaelic translation of the Pictpen val, sinceceanis the Gaelic forhead, andfhailforrampartorwall. If the older form were Gaelic, the substitution, or translation, would have been superfluous.
d.The name of theOchil Hillsin Perthshire is better explained from the Pictuchel=high, than from the Gaelicuasal.
e.Bryneich, the British form of the province Bernicia, is better explained by the Welshbryn=ridge(hilly country), than by any word in Gaelic.—Garnett, in "Transactions of Philological Society."
THE ANGLO-NORMAN, AND THE LANGUAGES OF THE CLASSICAL STOCK.
§ 64. The languages of Greece and Rome belong to one and the same stock.
The Greek and its dialects, both ancient and modern, constitute the Greek of the Classical stock.
The Latin in all its dialects, the old Italian languages allied to it, and the modern tongues derived from the Roman, constitute the Latin branch of the Classical stock.
Now, although the Greek dialects are of only secondary importance in the illustration of the history of the English language, the Latin elements require a special consideration.
This is because the Norman French, introduced into England by the battle of Hastings, is a language derived from the Roman, and consequently a language of the Latin branch of the Classical stock.
§ 65. The Latin language overspread the greater part of the Roman empire. It supplanted a multiplicity of aboriginal languages; just as the English of North Americahassupplanted the aboriginal tongues of the native Indians, and just as the Russianissupplanting those of Siberia and Kamskatka.
Sometimes the war that the Romans carried on against the old inhabitants was a war of extermination. In this case the original language was supersededat once. Inother cases their influence was introduced gradually. In this case the influence of the original language was greater and more permanent.
Just as in the United States the English came in contact with an American, whilst in New Holland it comes in contact with an Australian language, so was the Latin language of Rome engrafted, sometimes on a Celtic, sometimes on a Gothic, and sometimes on some other stock. The nature of the original language must always be borne in mind.
From Italy, its original seat, the Latin was extended in the following chronological order:—
1. To the Spanish Peninsula; where it overlaid or was engrafted on languages allied to the present Biscayan.
2. To Gaul, or France, where it overlaid or was engrafted on languages of the Celtic stock.
3. To Dacia and Pannonia where it overlaid or was engrafted on a language the stock whereof is undetermined, but which was, probably, Sarmatian. The introduction of the Latin into Dacia and Pannonia took place in the time of Trajan.
§ 66. From these different introductions of the Latin into different countries we have the following modern languages—1st Italian, 2nd Spanish and Portuguese, 3rd French, 4th Wallachian; to which must be added a 5th, the Romanese of part of Switzerland.
Specimen of the Romanese.
Lukexv. 11.11. Ün Hum veva dus Filgs:12. Ad ilg juveu da quels schet alg Bab, "Bab mi dai la Part de la Rauba c' aud' à mi:" ad el parchè or ad els la Rauba.13. A bucca bears Gis suenter, cur ilg Filg juven vet tut messansemel, scha tilà 'l navent en ünna Terra dalunsch: a lou sfiget el tut sia Rauba cun viver senza spargn.14. A cur el vet tut sfaig, scha vangit ei en quella Terra ün grond Fumaz: ad el antschavet a ver basengs.15. Ad el mà, à: sa plidè enn ün Burgeis da quella Terra; a quel ilg tarmatet or sin sês Beins a parchirar ils Porcs.16. Ad el grigiava dad amplanir sieu Venter cun las Criscas ch' ils Porcs malgiavan; mo nagin lgi deva.17. Mo el mà en sasez a schet: "Quonts Fumelgs da mieu Bab han budonza da Pann, a jou miei d' fom!"18. "Jou vi lavar si, ad ir tier mieu Bab, e vi gir a lgi: 'Bab, jou hai faig puccau ancunter ilg Tschiel ad avont tei;19. "'A sunt bucca pli vangonts da vangir numnaus tieu Filg; fai mei esser sco ün da tes Fumelgs.'"
Lukexv. 11.
11. Ün Hum veva dus Filgs:
12. Ad ilg juveu da quels schet alg Bab, "Bab mi dai la Part de la Rauba c' aud' à mi:" ad el parchè or ad els la Rauba.
13. A bucca bears Gis suenter, cur ilg Filg juven vet tut messansemel, scha tilà 'l navent en ünna Terra dalunsch: a lou sfiget el tut sia Rauba cun viver senza spargn.
14. A cur el vet tut sfaig, scha vangit ei en quella Terra ün grond Fumaz: ad el antschavet a ver basengs.
15. Ad el mà, à: sa plidè enn ün Burgeis da quella Terra; a quel ilg tarmatet or sin sês Beins a parchirar ils Porcs.
16. Ad el grigiava dad amplanir sieu Venter cun las Criscas ch' ils Porcs malgiavan; mo nagin lgi deva.
17. Mo el mà en sasez a schet: "Quonts Fumelgs da mieu Bab han budonza da Pann, a jou miei d' fom!"
18. "Jou vi lavar si, ad ir tier mieu Bab, e vi gir a lgi: 'Bab, jou hai faig puccau ancunter ilg Tschiel ad avont tei;
19. "'A sunt bucca pli vangonts da vangir numnaus tieu Filg; fai mei esser sco ün da tes Fumelgs.'"
Specimen of the Wallachian.
Lukexv. 11.11. Un om evea doĭ fec orĭ.12. Shi a zis c'el maĭ tinr din eĭ tatluĭ su: tat, dmĭ partea c'e mi se kade de avucie: shi de a imprcit lor avuciea.13. Shi nu dup multe zile, adunint toate fec orul c el maĭ tinr, s'a dus intr 'o car departe, shi akolo a rsipit toat avuciea ca, viecuind intr dezmĭerdrĭ.14. Shi keltuind el toate, c'a fkut foamete mare intr' ac'ea car: shi el a inc'eput a se lipsi.15. Shi mergina c'a lipit de unul din lkuitoriĭ criĭ ac'eia: si 'l a trimis pre el la earinide sale c pask porc'iĭ.16. Shi doria c 'shĭ sature pinctec'ele sŭ de roshkobele c'e minka porc'iĭ! shi niminĭ nu ĭ da luĭ.17. Iar viind intru sine, a zis; kicĭ argacĭ aĭ tatluĭ mieŭ sint indestulacĭ de piĭne, iar eŭ pĭeiŭ de foame.18. Skula-m-vioŭ, shi m' voiŭ duc'e la tata mieŭ, shi vioŭ zic'e lui:19. Tat, greshit-am la c'er shi inaintea ta, shi nu mai sint vrednik a m kema fiul tŭ; fm ka pre unul din argaciĭ ti.
Lukexv. 11.
11. Un om evea doĭ fec orĭ.
12. Shi a zis c'el maĭ tinr din eĭ tatluĭ su: tat, dmĭ partea c'e mi se kade de avucie: shi de a imprcit lor avuciea.
13. Shi nu dup multe zile, adunint toate fec orul c el maĭ tinr, s'a dus intr 'o car departe, shi akolo a rsipit toat avuciea ca, viecuind intr dezmĭerdrĭ.
14. Shi keltuind el toate, c'a fkut foamete mare intr' ac'ea car: shi el a inc'eput a se lipsi.
15. Shi mergina c'a lipit de unul din lkuitoriĭ criĭ ac'eia: si 'l a trimis pre el la earinide sale c pask porc'iĭ.
16. Shi doria c 'shĭ sature pinctec'ele sŭ de roshkobele c'e minka porc'iĭ! shi niminĭ nu ĭ da luĭ.
17. Iar viind intru sine, a zis; kicĭ argacĭ aĭ tatluĭ mieŭ sint indestulacĭ de piĭne, iar eŭ pĭeiŭ de foame.
18. Skula-m-vioŭ, shi m' voiŭ duc'e la tata mieŭ, shi vioŭ zic'e lui:
19. Tat, greshit-am la c'er shi inaintea ta, shi nu mai sint vrednik a m kema fiul tŭ; fm ka pre unul din argaciĭ ti.
§ 67. Such is thegeneralview of the languages derived from the Latin,i.e., of the languages of the Latin branch of the Classical stock.
The French requires to be more minutely exhibited.
Between the provincial French of the north and the provincial French of the south, there is a difference, at the present day, at least of dialect, and perhaps of language. This is shown by the following specimens: the first from the canton of Arras, on the confines of Flanders; the second from the department of Var, in Provence. The date of each isA.D.1807.
I.Lukexv. 11.11. Ain homme avoüait deeux garchéons.12. L'pus jone dit a sain père, "Main père, baillé m'cheu quî doüo me 'r v'nir ed vous bien," et lue père leu partit sain bien.13. Ain n'sais yur, tro, quate, chéon jours après l'pus tiò d'cnés déeux éféans ôyant r'cuéllé tout s'n' héritt'main, s'ot' ainvoye dains nâin pahis gramain loüon, dú qu'il échilla tout s'n' argint ain fageant l'braingand dains chés cabarets.14. Abord qu'il o eu tout bu, tout mié et tout drélé, il o v'nu adonc dains ch' pahis lo ainn' famaine cruüelle, et i c'mainchonait d'avoir fon-ye d' pon-ye (i.e.faim de pain).II.THE SAME.11. Un homé avié dous enfans.12. Lou plus pichoun diguét a son päiré, "Moun päiré, dounas mi ce què mi reven de vouastré ben;" lou pairé faguet lou partagé de tout ce que poussédavo.13. Paou do jours après, lou pichoun vendét tout se què soun päiré li avié desamparat, et s'en anét díns un päis fourco luench, ounté dissipét tout soun ben en debaucho.14. Quand aguét tou arcaba, uno grosso famino arribet dins aqueou päis et, leou, si veguét reduech à la derniero misèro.
I.
Lukexv. 11.
11. Ain homme avoüait deeux garchéons.
12. L'pus jone dit a sain père, "Main père, baillé m'cheu quî doüo me 'r v'nir ed vous bien," et lue père leu partit sain bien.
13. Ain n'sais yur, tro, quate, chéon jours après l'pus tiò d'cnés déeux éféans ôyant r'cuéllé tout s'n' héritt'main, s'ot' ainvoye dains nâin pahis gramain loüon, dú qu'il échilla tout s'n' argint ain fageant l'braingand dains chés cabarets.
14. Abord qu'il o eu tout bu, tout mié et tout drélé, il o v'nu adonc dains ch' pahis lo ainn' famaine cruüelle, et i c'mainchonait d'avoir fon-ye d' pon-ye (i.e.faim de pain).
II.
THE SAME.
11. Un homé avié dous enfans.
12. Lou plus pichoun diguét a son päiré, "Moun päiré, dounas mi ce què mi reven de vouastré ben;" lou pairé faguet lou partagé de tout ce que poussédavo.
13. Paou do jours après, lou pichoun vendét tout se què soun päiré li avié desamparat, et s'en anét díns un päis fourco luench, ounté dissipét tout soun ben en debaucho.
14. Quand aguét tou arcaba, uno grosso famino arribet dins aqueou päis et, leou, si veguét reduech à la derniero misèro.
Practically speaking, although in the central parts of France the northern and southern dialects melt into eachother, the Loire may be considered as a line of demarcation between two languages; the term language being employed because, in the Middle Ages, whatever may be their real difference, their northern tongue and the southern tongue were dealt with not as separate dialects, but as distinct languages—the southern being called Provençal, the northern Norman-French.
Of these two languages (for so they will in the following pages be called, for the sake of convenience) the southern, or Provençal, approaches the dialects of Spain; the Valencian of Spain and the Catalonian of Spain being Provençal rather than standard Spanish or Castilian.
The southern French is sometimes called the Langue d'Oc, and sometimes the Limousin.
§ 68. The Norman-French, spoken from the Loire to the confines of Flanders, and called also the Langue d'Oyl, differed from the Provençal in (amongst others) the following circumstances.
1. It was of later origin; the southern parts of Gaul having been colonized at an early period by the Romans.
2. It was in geographical contact, not with the allied languages of Spain, but with the Gothic tongues of Germany and Holland.
§ 69. It is the Norman-French that most especially bears upon the history of the English language.
Specimen from the Anglo-Norman poem of Charlemagne.
Un jur fu Karléun al Seint-Denis muster,Reout prise sa corune, en croiz seignat sun chef;E ad ceinte sa espée: li pons fud d'or mer.Dux i out e dermeines e baruns e chevalers.Li emperères reguardet la reine sa muillers.Ele fut ben corunée al plus bel e as meuz.Il la prist par le poin desuz un oliver,De sa pleine parole la prist à reisuner:"Dame, véistes unkes hume nul de desuz ceilTant ben séist espée no la corone el chef!Uncore cunquerrei-jo citez ot mun espeez."Cele ne fud pas sage, folement respondeit:"Emperere," dist-ele, trop vus poez preiser."Uncore en sa-jo un ki plus se fait léger,Quant il porte corune entre ses chevalers;Kaunt il met sur sa teste, plus belement lui set"
Un jur fu Karléun al Seint-Denis muster,Reout prise sa corune, en croiz seignat sun chef;E ad ceinte sa espée: li pons fud d'or mer.Dux i out e dermeines e baruns e chevalers.Li emperères reguardet la reine sa muillers.Ele fut ben corunée al plus bel e as meuz.Il la prist par le poin desuz un oliver,De sa pleine parole la prist à reisuner:"Dame, véistes unkes hume nul de desuz ceilTant ben séist espée no la corone el chef!Uncore cunquerrei-jo citez ot mun espeez."Cele ne fud pas sage, folement respondeit:"Emperere," dist-ele, trop vus poez preiser."Uncore en sa-jo un ki plus se fait léger,Quant il porte corune entre ses chevalers;Kaunt il met sur sa teste, plus belement lui set"
Un jur fu Karléun al Seint-Denis muster,
Reout prise sa corune, en croiz seignat sun chef;
E ad ceinte sa espée: li pons fud d'or mer.
Dux i out e dermeines e baruns e chevalers.
Li emperères reguardet la reine sa muillers.
Ele fut ben corunée al plus bel e as meuz.
Il la prist par le poin desuz un oliver,
De sa pleine parole la prist à reisuner:
"Dame, véistes unkes hume nul de desuz ceil
Tant ben séist espée no la corone el chef!
Uncore cunquerrei-jo citez ot mun espeez."
Cele ne fud pas sage, folement respondeit:
"Emperere," dist-ele, trop vus poez preiser.
"Uncore en sa-jo un ki plus se fait léger,
Quant il porte corune entre ses chevalers;
Kaunt il met sur sa teste, plus belement lui set"
In the northern French we must recognise not only a Celtic and a Classical, but also a Gothic element: since Clovis and Charlemagne were no Frenchmen, but Germans. The Germanic element in French has still to be determined.
In the northern French ofNormandythere is a second Gothic element,viz., a Scandinavian element. See §76.
1. What are thepresentlanguages of Wales, the Isle of Man, the Scotch Highlands, and Ireland?
2. What are thepresentlanguages of Germany and Holland? How are they related to thepresentlanguage of England? How to the original language of England?
3. Enumerate the chiefsupposedmigrations from Germany to England, giving (when possible) thedateof each, the particular German tribe by which each was undertaken, and the parts of Great Britain where the different landings were made. Why do I saysupposedmigrations? Criticise, in detail, the evidence by which they are supported, and state the extent to which it is exceptionable. Who was Beda? What were the sources of his information?
4. Give reasons for believing the existence of Germans in England anterior toA.D.447.
5. Who are the present Jutlanders of Jutland? Who the inhabitants of the district called Anglen in Sleswick? What are the reasons for connecting these with the Jutes and Angles of Beda? What those for denying such a connection?
6. What is the meaning of the termination-uariiinCant-uariiandVect-uarii? What was the Anglo-Saxon translation ofAntiqui Saxones,Occidentales Saxones,Orientates Saxones,Meridionales Saxones? What are the known variations in the form of the wordVectis, meaning theIsle of Wight? What those of the rootJut-as the name of the inhabitants of the peninsula of Jutland?
7. TranslateCantware,Wihtware, into Latin. How does Alfred translateJutæ? How does the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle? What is the derivation of the nameCarisbrook, a town in the Isle of Wight?
8. Take exception to the opinions thatJutes, fromJutland, formed part of the Germanic invasion of England; or, rather, take exceptions to the evidence upon which that opinion is based.
9. From what part of Germany were theAnglesderived? Whatis Beda's? what Ethelweard's statement concerning them? Who were theAngliof Tacitus?
10. What is the derivation of the word Mercia?
11. Give the localities of the Old Saxons, and the Northalbingians. Investigate the area occupied by the Anglo-Saxons.
12. What is the present population of the Dutch province of Friesland? What its language? What the dialects and stages of that language?
13. What was the language of the Asega-bog, the Heliand, Beowulf, Hildubrand and Hathubrant, the Carolinian Psalms, the Gospels of Ulphilas, and the poems of Gysbert Japicx?
14. Make a map of Ancient Germany and Scandinavia according to languages and dialects of those two areas. Exhibit, in a tabular form, the languages of the Gothic stock. Explain the meaning of the wordsGothic, andMœso-Gothic, andPlatt-Deutsch.
15. Analyze the Scandinavian formsSolen,Bordet, andbrennast.
16. Exhibit the difference between thelogicaland thehistoricalanalysis of a language.
17. What are the Celtic names for theEnglish language?
18. Enumerate the chief Germanic populations connected by ancient writers with theAngles, stating the Ethnological relations of each, and noticing the extent to which they coincide with those of the Angles.
19. What are the reasons for believing that there is aFrisianelement in the population of England?
20. Exhibit, in a tabular form, the languages and dialects of the Celtic stock. To which division did the Gallic of ancient Gaul, and the Pict belong? Support the answer by reasons. What were the relations of the Picts to the Gaelic inhabitants of Scotland? What to the Lowland Scotch? What to the Belgæ?
21. Explain the following words—petorritum,pempedula,candetum,Epona,Nantuates,peann fahelandBernicia. What inferences do you draw from the derivation of them?
22. Exhibit, in a tabular form, the languages and dialects of the Classical stock.
23. What is the bearing of the statements of Tacitus and other ancient writers respecting the following Germanic populations upon the ethnological relations of the Angles,—Aviones, Reudigni, Suevi, Langobardi, Frisii, Varini?
24. What is meant by the following terms, Provençal, Langue d'Oc, Langue d'Oyl, Limousin, and Norman-French?
25. What languages, besides the Celtic and Latin, enter into the composition of the French?
HISTORY AND ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
HISTORICAL AND LOGICAL ELEMENTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
§ 70. The Celtic elements of the present English fall into five classes.
1. Those that are of late introduction, and cannot be called original and constituent parts of the language. Some of such are the wordsflannel,crowd(a fiddle), from the Cambrian; andkerne(an Irish foot-soldier),galore(enough),tartan,plaid, &c., from the Gaelic branch.
2. Those that are originally common to both the Celtic and Gothic stocks. Some of such arebrother,mother, in Celticbrathair,mathair; the numerals, &c.
3. Those that have come to us from the Celtic, but have come to us through the medium of another language. Some of such aredruidandbard, whoseimmediatesource is, not the Celtic but the Latin.
4. Celtic elements of the Anglo-Norman, introduced into England after the Conquest, and occurring in that language as remains of the original Celtic of Gaul.
5. Those that have been retained from the original Celtic of the island, and which form genuine constituents of our language. These fall into three subdivisions.
a. Proper names—generally of geographical localities; asthe Thames,Kent, &c.
b. Common names retained in the provincial dialects of England, but not retained in the current language; asgwethall=household stuff, andgwlanen=flannelin Herefordshire.
c. Common names retained in the current language.—The following list is Mr. Garnett's:—
§ 71.Latin of the first period.—Of the Latin introduced by Cæsar and his successors, the few wordsremaining are those that relate to military affairs;viz.street(strata);-coln(as inLincoln=Lindi colonia);-cest-(as inGloucester=glevæ castra) fromcastra. The Latin words introduced between the time of Cæsar and Hengist may be called theLatin of the first period, or theLatin of the Celtic period.
§ 72.The Anglo-Saxon.—This is not noticed here, because, from being the staple of the present language, it is more or less the subject of the book throughout.
§ 73.The Danish, or Norse.—The pirates that pillaged Britain, under the name of Danes, were not exclusively the inhabitants of Denmark. Of the three Scandinavian nations, the Swedes took the least share, the Norwegians the greatest, in these invasions.
The language of the three nations was the same; the differences being differences of dialect. It was that which is now spoken in Iceland, having been once common to Scandinavia and Denmark.
The Danish that became incorporated with our language, under the reign of Canute and his sons, may be called thedirectDanish element, in contradistinction to theindirectDanish of §76.
The determination of the amount of Danish in English is difficult. It is not difficult to prove a wordScandinavian; but, then, we must also show that it is not German as well. A few years back the current opinion was against the doctrine that there was much Danish in England. At present, the tendency is rather the other way. The following facts are from Mr. Garnett.—"Phil. Trans." vol. i.
1. The Saxon name of the present town ofWhitbyin Yorkshire wasStreoneshalch. The present nameWhitby,Hvitby, orWhitetown, is Danish.
2. The Saxon name of the capital of Derbyshire wasNorthweortheg. The present name is Danish.
3. The termination-by=townis Norse.
4. On a monument in Aldburgh church, Holdernesse, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, referred to the age of Edward the Confessor, is found the following inscription:—
Ulfhet aræran cyricefor hanumand for Gunthara saula."Ulf bid rear the church for him and for the soul of Gunthar."
Ulfhet aræran cyricefor hanumand for Gunthara saula."Ulf bid rear the church for him and for the soul of Gunthar."
Ulfhet aræran cyricefor hanumand for Gunthara saula.
"Ulf bid rear the church for him and for the soul of Gunthar."
Now, in this inscription,Ulf, in opposition to the Anglo-SaxonWulf, is a Norse form; whilsthanumis a Norse dative, and by no means an Anglo-Saxon one.—Old Norsehanum, Swedishhonom.
5. The use ofatfortoas the sign of the infinitive mood is Norse, not Saxon. It is the regular prefix in Icelandic, Danish, Swedish, and Feroic. It is also found in the northern dialects of the Old English, and in the particular dialect of Westmoreland at the present day.
6. The use ofsumforas;e.g.,—swa sumwe forgive oure detturs.
7. Isolated words in the northern dialects are Norse rather than Saxon.
§ 74.Roman of the second period.—Of the Latin introduced under the Christianised Saxon sovereigns, many words are extant.Theyrelate chiefly to ecclesiastical matters, just as the Latin of the Celtic period bore upon military affairs.Mynster, a minster,monasterium;portic, a porch,porticus;cluster, a cloister,claustrum;munuc, a monk,monachus;bisceop, a bishop,episcopus;arcebisceop, archbishop,archiepiscopus;sanct, a saint,sanctus;profost, a provost,propositus;pall, a pall,pallium;calic, a chalice,calix;candel, a candle,candela;psalter, a psalter,psalterium;mæsse, a mass,missa;pistel, an epistle,epistola;prædic-ian, to preach,prædicare;prof-ian, to prove,probare.
The following are the names of foreign plants and animals:—camell, a camel,camelus;ylp, elephant,elephas;ficbeam, fig-tree,ficus;feferfuge, feverfew,febrifuga;peterselige, parsley,petroselinum.
Others are the names of articles of foreign origin, aspipor, pepper,piper;purpur, purple,purpura;pumicstan, pumicestone,pumex.
This is the Latin of the second, or Saxon period.
§ 75.The Anglo-Norman element.—For practical purposes we may say that the French or Anglo-Norman element appeared in our language after the battle of Hastings,A.D.1066.
Previous, however, to that period we find notices of intercourse between the two countries.
1. The residence in England of Louis Outremer.
2. Ethelred II. married Emma, daughter of Richard Duke of Normandy, and the two children were sent to Normandy for education.
3. Edward the Confessor is particularly stated to have encouraged French manners and the French language in England.
4. Ingulphus of Croydon speaks of his own knowledge of French.
5. Harold passed some time in Normandy.
6. The French articlela, in the termla Drove, occurs in a deed ofA.D.975.
The chief Anglo-Norman elements of our language are the terms connected with the feudal system, the terms relating to war and chivalry, and a great portion of the law terms—duke,count,baron,villain,service,chivalry,warrant,esquire,challenge,domain, &c.
§ 76. When we remember that the wordNormanmeansman of the north, that it is aScandinavian, andnot a Frenchword, that it originated in the invasions of the followers of Rollo and and otherNorwegians, and that just as part of England was overrun by Pagan buccaneers calledDanes, part of France was occupied by similarNorthmen, we see the likelihood of certain Norse words finding their way into the French language, where they would be superadded to its original Celtic and Roman elements.
The extent to which this is actually the case has only been partially investigated. It is certain, however, that some French words are Norse or Scandinavian. Such, for instance, are severalnames of geographical localitieseither near the sea, or the river Seine, in other words, within that tract which was most especially occupied by the invaders. As is to be expected from the genius of the French language, these words are considerably altered in form. Thus,
and in these shapes they appear in the Norman namesYvetot,Caudebec, andHarfleur, &c.
Now any words thus introduced from the Norse of Scandinavia into the French of Normandy, might, by the Norman Conquest of England, be carried further, and so find their way into the English.
In such a case, they would constitute itsindirectScandinavian element.
A list of these words has not been made; indeed the question requires far more investigation than it has met with. The names, however, of the islandsGuerns-ey,Jers-ey, andAldern-ey, are certainly of the kind in question—since the-ey, meaningisland, is the same as the-eyinOrkn-ey, and is the Norse rather than the Saxon form.
§ 77.Latin of the third period.—This means the Latin which was introduced between the battle of Hastings and the revival of literature. It chiefly originated in the cloister, in the universities, and, to a certain extent, in the courts of law. It must be distinguished from theindirectLatin introduced as part and parcel of the Anglo-Norman. It has yet to be accurately analyzed.
§ 78.Latin of the fourth period.—This means the Latin which has been introduced between the revival of literature and the present time. It has originated in the writings of learned men in general, and is distinguished from that of the previous periods by:
1. Being less altered in form:
2. Preserving, with substantives, in many cases its original inflections;axis,axes;basis,bases:
3. Relating to objects and ideas for which the increase of the range of science in general has required a nomenclature.
§ 79.Greek.—Words deriveddirectlyfrom the Greek are in the same predicament as the Latin of the third period—phænomenon,phænomena;criterion,criteria, &c.; words which are onlyindirectlyof Greek origin, being considered to belong to the language from which they were immediately introduced into the English. Such aredeacon,priest, &c., introduced through the Latin. Hence a word likechurchproves no more in regard to a Greek element in English, than the wordabbotproves in respect to a Syrian one.
§ 80. The Latin of the fourth period and the Greek agree in retaining, in many cases, original inflexions rather than adopting the English ones; in other words, they agree in being butimperfectly incorporated. The phænomenon of imperfect incorporation is reducible to the following rules:—
1. That it has a direct ratio to the date of the introduction,i.e., the more recent the word the more likely it is to retain its original inflexion.
2. That it has a relation to the number of meanings belonging to the words: thus, when a single word has two meanings, the original inflexion expresses one, the English inflexion another—genius,genii, often (spirits),geniuses(men of genius).
3. That it occurs with substantives only, and that only in the expression of number. Thus, although the plural of substantives likeaxisandgeniusare Latin, the possessive cases are English. So also are the degrees of comparison for adjectives, likecircular, and the tenses, &c. for verbs, likeperambulate.
§ 81. The following is a list of the chief Latin substantives introduced during the latter part of the fourth period; and preserving theLatinplural forms—
FIRST CLASS.
Words wherein the Latin plural is the same as the Latin singular.
SECOND CLASS.
Words wherein the Latin plural is formed from the Latin singular by changing the last syllable.
(a).—Where the singular termination-ais changed in the plural into-æ:—
(b).—Where the singular termination-usis changed in the plural into-i:—
(c).—Where the singular termination-umis changed in the plural into-a:—
(d).—Where the singular termination-isis changed in the plural into-es:—
THIRD CLASS.
Words wherein the plural is formed by inserting-ebetween the last two sounds of the singular, so that the former number always contains a syllable more than the latter:—
In all these words thecof the singular number is sounded ask; of the plural, ass.
§ 82. The following is a list of the chief Greeksubstantives lately introduced, and preserving theGreekplural forms—
FIRST CLASS.
Words where the singular termination-onis changed in the plural into-a:—
SECOND CLASS.
Words where the plural is formed from the original root by adding either -es or -a, but where the singular rejects the last letter of the original root.
§ 83.Miscellaneous elements.—Of miscellaneous elements we have two sorts; those that are incorporated in our language, and are currently understood (e.g., the Spanish wordsherry, the Arabic wordalkali, and the Persian wordturban), and those that, even amongst the educated, are considered strangers. Of this latter kind(amongst many others) are the oriental wordshummum,kaftan,gul, &c.
Of the currently understood miscellaneous elements of the English language, the most important are from the French; some of which agree with those of the Latin of the fourth period, and the Greek, in preserving theFrenchplural forms—asbeau,beaux,billets-doux.
Italian.—Some words of Italian origin do the same; asvirtuoso,virtuosi.
Hebrew.—The Hebrew words,cherubandseraphdo the same; the formcherub-im, andseraph-imbeing not only plurals but Hebrew plurals.
Beyond the words derived from these five languages, none form their plural other than after the English method,i.e., in-s, aswaltzes, from theGermanwordwaltz.
§ 84. Hence we have a measure of the extent to which a language, which, like the English, at one and the same time requires names for many objects, comes in contact with the tongues of half the world, and has moreover, a great power of incorporating foreign elements, derives fresh words from varied sources; as may be seen from the following incomplete notice of the languages which have, in different degrees, supplied it with new terms.
Arabic.—Admiral, alchemist, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, alembic, algebra, alkali, assassin.
Persian.—Turban, caravan, dervise, &c.
Turkish.—Coffee, bashaw, divan, scimitar, janisary, &c.
Hindoo languages.—Calico, chintz, cowrie, curry, lac, muslin, toddy, &c.
Chinese.—Tea, bohea, congou, hyson, soy, nankin &c.
Malay.—Bantam (fowl), gamboge, rattan, sago, shaddock, &c.
Polynesian.—Taboo, tattoo.
Tungusian or some similar Siberian language.—Mammoth, the bones of which are chiefly from the banks of the Lena.
North American Indian.—Squaw, wigwam, pemmican.
Peruvian.—Charki = prepared meat; whencejerkedbeef.
Caribbean.—Hammock.
§ 85. A distinction is drawn between thedirectandindirect, the latter leading to theultimate originof words.
Thus a word borrowed into the English from the French, might have been borrowed into the French from the Latin, into the Latin from the Greek, into the Greek from the Persian, &c., and soad infinitum.
The investigation of this is a matter of literary curiosity rather than any important branch of philology.
The ultimate known origin of many common words sometimes goes back to a great date, and points to extinct languages—
Ancient Nubian.—Barbarous.
Ancient Egyptian.—Ammonia.
Ancient Syrian.—Cyder.
Ancient Lycian.—Pandar.
Ancient Lydian.—Mæander.
Ancient Persian.—Paradise.
§ 86. Again, a word from a given language may be introduced by more lines than one; or it may be introduced twice over; once at an earlier, and again at a later period. In such a case its form will, most probably, vary; and, what is more, its meaning as well.Words of this sort may be calleddi-morphic, theirdimorphismhaving originated in one of two reasons—a difference of channel or a difference of date. Instances of the first are,syrup,sherbet, andshrub, all originally from theArabic,srb; but introduced differently, viz., the first through the Latin, the second through the Persian, and the third through the Hindoo. Instances of the second are words likeminster, introduced during the Anglo-Saxon, as contrasted withmonastery, introduced during the Anglo-Norman period. By the proper application of these processes, we account for words so different in present form, yet so identical in origin, aspriestandpresbyter,episcopalandbishop,&c.
§ 87.Distinction.—The history of the languages that have been spoken in a particular country, is a different subject from the history of a particular language. The history of the languages that have been spoken in the United States of America, is the history ofIndianlanguages. The history of thelanguageof the United States is the history of a Germanic language.
§ 88.Words of foreign simulating a vernacular origin.—These may occur in any mixed language whatever; they occur, however, oftener in the English than in any other.
Let a word be introduced from a foreign language—let it have some resemblance in sound to a real English term: lastly, let the meanings of the two words be not absolutely incompatible. We may then have a word of foreign origin taking the appearance of an English one. Such, amongst others, arebeef-eater, frombœuffetier;sparrow-grass,asparagus;Shotover,Chateauvert;[35]Jerusalem,Girasole;[36]Spanish beefeater,spinabifida;periwig,peruke;runagate,renegade;lutestring,lustrino;[37]O yes,Oyez!ancient,ensign.[38]
Dog-cheap.—This has nothing to do withdogs. The first syllabic isgod=goodtransposed, and the second thech-pinchapman( =merchant)cheap, andEastcheap. In Sir J. Mandeville, we findgod-kepe=good bargain.
Sky-larking.—Nothing to do withlarksof any sort; still less the particular species,alauda arvensis. The word improperly speltl-a-r-k, and banished to the slang regions of the English language, is the Anglo-Saxonlác=game, orsport; wherein the a is sounded as infather(not as infarther).Lek=game, in the present Scandinavian languages.
Zachary Macaulay=Zumalacarregui;Billy Ruffian=Bellerophon;Sir Roger Dowlas=Surajah Dowlah, although so limited to the common soldiers and sailors, who first used them, as to be exploded vulgarisms rather than integral parts of the language, are examples of the same tendency towards the irregular accommodation of misunderstood foreign terms.
Birdbolt.—An incorrect name for thegadus lota, oreel-pout, and a transformation ofbarbote.
Whistle-fish.—The same forgadus mustela, orweasel-fish.
Liquorice=glycyrrhiza.
Wormwood=weremuth, is an instance of a word from the same language, in an antiquated shape, being equally transformed with a word of really foreign origin.
§ 89. Sometimes the transformation of thenamehas engendered a change in the object to which it applies, or, at least, has evolved new ideas in connection with it. How easy for a person who used the wordsbeef-eater,sparrow-grass, orJerusalem, to believe that the officers designated by the former either eat or used to eat more beef than any other people, that the second word was the name for agrassor herb of whichsparrowswere fond; and thatJerusalemartichokes came from Palestine.
What has just been supposed has sometimes a real occurrence. To account for the name ofShotover-hill, I have heard that Little Johnshot overit. Here the confusion, in order to set itself right, breeds a fiction. Again, in chess, the piece now called thequeen, was originally theelephant. This was in Persian,ferz. In French it becamevierge, which, in time, came to be mistaken for a derivative, andvirgo=the virgin,the lady,the queen.
§ 90. Sometimes, where the form of a word in respect to itssoundis not affected, a false spirit of accommodation introduces an unetymologicalspelling; asfrontispiece, fromfrontispecium,sovereign, fromsovrano,colleaguefromcollega,lanthorn(old orthography) fromlanterna.
The value of forms like these consists in their showing that language is affected by false etymologies as well as by true ones.
§ 91. Inlambkinandlancet, the final syllables (-kinand-et) have the same power. They both express the idea of smallness or diminutiveness. These words are but two out of a multitude, the one (lamb) being of Saxon, the other (lance) of Norman origin. The same is the case with the superadded syllables:-kinbeing Saxon;-etNorman. Now to add a Saxon termination to a Norman word, orvice versâ, is to corrupt the English language.
This leads to some observation respecting the—
§ 92.Introduction of new words and Hybridism.—Hybridism is a term derived fromhybrid-a,a mongrel; a Latin wordof Greek extraction.
The terminations-ize(as incriticize),-ism(as incriticism),-ic(as incomic)—these, amongst many others, are Greek terminations. To add them to words not of Greek origin is to be guilty of hybridism. Hence,witticismis objectionable.
The terminations-ble(as inpenetrable),-bility(as inpenetrability),-al(as inparental)—these, amongst many others, are Latin terminations. To add them to words not of Latin origin is to be guilty of hybridism.
Hybridism is the commonest fault that accompanies the introduction of new words. The hybrid additions to the English language are most numerous in works on science.
It must not, however, be concealed that several well established words are hybrid; and that, even in the writings of the classical Roman authors, there is hybridism between the Latin and the Greek.
Nevertheless, the etymological view of every word of foreign origin is, not that it is put together in England, but that it is brought whole from the language to which it is vernacular. Now no derived word can be brought whole from a language unless, in that language, all its parts exist. The wordpenetrabilityis not derived from the English wordpenetrable, by the addition of-ty. It is the Latin wordpenetrabilitasimported.
In derived words all the parts must belong to one and the same language, or, changing the expression,every derived word must have a possible form in the language from which it is taken. Such is the rule against hybridism.