CHAPTER XXVIII.

Clay! not dead but soulless,Though no mortal man would choose thee,An immortal no lessDeignsnot to refusethee.

Clay! not dead but soulless,

Though no mortal man would choose thee,

An immortal no less

Deignsnot to refusethee.

Herenot to refuse=to accept;and is probably a Grecism.To not refusewould, perhaps, be better.

The next expression is still more foreign to the English idiom:—

Fornotto have been dipped in Lethe's lakeCould savethe son of Thetis from to die.

Fornotto have been dipped in Lethe's lake

Could savethe son of Thetis from to die.

Herenotis to be taken withcould.

§ 517. In the present English, two negatives make an affirmative.I have not not seen him=I have seen him. In Greek this was not the case.Duæ aut plures negativæ apud Græcos vehementius negantis a well known rule. The Anglo-Saxon idiom differed from the English and coincided with the Greek. The French negative is only apparently double; words likepoint,pas, mean notnot, butat all.Je ne parle pas=I not speak at all, notI not speak no.

§ 518.Questions of appeal.—All questions imply want of information; want of information may then imply doubt; doubt, perplexity; and perplexity the absence of an alternative. In this way, what are called, by Mr. Arnold,[65]questions of appeal, are, practically speaking,negatives.What should I do?when asked in extreme perplexity, means that nothing can well be done. In the following passage we have the presence of a question instead of a negative:—

Or hear'st thou (cluis, Lat.) rather pure ethereal stream,Whose fountain who (no one) shall tell?—Paradise Lost.

Or hear'st thou (cluis, Lat.) rather pure ethereal stream,

Whose fountain who (no one) shall tell?—Paradise Lost.

ON THE CASE ABSOLUTE.

§ 519. Broadly speaking, all adverbial constructions are absolute. The term, however, is conveniently limited to a particular combination of the noun, verb, and participle. When two actions are connected with each other, either by the fact of their simultaneous occurrence, or as cause and effect, they may be expressed within the limits of a single proposition, by expressing the one by means of a verb, and the other by means of a noun and participle agreeing with each other.The door being open, the horse was stolen.

Considering the nature of the connection between the two actions, we find good grounds for expectingà priorithat the participle will be in the instrumental case, when such exists in the language: and when not, in some case allied to it,i.e., the ablative or dative.

In Latin the ablative is the case that is used absolutely.Sole orto, claruit dies.

In Anglo-Saxon the absolute case was the dative. This is logical.

In the present English, however, the nominative is the absolute case.He made the best proverbs, him alone excepted, is an expression of Tillotson's. We should now writehe alone excepted. The present mode of expressionis only to be justified by considering the nominative form to be a dative one, just as in the expressionyou are here, the wordyou, although an accusative, is considered as a nominative. A real nominative absolute is as illogical as a real accusative case governing a verb.

PROSODY.

§ 520. The wordProsodyis derived from a Greek word (prosodia) signifyingaccent. It is used by Latin and English grammarians in a wider sense, and includes not only the doctrines of accent and quantity, but also the laws of metre and versification.

§ 521. Observe the accents in the following lines:—

Then fáre thee wéll, mine ówn dear lóve,The wórld hath nów for úsNo greáter griéf, no paín abóveThe paín of párting thús.—Moore.

Then fáre thee wéll, mine ówn dear lóve,

The wórld hath nów for ús

No greáter griéf, no paín abóve

The paín of párting thús.—Moore.

Here the syllables accented are the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 8th, 10th, 12th, 14th, 16th, 18th, 20th, 22nd, 24th, 26th, 28th; that is, every other syllable.—Again,

At the clóse of the dáy, when the hámlet is stíll,And the mórtals the sweéts of forgétfulness próve,And when nóught but the tórrent is heárd on the híll,And there's nóught but the níghtingale's sóng in the gróve.—Beattie.

At the clóse of the dáy, when the hámlet is stíll,

And the mórtals the sweéts of forgétfulness próve,

And when nóught but the tórrent is heárd on the híll,

And there's nóught but the níghtingale's sóng in the gróve.—Beattie.

Here the syllables accented are the 3rd, 6th, 9th, 12th, 15th, 18th, 21st, 24th, 27th, 30th, 33rd, 36th, 39th, 42nd, 45th, 48th; that is, every third syllable.

§ 522.Metre is a general term for the recurrencewithin certain intervals of syllables similarly affected.The syllables that have just been numbered are similarly affected, being similarly accented. Accent is not the only quality of a syllable, which by returning at regular intervals can constitute metre. It is the one, however, upon which English metre depends. English metre essentially consists in the regular recurrence of syllables similarlyaccented.

Abbot.—And whý not líve and áct with óther mén?Manfred.—Becaúse my náture wás avérse from lífe;And yét not crúel, fór I woúld not máke,But fínd a désolátion:—líke the wínd,The réd-hot breáth of thé most lóne simoóm,Which dwélls but ín the désert, ánd sweeps o'érThe bárren sánds which beár no shrúbs to blást,And révels ó'er their wíld and árid wáves,And seéketh nót so thát it ís not soúght,But béing mét is deádly: súch hath beénThe páth of mý exístence.—Byron.

Abbot.—And whý not líve and áct with óther mén?

Manfred.—Becaúse my náture wás avérse from lífe;And yét not crúel, fór I woúld not máke,But fínd a désolátion:—líke the wínd,The réd-hot breáth of thé most lóne simoóm,Which dwélls but ín the désert, ánd sweeps o'érThe bárren sánds which beár no shrúbs to blást,And révels ó'er their wíld and árid wáves,And seéketh nót so thát it ís not soúght,But béing mét is deádly: súch hath beénThe páth of mý exístence.—Byron.

Manfred.—Becaúse my náture wás avérse from lífe;

And yét not crúel, fór I woúld not máke,

But fínd a désolátion:—líke the wínd,

The réd-hot breáth of thé most lóne simoóm,

Which dwélls but ín the désert, ánd sweeps o'ér

The bárren sánds which beár no shrúbs to blást,

And révels ó'er their wíld and árid wáves,

And seéketh nót so thát it ís not soúght,

But béing mét is deádly: súch hath beén

The páth of mý exístence.—Byron.

§ 523.Measures.—For every accented syllable in the following line, write the lettera, and for every unaccented one, the letterx, so thatamay stand for an accent,xfor the absence of one—

The wáy was lóng, the wínd was cóld.—Scott.

or expressed symbolically

x a x a x a x a,

wherexcoincides withthe,awithway, &c.

§ 524. Determine the length of the line in question.—It is plain that this may be done in two ways. We may either measure by the syllables, and say that the line consists of eight syllables; or by the accents, and say that it consists of four accents. In this latter case we take the accented syllable with its correspondingunaccented one, and, grouping the two together, deal with the pair at once. Now, a group of syllables thus taken together is called ameasure. In the line in questionthe way(x a) is one measure,was long(x a) another, and so on throughout; the line itself consisting of four measures.

§ 525.Trisyllabic measures.—The number of measures consisting of two syllables, or dissyllabic measures, is necessarily limited to two, expresseda xandx arespectively. But beyond these there are in the English language measures of three syllables, or trisyllabic measures. The number of these is necessarily limited to three.

The first of these is exhibited in the wordmérrily(a x x).

Mérrily, mérrily sháll I live nów,Únder the blóssom that hángs on the boúgh.—Shakspeare.

Mérrily, mérrily sháll I live nów,

Únder the blóssom that hángs on the boúgh.—Shakspeare.

The second is exhibited by the worddisáble(x a x).

But vaínly thou wárrest,For thís is alóne inThy pówer to decláre,That ín the dim fórestThou heárd'st a low moáning,And sáw'st a bright lády surpássingly faír.—Coleridge.

But vaínly thou wárrest,

For thís is alóne in

Thy pówer to decláre,

That ín the dim fórest

Thou heárd'st a low moáning,

And sáw'st a bright lády surpássingly faír.—Coleridge.

§ 526. The third is exhibited by the wordcavaliér(x x a).

There's a beaúty for éver unfádingly bríght,Like the lóng ruddy lápse of a súmmer-day's níght.—Moore.

There's a beaúty for éver unfádingly bríght,

Like the lóng ruddy lápse of a súmmer-day's níght.—Moore.

When grouped together according to certain rules, measures form lines and verses; and lines and verses,regularly arranged, constitute couplets, triplets, and stanzas, &c.

§ 527. The expression of measures, lines, &c., by such symbols asa x,x a, &c., ismetrical notation.

§ 528.Rhyme.—We can have English verse withoutrhyme. We cannot have English verse withoutaccent. Hence accent is anessential; rhyme anaccessoryto metre.

§ 529.Analysis of a pair of rhyming syllables.—Let the syllablestoldandboldbe taken to pieces, and let the separate parts of each be compared. Viewed in reference to metre, they consist of three parts or elements: 1. the vowel (o); 2. the partprecedingthe vowel (tandbrespectively); 3. the partsfollowingthe vowel (ld). Now the vowel (o) and the parts following the vowel (ld) are alike in both words (old); but the part preceding the vowel is different in the different words (told,bold). This difference between the parts preceding the vowels is essential; since, if it were not for this, the two words would be identical, or rather there would be but one word altogether. This is the case withIandeye. Sound for sound (although different in spelling) the two words are identical, and, consequently, the rhyme is faulty.

Again—compared with the wordsboldandtold, the wordsteethandbreezehave two of the elements necessary to constitute a rhyme. The vowels are alike (ee), whilst the parts preceding the vowels are different (brandt); and, as far as these two matters are concerned, the rhyme is a good one,teeandbree. Notwithstanding this, there is anything rather than a rhyme; since the parts following the vowel (thandze) instead of agreeing, differ.Breatheandbeneathare in the samepredicament, because thethis not sounded alike in the two words.

Again—the wordsfeelandmillconstitute only a false and imperfect rhyme. Sound for sound, the lettersfandm(the parts preceding the vowel) are different. This is as it should be. Also, sound for sound,landll(the parts following the vowel) are identical; and this is as it should be also: buteeandi(the vowels) are different, and this difference spoils the rhyme.Noneandownare in the same predicament; since oneois sounded asoinnote, and the other as theuinbut.

From what has gone before we get the notion of true and perfect rhymes as opposed to false and imperfect ones. For two (or more) words to rhyme to each other, it is necessary

a.That the vowel be the same in both.b.That the parts following the vowel be the same.c.That the parts preceding the vowel be different.

a.That the vowel be the same in both.

b.That the parts following the vowel be the same.

c.That the parts preceding the vowel be different.

Beyond this it is necessary that the syllables, to form a full and perfect rhyme, should be accented syllables.Skyandlieform good rhymes, butskyand merrilybad ones, andmerrilyandsillyworse. Lines like the second and fourth of the following stanza are slightly exceptionable on this score: indeed, many readers sacrifice the accent in the wordmérrilyto the rhyme, and pronounce itmerrilý.

The wítch she héld the haír in her hánd,The réd flame blázed hígh;And roúnd aboút the cáldron stoút,They dánced right mérrilý.—Kirke White.

The wítch she héld the haír in her hánd,

The réd flame blázed hígh;

And roúnd aboút the cáldron stoút,

They dánced right mérrilý.—Kirke White.

§ 530. In matters of rhyme the letterhcounts as nothing.HighandI,hairandair, are imperfectrhymes, becauseh(being no articulate sound) counts as nothing, and so the parts before the voweliandaare not different (as they ought to be) but identical.

Whose generous children narrow'd not their heartsWith commerce, giv'n alone to arms and arts.—Byron.

Whose generous children narrow'd not their hearts

With commerce, giv'n alone to arms and arts.—Byron.

§ 531. Words where the letters coincide, but the sounds differ, are only rhymes to the eye.Breatheandbeneathare both in this predicament; so also areceaseandease(eaze).

In the fat age of pleasure, wealth, and ease,Sprang the rank weed, and thrived with large increase.—Pope.

In the fat age of pleasure, wealth, and ease,

Sprang the rank weed, and thrived with large increase.—Pope.

§ 532. If the sounds coincide, the difference of the letters is unimportant.

Bold in the practice of mistaken rules,Prescribe, apply, and call their masters fools.They talk of principles, but notions prize,And all to one loved folly sacrifice.—Pope.

Bold in the practice of mistaken rules,

Prescribe, apply, and call their masters fools.

They talk of principles, but notions prize,

And all to one loved folly sacrifice.—Pope.

§ 533.Single rhymes.—An accented syllable standing by itself, and coming under the conditions given above, constitutes a single rhyme.

'Tis hard to say if greater want ofskillAppear in writing or in judgingill;But of the two, less dangerous is the offenceTo tire the patience than mislead thesense.Some few in that, but thousands err inthis;Ten censure wrong, for one that writes amiss.—Pope.

'Tis hard to say if greater want ofskill

Appear in writing or in judgingill;

But of the two, less dangerous is the offence

To tire the patience than mislead thesense.

Some few in that, but thousands err inthis;

Ten censure wrong, for one that writes amiss.—Pope.

§ 534.Double rhymes.—An accented syllable followed by an unaccented one, and coming under the conditions given above, constitutes a double rhyme.

The meeting points the sacred hair disseverFrom her fair head for ever and forever.—Pope.Prove and explain a thing till all mendoubt it,And write about it, Goddess, andabout it.—Pope.

The meeting points the sacred hair disseverFrom her fair head for ever and forever.—Pope.

The meeting points the sacred hair dissever

From her fair head for ever and forever.—Pope.

Prove and explain a thing till all mendoubt it,And write about it, Goddess, andabout it.—Pope.

Prove and explain a thing till all mendoubt it,

And write about it, Goddess, andabout it.—Pope.

§ 535. An accented syllable followed by two unaccented ones, and coming under the conditions given above, constitutes a treble rhyme.

Beware that its fatal ascéndancyDo not tempt thee to mope and repine;With a humble and hopeful depéndencyStill await the good pleasure divine.Success in a higher beátitude,Is the end of what's under the Pole;A philosopher takes it withgrátitude,And believes it the best on the whole.—Byron.

Beware that its fatal ascéndancy

Do not tempt thee to mope and repine;

With a humble and hopeful depéndency

Still await the good pleasure divine.

Success in a higher beátitude,

Is the end of what's under the Pole;

A philosopher takes it withgrátitude,

And believes it the best on the whole.—Byron.

§ 536. Metres where there is no rhyme are called blank metres.

Of man's first disobedience and the fruitOf that forbidden tree, whose mortal tasteBrought death into the world and all our woe,With loss of Eden, till one greater ManRestore us, and regain the blissful seat,Sing, Heavenly Muse!—Milton.The quality of mercy is not strained.It droppeth as the gentle dew from heavenUpon the place beneath; it is twice bless'd,It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes'Tis mightiest of the mighty, it becomesThe throned monarch better than his crown.His sceptre shows the force of temporal power,The attribute of awe and majesty,Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings:But mercy is above this sceptred sway;It is enthroned in the hearts of kings:It is an attribute to God himself;And earthly power doth then show likest God's,When mercy seasons justice.—Shakspeare.

Of man's first disobedience and the fruit

Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste

Brought death into the world and all our woe,

With loss of Eden, till one greater Man

Restore us, and regain the blissful seat,

Sing, Heavenly Muse!—Milton.

The quality of mercy is not strained.It droppeth as the gentle dew from heavenUpon the place beneath; it is twice bless'd,It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes'Tis mightiest of the mighty, it becomesThe throned monarch better than his crown.His sceptre shows the force of temporal power,The attribute of awe and majesty,Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings:But mercy is above this sceptred sway;It is enthroned in the hearts of kings:It is an attribute to God himself;And earthly power doth then show likest God's,When mercy seasons justice.—Shakspeare.

The quality of mercy is not strained.

It droppeth as the gentle dew from heaven

Upon the place beneath; it is twice bless'd,

It blesseth him that gives, and him that takes

'Tis mightiest of the mighty, it becomes

The throned monarch better than his crown.

His sceptre shows the force of temporal power,

The attribute of awe and majesty,

Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings:

But mercy is above this sceptred sway;

It is enthroned in the hearts of kings:

It is an attribute to God himself;

And earthly power doth then show likest God's,

When mercy seasons justice.—Shakspeare.

§ 537.The last measure in a line or verse is indifferent as to its length.—By referring to the section upon single rhymes, we shall find that the number of syllables is just double the number of accents; that is, to each accented there is one unaccented syllable, and no more. Hence, with five accents, there are to each line ten syllables. This is not the case with all verses. Some rhymes are double, and the last accented syllable has two unaccented ones to follow it. Hence, with five accents there are to each line eleven syllables. Now it is in the last measure that this supernumerary unaccented syllable appears; and it is a general rule, that, in the last measure of any verse, supernumerary unaccented syllables can be admitted without destroying the original character of the measure.

§ 538. See the verses in the section on double rhymes. Here the original character of the measure isx athroughout, until we get to the wordsdisséverandfor éver, and afterwards tomen doúbt it, andaboút it. At the first view it seems proper to say that in these last-mentioned casesx ais converted intox a x. A different view, however, is the more correct one.Disséverandfor éver, are ratherx awith a syllable over. This extra syllable may be expressed by the signplus( + ), so that the words in point may be expressed byx a+, rather than byx a x. It is very clear that a measure whereof the last syllable is accented (that is, measures likex a,presúme, orx x a,cavalíer), can onlyvary from their original character on the side of excess; that is, they can only be altered by the addition of fresh syllables. To subtract a syllable from such feet is impossible; since it is only the last syllable that is capable of being subtracted. If that last syllable, however, be the accented syllable of the measure, the whole measure is annihilated. Nothing remains but the unaccented syllable preceding; and this, as no measure can subsist without an accent, must be counted as a supernumerary part of the preceding measure.

§ 539. With the measuresa x,a x x,x a x, the case is different. Here there is room for syllable or syllables to be subtracted.

Queén and húntress, cháste and faír,Nów the sún is laíd to sléep,Seated ín thy sílver chaír,Státe in wónted spléndour keép.Hésperús invókes thy líght,Góddess, éxquisítely bríght.—Ben Jonson.

Queén and húntress, cháste and faír,

Nów the sún is laíd to sléep,

Seated ín thy sílver chaír,

Státe in wónted spléndour keép.

Hésperús invókes thy líght,

Góddess, éxquisítely bríght.—Ben Jonson.

In all these lines the last measure is deficient in a syllable, yet the deficiency is allowable, because each measure is the last one of the line. The formula for expressingfaír,sléep,chaír, &c. is nota, but rathera xfollowed by theminussign (-), ora x-.

A little consideration will show that amongst the English measures,x aandx x anaturally form single,a xandx a xdouble, anda x xtreble rhymes.

§ 540. The chief metres in English are of the formulax a. It is only a few that are known by fixed names. These are as follows:—

1.Gay's stanza.—Lines of three measures,x a, with alternate rhymes. The odd (i.e.the 1st and 3rd) rhymes double.

'Twas when the seas were roaringWith hollow blasts of wind,A damsel lay deploring,All on a rock reclined.

'Twas when the seas were roaring

With hollow blasts of wind,

A damsel lay deploring,

All on a rock reclined.

2.Common octosyllabics.—Four measures,x a, with rhyme, and (unless the rhymes be double) eight syllables (octo syllabæ).—Butler's Hudibras, Scott's poems, The Giaour, and other poems of Lord Byron.

3.Elegiac octosyllabics.—Same as the last, except that the rhymes are regularly alternate, and the verses arranged in stanzas.

And on her lover's arm she leant,And round her waist she felt it fold,And far across the hills they went,In that new world which now is old:Across the hills and far away,Beyond their utmost purple rim,And deep into the dying dayThe happy princess follow'd him.—Tennyson.

And on her lover's arm she leant,

And round her waist she felt it fold,

And far across the hills they went,

In that new world which now is old:

Across the hills and far away,

Beyond their utmost purple rim,

And deep into the dying day

The happy princess follow'd him.—Tennyson.

4.Octosyllabic triplets.—Three rhymes in succession. Generally arranged as stanzas.

I blest them, and they wander'd on;I spoke, but answer came there none;The dull and bitter voice was gone.—Tennyson.

I blest them, and they wander'd on;

I spoke, but answer came there none;

The dull and bitter voice was gone.—Tennyson.

5.Blank verse.—Fivemeasures,x a, without rhyme, Paradise Lost, Young's Night Thoughts, Cowper's Task.

6.Heroic couplets.—Five measures,x a, with pairs of rhymes. Chaucer, Denham, Dryden, Waller, Pope, Goldsmith, Cowper, Byron, Moore, Shelley, &c. This is the common metre for narrative, didactic, and descriptive poetry.

7.Heroic triplets.—Five measures,x a. Three rhymes in succession. Arranged in stanzas. This metre is sometimes interposed among heroic couplets.

8.Elegiacs.—Five measures,x a; with regularly alternate rhymes, and arranged in stanzas.

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,The lowing herds wind slowly o'er the lea,The ploughman homewards plods his weary way,And leaves theworldto darkness and to me.—Gray.

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day,

The lowing herds wind slowly o'er the lea,

The ploughman homewards plods his weary way,

And leaves theworldto darkness and to me.—Gray.

9.Rhymes royal.—Seven lines of heroics, with the last two rhymes in succession, and the first five recurring at intervals.

This Troilus, in gift of curtesie,With hauk on hond, and with a huge routOf knightes, rode, and did her company,Passing all through the valley far about;And further would have ridden out of doubt.Full faine and woe was him to gone so sone;But turn he must, and it was eke to doen.—Chaucer.

This Troilus, in gift of curtesie,

With hauk on hond, and with a huge rout

Of knightes, rode, and did her company,

Passing all through the valley far about;

And further would have ridden out of doubt.

Full faine and woe was him to gone so sone;

But turn he must, and it was eke to doen.—Chaucer.

This metre was common with the writers of the earlier part of Queen Elizabeth's reign. It admits of varieties according to the distribution of the first five rhymes.

10.Ottava rima.—A metre with an Italian name, and borrowed from Italy, where it is used generally for narrative poetry. The Morgante Maggiore of Pulci, the Orlando Innamorato of Bojardo, the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto, the Gierusalemme Liberata of Tasso, are all written in this metre. Besides this, the two chief epics of Spain and Portugal respectively (the Auraucana and the Lusiados) are thus composed. Hence it is a form of poetry which is Continental rather thanEnglish, and naturalized rather than indigenous. The stanza consists of eight lines of heroics, the six first rhyming alternately, the last two in succession.

Arrived there, a prodigious noise he hears,Which suddenly along the forest spread;Whereat from out his quiver he preparesAn arrow for his bow, and lifts his head;And, lo! a monstrous herd of swine appears,And onward rushes with tempestuous tread,And to the fountain's brink precisely pours,So that the giant's join'd by all the boars.Morgante Maggiore(Ld. Byron'sTranslation.)

Arrived there, a prodigious noise he hears,

Which suddenly along the forest spread;

Whereat from out his quiver he prepares

An arrow for his bow, and lifts his head;

And, lo! a monstrous herd of swine appears,

And onward rushes with tempestuous tread,

And to the fountain's brink precisely pours,

So that the giant's join'd by all the boars.

Morgante Maggiore(Ld. Byron'sTranslation.)

11.Terza rima.—Like the last, borrowed both in name and nature from the Italian, and scarcely yet naturalized in England.

The Spirit of the fervent days of old,When words were things that came to pass, and ThoughtFlash'd o'er the future, bidding men beholdTheir children's children's doom already broughtForth from the abyss of Time which is to be,The chaos of events where lie half-wroughtShapes that must undergo mortality:What the great seers of Israel wore within,That Spirit was on them and is on me:And if, Cassandra-like, amidst the dinOf conflicts, none will hear, or hearing heedThis voice from out the wilderness, the sinBe theirs, and my own feelings be my meed,The only guerdon I have ever known.

The Spirit of the fervent days of old,

When words were things that came to pass, and Thought

Flash'd o'er the future, bidding men behold

Their children's children's doom already brought

Forth from the abyss of Time which is to be,

The chaos of events where lie half-wrought

Shapes that must undergo mortality:

What the great seers of Israel wore within,

That Spirit was on them and is on me:

And if, Cassandra-like, amidst the din

Of conflicts, none will hear, or hearing heed

This voice from out the wilderness, the sin

Be theirs, and my own feelings be my meed,

The only guerdon I have ever known.

12.Alexandrines.—Six measures,x a, generally (perhaps always) with rhyme. The name is said to be taken from the fact that early romances upon the deeds of Alexander of Macedon, of great popularity, were written in this metre. One of the longest poems in theEnglish language is in the Alexandrines,viz.Drayton's Poly-olbion, quoted above.

13.Spenserian stanza.—A stanza consisting of nine lines, the first eight heroics, the last an Alexandrine.

It hath been through all ages ever seen,That with the prize of arms and chivalrieThe prize of beauty still hath joined been,And that for reason's special privitie;For either doth on other much rely.For he meseems most fit the fair to serveThat can her best defend from villanie;And she most fit his service doth deserve,That fairest is, and from her faith will never swerve.—Spenser.

It hath been through all ages ever seen,

That with the prize of arms and chivalrie

The prize of beauty still hath joined been,

And that for reason's special privitie;

For either doth on other much rely.

For he meseems most fit the fair to serve

That can her best defend from villanie;

And she most fit his service doth deserve,

That fairest is, and from her faith will never swerve.—Spenser.

Childe Harold and other important poems are composed in the Spenserian stanza.

14.Service metre.—Couplets of seven measures,x a. This is the common metre of the Psalm versions. It is also called common measure, or long measure. In this metre there is always a pause after the fourth measure, and many grammarians consider that with that pause the line ends. According to this view, the service metre does not consist of two long lines with seven measures each; but of four short ones, with four and three measures each alternately. The Psalm versions are printed so as to exhibit this pause or break.

The Lord descended from above, | and bow'd the heavens most high,And underneath his feet He cast | the darkness of the sky.On Cherubs and on Seraphim | full royally He rode,And on the wings of mighty winds | came flying all abroad.—Sternhold and Hopkins.

The Lord descended from above, | and bow'd the heavens most high,

And underneath his feet He cast | the darkness of the sky.

On Cherubs and on Seraphim | full royally He rode,

And on the wings of mighty winds | came flying all abroad.—Sternhold and Hopkins.

In this matter the following distinction is convenient. When the last syllable of the fourth measure (i.e.the eighth syllable in the line) in the one verserhymeswiththe corresponding syllable in the other, the long verse should be looked upon as broken up into two short ones; in other words, the couplets should be dealt with as a stanza. Where there is no rhyme except at the seventh measure, the verse should remain undivided. Thus:

Turn, gentle hermit of the glen, | and guide thy lonely wayTo where yon taper cheers the vale | with hospitable ray—

Turn, gentle hermit of the glen, | and guide thy lonely way

To where yon taper cheers the vale | with hospitable ray—

constitute a single couplet of two lines, the number of rhymes being two. But,

Turn, gentle hermit of the dale,And guide thy lonely wayTo where yon taper cheers the valeWith hospitable ray—(Goldsmith)

Turn, gentle hermit of the dale,

And guide thy lonely way

To where yon taper cheers the vale

With hospitable ray—(Goldsmith)

constitute a stanza of four lines, the number of rhymes being four.

15.Ballad stanza.—Service metre broken up in the way just indicated. Goldsmith's Edwin and Angelina, &c.

16.Poulterer's measure.—Alexandrines and service metre alternately. Found in the poetry of Henry the Eighth's time.

THE DIALECTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

§ 541. Certain parts of England are named as if their population were preeminentlySaxonrather thanAngle;viz., Wes-sex( = WestSaxons), Es-sex( = EastSaxons), Sus-sex( = SouthSaxons), and Middle-sex, ( = MiddleSaxons).

Others are named as if their population were preeminentlyAnglerather thanSaxon; thus, the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk once constituted the kingdom of the East Angles, and even at the present moment, are often spoken of asEast Anglia.

§ 542. It is safe to say that the dialects of the English language donotcoincide with the distribution of these terms. That parts of the Angle differ from parts of the Saxon districts in respect to the character of their provincialisms is true; but it is by no means evident that they differ on that account.

Thus, that the dialect of Hampshire, which was part of Wes-sex, should differ from that of Norfolk, which was part of EastAnglia, is but natural. There is a great space of country between them—a fact sufficient to account for their respective characteristics, without assuming an original difference of population. Between theSaxonsof Es-sexand theAngliansof Suffolk, no one has professed to find any notable difference.

Hence, no division of the English dialects into those ofSaxonor those ofAngleorigin, has been successful.

Neither have any peculiarities in the dialect of Kent, or the Isle of Wight, verified the notion of the population for those parts having been originallyJute.

Nor yet has any portion of England been shown by the evidence of its dialects, to have beenFrisian.

§ 543. Yet the solution of such problems is one of the great objects of the study of provincial modes of speech.

§ 544. ThatJutecharacteristics will be sought in vain is the inference from §§7-13.

That differential points between theAnglesandSaxonswill be sought in vain is also probable.

On the other hand, differential points between theFrisiansandAnglesare likely to be discovered.

§ 545. The traces of the Danes, or Northmen, are distinct; the following forms of local names beingprimâ facieevidence (at least) of Danish or Norse occupancy.

a.The combinationSk-, rather than the sound ofSh-, in such names asSkip-ton, rather thanShip-ton.

b.The combinationCa-, rather thanCh-, in such names asCarl-ton rather thanCharl-ton.

c.The termination-by( =town,habitation,occupancy,) rather than-ton, as Ash-by, Demble-by, Spills-by, Grims-by, &c.

d.The formKirkrather thanChurch.

e.The formOrmrather thanWorm, as inOrms-head.

InOrms-kirkandKir-bywe have a combination of Danish characteristics.

§ 546. In respect to their distribution, the Danish forms are—

At theirmaximumon the sea-coast of Lincolnshire;i.e., in the parts about Spills-by.

Common, but less frequent, in Yorkshire, the Northern counties of England, the South-eastern parts of Scotland, Lancashire, (Ormskirk, Horn-by), and parts of South Wales (Orms-head, Ten-by).

In Orkney, and the northern parts of Scotland, the Norse had originally the same influence that the Anglo-Saxon had in the south.—See the chapter of the Lowland Scotch.

This explains the peculiar distribution of the Norse forms. Rare, or non-existent, in central and southern England, they appear on the opposite sides of the island, and on its northern extremity; showing that the stream of the Norse population wentround the island rather than across it.

§ 547. Next to the search after traces of the original differences in the speech of the Continental invaders of Great Britain, the question as to the origin of thewrittenlanguage of England is the most important.

Mr. Guest has given good reasons for believing it to have arisen out of a Mercian, rather than a West-Saxon dialect—although of theAnglo-Saxonthe West-Saxon was the most cultivated form.

This is confirmed by the present state of the Mercian dialects.

The country about Huntingdon and Stamford is, in the mind of the present writer, that part of England where provincial peculiarities are at theminimum. This may be explained in various ways, of which none is preferable to the doctrine, that the dialect for those parts represents the dialect out of which the literary language of England became developed.

Such are the chief problems connected with the studyof the provincial dialects of England; the exhibition of the methods applicable to their investigation not being considered necessary in a work like the present.

NOTE.

ThatSaxonwas theBritishname of the Germanic invaders of Great Britain is certain.—See §45.The reasons which induce me to consider it asexclusivelyBritish,i.e., as foreign to the Angles, are as follows,—a.No clear distinction has ever been drawn between,e.g., anAngleof Suffolk, and aSaxonof Essex.b.The Romans who knew, for some parts at least, every inch of the land occupied by the Saxons of Germany, as long as there is reason for believing that they took their names from German sources, never use the word. It is strange to Cæsar, Strabo, Pliny, and Tacitus. Ptolemy is the first who uses it.c.Ecbert, who is said to have attached the name ofEngland, or Land ofAngles, to South Britain, was, himself, noAngle, but a West-Saxon.[66]

ThatSaxonwas theBritishname of the Germanic invaders of Great Britain is certain.—See §45.

The reasons which induce me to consider it asexclusivelyBritish,i.e., as foreign to the Angles, are as follows,—

a.No clear distinction has ever been drawn between,e.g., anAngleof Suffolk, and aSaxonof Essex.

b.The Romans who knew, for some parts at least, every inch of the land occupied by the Saxons of Germany, as long as there is reason for believing that they took their names from German sources, never use the word. It is strange to Cæsar, Strabo, Pliny, and Tacitus. Ptolemy is the first who uses it.

c.Ecbert, who is said to have attached the name ofEngland, or Land ofAngles, to South Britain, was, himself, noAngle, but a West-Saxon.[66]

Part IV.1. What is Johnson's explanation of the wordEtymology? Into what varieties does the study fall? What is the difference betweenEtymologyandSyntax?2. How far are the following words instances of gender—boy,he-goat,actress,which? Analyze the formswhat,her,its,vixen,spinster,gander,drake.3. How far is there a dual number in the Gothic tongues? What is the rule for forming such a plural asstagsfromstag? What are the peculiarities inmonarchs,cargoes,keys,pence,geese,children,women,houses,paths,leaves? Of what number are the wordsalms,physics,news,riches?4. To what extent have we in English a dative, an accusative, and instrumental case? Disprove the doctrine that the genitive in-s(the father's son) is formed out of the combinationfather his.5. Declineme,thee, andye.6. How far is there a true reflective pronoun in English?7. What were the original powers and forms ofshe,her,it? What case ishim? What is the power and origin ofthein such expressions asall the more? Declinehein Anglo-Saxon. Investigate the formstheseandthose,whose,what,whom,which,myself,himself,herself,such,every.8. What is the power (real or supposed) of the-erinover, and ineither?9. What words in the present English are explained by the following forms—sutizain Mœso-Gothic, andscearpor,neah,yldre, in Anglo-Saxon? Explain the forms,better,worse,more,less.10. Analyze the wordsformer,next,upmost,thirty,streamlet,sweetheart,duckling.11. TranslateIda wæs Eopping. Analyze the wordWales.12. Exhibit the extent to which the noun partakes of the characterof the verb, andvice versâ. What were the Anglo-Saxon forms of,I can call,I begin to call?13. Investigate the forms,drench,raise,use(the verb),clothe.14.Thou speakest. What is the peculiarity of the form?We loven,we love, account for this.15.Thou rannest= (tu cucurristi). Is this an unexceptionable form? if not, why?16. What are themoodsin English? What thetenses? How far is the division of verbs into weak and strong tenses natural? Account for the double formsswamandswum. Enumerate the other verbs in the same class. Explain the formstaught,wrought,ought,did, (fromdo=facio),did(fromdo=valeo),minded.17. Define the termirregular, so as to raise the number of irregular verbs, in English, to more than a hundred. Define the same term, so as to reduce them to none. Explain the formcould.18. What is the construction ofmeseemsandmethinks? Illustrate thefuturepower of be.Werdenin German meansbecome—in what form does the word appear in English?19.To err is human,—the risingin the North. Explain these constructions. Account for the second-rinforlorn; and for theyin ycleped.20. Explain the difference betweencompositeandde-compositewords,trueandimproper compounds. Analyze the wordnightingale.21. How far are adverbs inflected? Distinguish between aprepositionand aconjunction.22. Explain the formsthere,thence,yonder, andanon.23. What part of speech ismine?24. What is the probable origin of the-din such preterites as call-ed.Part V.1. Explain the termsSyntax,Ellipsis,Pleonasm,Zeugma,Pros to semainomenon,Apposition, andConvertibility, giving illustrations of each.2. What is the government of adjectives?3. What is the construction in—a.Robmethe Exchequer.—Shakspeare.b.Mountyeon horseback.c.Hismother.d.If the salt have losthissavour.e.Myselfisweak.f.This ismine.4. What are the concords between the relative and antecedent? How far is,whomdo they say that I am, an exceptionable expression?5.Eteocles and Polynices killed each other.What is the construction here?Ils se battaient, l'un l'autre—Ils se battaient, les uns les autres.Translate these two sentences into English.My wife and little ones are well.What is the origin of the wordoneshere?Itwasthose who spoke.Thesewasthose who spoke. Why is one of those expressions correct, and the other incorrect?6. What is the difference between—Thesecretary and treasurer,andThesecretary andthetreasurer?What is that between—The first two—andThe two first?7. What is the construction of—He sleeps the sleep of the righteous?8. Whether do you say—It is I your master who command you, or It is I your master who commands you!9. Barbican ithight. Translate this into Latin.10. Explain in full the following constructions—a.I have ridden a horse.b.I am to blame.c.I am beaten.d.A part of the body.e.All fled but John.11. What is meant by theSuccession of Tenses? Show the logical necessity of it.12.Orhear'stthou rather pure ethereal stream,Whose fountainwho cantell?—Milton.Give the meaning of this passage, and explain the figure of speech exhibited in the words in Italics.13. Thedoorbeing open the steed was stolen.—In what case isdoor?Part VI.1. The way was long, the wind was cold. Express the metre of this symbolically.2. Definerhyme.3. Give instances ofService metre,Blank heroics,Alexandrines.Part VII.1. How far do the present dialects of England coincide with the parts, that took their names from theAnglesand theSaxonsrespectively.2. What traces of Danish or Norse occupancy do we find in local names?

Part IV.

1. What is Johnson's explanation of the wordEtymology? Into what varieties does the study fall? What is the difference betweenEtymologyandSyntax?

2. How far are the following words instances of gender—boy,he-goat,actress,which? Analyze the formswhat,her,its,vixen,spinster,gander,drake.

3. How far is there a dual number in the Gothic tongues? What is the rule for forming such a plural asstagsfromstag? What are the peculiarities inmonarchs,cargoes,keys,pence,geese,children,women,houses,paths,leaves? Of what number are the wordsalms,physics,news,riches?

4. To what extent have we in English a dative, an accusative, and instrumental case? Disprove the doctrine that the genitive in-s(the father's son) is formed out of the combinationfather his.

5. Declineme,thee, andye.

6. How far is there a true reflective pronoun in English?

7. What were the original powers and forms ofshe,her,it? What case ishim? What is the power and origin ofthein such expressions asall the more? Declinehein Anglo-Saxon. Investigate the formstheseandthose,whose,what,whom,which,myself,himself,herself,such,every.

8. What is the power (real or supposed) of the-erinover, and ineither?

9. What words in the present English are explained by the following forms—sutizain Mœso-Gothic, andscearpor,neah,yldre, in Anglo-Saxon? Explain the forms,better,worse,more,less.

10. Analyze the wordsformer,next,upmost,thirty,streamlet,sweetheart,duckling.

11. TranslateIda wæs Eopping. Analyze the wordWales.

12. Exhibit the extent to which the noun partakes of the characterof the verb, andvice versâ. What were the Anglo-Saxon forms of,I can call,I begin to call?

13. Investigate the forms,drench,raise,use(the verb),clothe.

14.Thou speakest. What is the peculiarity of the form?We loven,we love, account for this.

15.Thou rannest= (tu cucurristi). Is this an unexceptionable form? if not, why?

16. What are themoodsin English? What thetenses? How far is the division of verbs into weak and strong tenses natural? Account for the double formsswamandswum. Enumerate the other verbs in the same class. Explain the formstaught,wrought,ought,did, (fromdo=facio),did(fromdo=valeo),minded.

17. Define the termirregular, so as to raise the number of irregular verbs, in English, to more than a hundred. Define the same term, so as to reduce them to none. Explain the formcould.

18. What is the construction ofmeseemsandmethinks? Illustrate thefuturepower of be.Werdenin German meansbecome—in what form does the word appear in English?

19.To err is human,—the risingin the North. Explain these constructions. Account for the second-rinforlorn; and for theyin ycleped.

20. Explain the difference betweencompositeandde-compositewords,trueandimproper compounds. Analyze the wordnightingale.

21. How far are adverbs inflected? Distinguish between aprepositionand aconjunction.

22. Explain the formsthere,thence,yonder, andanon.

23. What part of speech ismine?

24. What is the probable origin of the-din such preterites as call-ed.

Part V.

1. Explain the termsSyntax,Ellipsis,Pleonasm,Zeugma,Pros to semainomenon,Apposition, andConvertibility, giving illustrations of each.

2. What is the government of adjectives?

3. What is the construction in—

a.Robmethe Exchequer.—Shakspeare.b.Mountyeon horseback.c.Hismother.d.If the salt have losthissavour.e.Myselfisweak.f.This ismine.

a.Robmethe Exchequer.—Shakspeare.

b.Mountyeon horseback.

c.Hismother.

d.If the salt have losthissavour.

e.Myselfisweak.

f.This ismine.

4. What are the concords between the relative and antecedent? How far is,whomdo they say that I am, an exceptionable expression?

5.Eteocles and Polynices killed each other.What is the construction here?Ils se battaient, l'un l'autre—Ils se battaient, les uns les autres.Translate these two sentences into English.My wife and little ones are well.What is the origin of the wordoneshere?Itwasthose who spoke.Thesewasthose who spoke. Why is one of those expressions correct, and the other incorrect?

6. What is the difference between—

Thesecretary and treasurer,andThesecretary andthetreasurer?

Thesecretary and treasurer,

and

Thesecretary andthetreasurer?

What is that between—

The first two—andThe two first?

The first two—

and

The two first?

7. What is the construction of—

He sleeps the sleep of the righteous?

8. Whether do you say—It is I your master who command you, or It is I your master who commands you!

9. Barbican ithight. Translate this into Latin.

10. Explain in full the following constructions—

a.I have ridden a horse.b.I am to blame.c.I am beaten.d.A part of the body.e.All fled but John.

a.I have ridden a horse.

b.I am to blame.

c.I am beaten.

d.A part of the body.

e.All fled but John.

11. What is meant by theSuccession of Tenses? Show the logical necessity of it.

12.Orhear'stthou rather pure ethereal stream,Whose fountainwho cantell?—Milton.

Orhear'stthou rather pure ethereal stream,

Whose fountainwho cantell?—Milton.

Give the meaning of this passage, and explain the figure of speech exhibited in the words in Italics.

13. Thedoorbeing open the steed was stolen.—In what case isdoor?

Part VI.

1. The way was long, the wind was cold. Express the metre of this symbolically.

2. Definerhyme.

3. Give instances ofService metre,Blank heroics,Alexandrines.

Part VII.

1. How far do the present dialects of England coincide with the parts, that took their names from theAnglesand theSaxonsrespectively.

2. What traces of Danish or Norse occupancy do we find in local names?

NOTES.[1]The immediate authority for these descents, dates, and localities is Sharon Turner. They are nearly the same as those which are noticed in Mr. Kemble'sSaxons in England. In the former writer, however, they are given as historical facts; in the latter they are subjected to criticism, and considered as exceptionable.[2]It is from Beda that the current opinions as to the details of the Anglo-Saxon invasion are taken; especially the threefold division into Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. These migrations were so large and numerous that the original country of the Angles was left a desert. The distribution of the three divisions over the different parts of England was also Beda's.The work of this important writer—the great luminary of early England—is theHistoria Ecclesiastica, a title which prepares us for a great preponderance of the ecclesiastical over the secular history.Now Beda's date was the middle of the eighth century.And his locality was the monastery of Wearmouth, in the county of Durham.Both of these facts must be borne in mind when we consider the value of his authority,i.e., his means of knowing, as determined by the conditions of time and place.Christianity was introduced among the Anglo-Saxons of KentA.D.597. For the times between them andA.D.740, we have in Mr. Kemble'sCodex Diplomaticuseighty-five charters, all in Latin, and most of them of uncertain authenticity. They are chiefly grants of different kings of Kent, Wessex, the Hwiccas, Mercia, and Northumberland, a few being of Bishops.[3]Gildas was aBritishecclesiastic, as Beda was anEnglishone.His locality was North Wales: his time earlier than Beda's by perhaps one hundred years.He states that he was born the year of thepugna Badonica, currently called theBattle of Bath.Now a chronological table calledAnnales Cambrenses, places that event within one hundred years of the supposed landing of Hengist.But there is no reason for believing this to be a cotemporary entry. Hence, all that can be safely said of Gildas is that he was about as far removed from the seat of the Germanic invasions, in locality, as Beda, whilst in point of time he was nearer.As a writer he is far inferior, being pre-eminently verbose, vague, and indefinite.Gildas, as far as he states facts at all, gives theBritishaccount of the conquest.No other documents have come down to our time.Beda's own authorities—as we learn from his introduction—were certain of the most learned bishops and abbots of his cotemporaries, of whom he sought special information as to the antiquities of their own establishments. Of cotemporary writers, in the way of authority, there is no mention.For the times between the "accredited date of Hengist and Horsa's landing (A.D.449) andA.D.597 (a period of about one hundred and fifty years) the only authorities are a few quotations from Solinus, Gildas, and a Legendary Life of St. Germanus."—Saxons in Engl.i. 27.[4]This account is from Jornandes, who is generally considered as the chief repertory of the traditions respecting the Gothic populations. He lived aboutA.D.530. The Gepidæ were said to be thelaggardsof the migration, and the vessel which carried them to have been left behind: and asgepantain their language meantslow, their name is taken therefrom.[5]Widukind was a monk of Corvey in Flanders, who wrote the Ecclesiastical History of his monastery.[6]Geoffry of Monmouth, like Gildas, is aBritishauthority. His date was the reign of Henry II. TheWelshtraditions form the staple of Geoffry's work, for which it is the great repertory.[7]Thedateof this was the reign of Marcus Antoninus. Itsplace, the Danubian provinces of Rhætia, and Pannonia. It was carried on by the Germans of thefrontierormarch—from whence the name—in alliance with the Jazyges, who were undoubtedly Slavonic, and the Quadi, who were probably so. Its details are obscure—the chief authority being Dio Cassius.[8]The reign of Valentinian was fromA.D.365 toA.D.375.[9]The date of this has been variously placed inA.D.438, and betweenA.D.395 andA.D.407. Either is earlier thanA.D.449.[10]The Saxon Chronicle consists of a series of entries from the earliest times to the reign of King Stephen, each under its year: the year of the Anglo-Saxon invasion being the usual one,i.e.,A.D.449. The value of such a work depends upon the extent to which the chronological entries are cotemporaneous with the events noticed. Where this is the case, the statement is of the highest historical value; where, however, it is merely taken from some earlier authority, or from a tradition, it loses the character of aregister, and becomes merely a series of dates—correct or incorrect as the case may be. Where the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle really begins to be a cotemporaneous register is uncertain—all that is certain being that itisso for thelatest, and isnotso forearliestentries. The notices in question come under the former class. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle had been edited by the Master of Trinity College, Oxford (Dr. Ingram), and analyzed by Miss Gurney.[11]Asserius was a learned Welsh ecclesiastic who was invited by King Alfred into Wessex, and employed by that king as one of his associates and assistants in civilizing and instructing his subjects. Several works are mentioned as having been written by Asserius, but the only one extant is his history of King Alfred, which is a chronicle of various events between the year of Alfred's birth,A.D.849, toA.D.889.Asserius is supposed to have died Bishop of Sherborne,A.D.910.[12]The compounds of the Anglo-Saxon wordware=occupants,inhabitants, are too numerous to leave any doubt as to this, and several other, derivations.Cant-ware=Cant-icolæ=people of Kent:Hwic-ware=Hviccas=the peopleof parts of Worcestershire,[67]Glostershire, and (to judge from the name) ofWar-wickshire also.[13]The Annales Saxonici, or Saxon Chronicles, embrace the history of Britain, between the landing of Cæsar and the accession of Henry II. They are evidently the work of various and successive writers, who were Saxon ecclesiastics. But nothing certain can be affirmed of the authors of their respective portions.—See Note10.[14]See Note2.[15]Adam of Bremen was a Minor Canon of the Cathedral of Bremen, about the years 1067-1077. He travelled in Denmark, and was in great favour with King Sweyn of that country. He wrote an Ecclesiastical History of the spread of Christianity in the North, to which he appended a description of the geography, population, and archæology of Denmark and the neighbouring countries.[16]Ethelward was an Anglo-Saxon nobleman, who wrote a chronicle of events from the creation of the world to the death of King Edgar,A.D.875.[17]The following is a specimen of the Frisian of Gysbert Japicx, in metre. It is part of a rustic song, supposed to be sung by a peasant on his return from a wedding feast. Date aboutA.D.1650."Swíet, ja swíet, is't oer 'e míete,'T boáskiere fóar é jonge lie,Kreftich swíet is't, sizz ik jiette,As it giet mei alders ríe.Mai óars tiget 'et to 'n pléach,As ik óan myn geafeunt seach."Translation of the same from Bosworth'sAnglo-Saxon Dictionary, p. lxxiii."Sweet, yes, sweet is over (beyond) measure,The marrying for the young lede (people);Most sweet is it, I say yet (once more),When (as) it goes with the rede (counsel) of the elders.But otherwise it tends to a plague,As I saw on (by the example of) my village fellow."[18]Of the early constitution of states of East Friesland, we have a remarkable illustration in the old Frisian Laws. These are in the native Frisian tongue, and, except that they represent republican rather than monarchical institutions, are similar in form, in spirit, to the Saxon.[19]The great blow against the sovereignty of Rome, and the one which probably prevented Germany from becoming a Roman province, was struck by the Cheruscan Arminius against Quintilius Varus, in the reign of Augustus. The date of the organized insurrection of Arminius wasA.D.9; the place, the neighbourhood of Herford, or Engern, in Westphalia. Drawn into an inpracticable part of the country, the troops of Varus were suddenly attacked and cut to pieces—consisting of more than three legions. "Never was victory more decisive, never was the liberation of an oppressed people more instantaneous and complete. Throughout Germany the Roman garrisons were assailed and cut off; and, within a few weeks after Varus had fallen, the German soil was freed from the foot of an invader."Had Arminius been supine or unsuccessful, our Germanic ancestors would have been enslaved or exterminated in their original seats along the Eyder and the Elbe. This island would never have borne the name ofEngland, and we, this great English nation, whose race and language are now overrunning the earth, from one end of it to the other, would have been utterly cut off from existence."[68][20]Heliandis the gerund fromhelian=heal, and meansthe HealerorSaviour. It is the name of an old Saxon poem, in alliterative metre, of the tenth or eleventh century, in the dialect supposed to have belonged to the parts about Essen, Cleves, and Munster in Westphalia. It is a sort of Gospel Harmony, or Life of Christ, taken from the Gospels. It has been edited by Schmeller.[21]Hildubrand and Hathubrant, father and son, are two legendary heroes belonging to that cycle of German fiction of which Theodoric of Verona is the centre. A fragment containing an account of their hostile meeting, being mutually unknown, in alliterative metre, represents thefictionalpoetry of the old Saxons in the same way (though not to the same extent) that the Heliand represents their sacred poetry. The "Hildubrand and Hathubrant" have been edited by Grimm.[22]In a language which for a long time was considered to be the Dutch of Holland in its oldest known form, there is an imperfect translation of the Psalms; referred by the best writers on the subject to the reign of Charlemagne, and thence called the Carolinian Psalms. The best text of this is to be found in a Dutch periodical, theTaalkundig Magazijn.[23]Beowulfis by far the most considerable poem, not only in Anglo-Saxon, but in any old Gothic tongue. It has been admirably edited and translated by Mr. Kemble. The subject is the account of Beowulf, an Angle hero—Angle but not English, as the scene of the poem is on the Continent. In its present form it shows traces of the revision of some Christian writer: the basis, however, of its subject, and the manners it describes, are essentially Pagan. The most remarkable feature in the poem is the fact that no allusion is made to England—so that,Anglo-Saxon as the work is—it belongs to the Anglo-Saxons of Germany before they became English.[24]A Gospel Harmony translated from the one of Tatian, exists in a dialect too little purely High German, to pass absolutely as such, yet lessLowGerman than the Dutch of Holland. This belongs to theMiddleRhine, and is calledFrank.[25]The Alemannic is the German of theUpperRhine; the dialect out of which the Bavarian and Swiss grew. Its chief specimens occur in—a.The Glosses of Kero—b.The Psalmsby a monk namedNotker.c.A life ofAnnoof Cologne.d.The Song of Solomon, by Willeram.e.Musrpilli, an alliterative poem.f.Krist, a life of Christ, by Otford, and others less important.Most of these (along with Tatian), are to be found in Schilter'sThesaurus.(Original footnotes)

[1]The immediate authority for these descents, dates, and localities is Sharon Turner. They are nearly the same as those which are noticed in Mr. Kemble'sSaxons in England. In the former writer, however, they are given as historical facts; in the latter they are subjected to criticism, and considered as exceptionable.

[2]It is from Beda that the current opinions as to the details of the Anglo-Saxon invasion are taken; especially the threefold division into Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. These migrations were so large and numerous that the original country of the Angles was left a desert. The distribution of the three divisions over the different parts of England was also Beda's.

The work of this important writer—the great luminary of early England—is theHistoria Ecclesiastica, a title which prepares us for a great preponderance of the ecclesiastical over the secular history.

Now Beda's date was the middle of the eighth century.

And his locality was the monastery of Wearmouth, in the county of Durham.

Both of these facts must be borne in mind when we consider the value of his authority,i.e., his means of knowing, as determined by the conditions of time and place.

Christianity was introduced among the Anglo-Saxons of KentA.D.597. For the times between them andA.D.740, we have in Mr. Kemble'sCodex Diplomaticuseighty-five charters, all in Latin, and most of them of uncertain authenticity. They are chiefly grants of different kings of Kent, Wessex, the Hwiccas, Mercia, and Northumberland, a few being of Bishops.

[3]Gildas was aBritishecclesiastic, as Beda was anEnglishone.His locality was North Wales: his time earlier than Beda's by perhaps one hundred years.

He states that he was born the year of thepugna Badonica, currently called theBattle of Bath.

Now a chronological table calledAnnales Cambrenses, places that event within one hundred years of the supposed landing of Hengist.

But there is no reason for believing this to be a cotemporary entry. Hence, all that can be safely said of Gildas is that he was about as far removed from the seat of the Germanic invasions, in locality, as Beda, whilst in point of time he was nearer.

As a writer he is far inferior, being pre-eminently verbose, vague, and indefinite.

Gildas, as far as he states facts at all, gives theBritishaccount of the conquest.

No other documents have come down to our time.

Beda's own authorities—as we learn from his introduction—were certain of the most learned bishops and abbots of his cotemporaries, of whom he sought special information as to the antiquities of their own establishments. Of cotemporary writers, in the way of authority, there is no mention.

For the times between the "accredited date of Hengist and Horsa's landing (A.D.449) andA.D.597 (a period of about one hundred and fifty years) the only authorities are a few quotations from Solinus, Gildas, and a Legendary Life of St. Germanus."—Saxons in Engl.i. 27.

[4]This account is from Jornandes, who is generally considered as the chief repertory of the traditions respecting the Gothic populations. He lived aboutA.D.530. The Gepidæ were said to be thelaggardsof the migration, and the vessel which carried them to have been left behind: and asgepantain their language meantslow, their name is taken therefrom.

[5]Widukind was a monk of Corvey in Flanders, who wrote the Ecclesiastical History of his monastery.

[6]Geoffry of Monmouth, like Gildas, is aBritishauthority. His date was the reign of Henry II. TheWelshtraditions form the staple of Geoffry's work, for which it is the great repertory.

[7]Thedateof this was the reign of Marcus Antoninus. Itsplace, the Danubian provinces of Rhætia, and Pannonia. It was carried on by the Germans of thefrontierormarch—from whence the name—in alliance with the Jazyges, who were undoubtedly Slavonic, and the Quadi, who were probably so. Its details are obscure—the chief authority being Dio Cassius.

[8]The reign of Valentinian was fromA.D.365 toA.D.375.

[9]The date of this has been variously placed inA.D.438, and betweenA.D.395 andA.D.407. Either is earlier thanA.D.449.

[10]The Saxon Chronicle consists of a series of entries from the earliest times to the reign of King Stephen, each under its year: the year of the Anglo-Saxon invasion being the usual one,i.e.,A.D.449. The value of such a work depends upon the extent to which the chronological entries are cotemporaneous with the events noticed. Where this is the case, the statement is of the highest historical value; where, however, it is merely taken from some earlier authority, or from a tradition, it loses the character of aregister, and becomes merely a series of dates—correct or incorrect as the case may be. Where the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle really begins to be a cotemporaneous register is uncertain—all that is certain being that itisso for thelatest, and isnotso forearliestentries. The notices in question come under the former class. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle had been edited by the Master of Trinity College, Oxford (Dr. Ingram), and analyzed by Miss Gurney.

[11]Asserius was a learned Welsh ecclesiastic who was invited by King Alfred into Wessex, and employed by that king as one of his associates and assistants in civilizing and instructing his subjects. Several works are mentioned as having been written by Asserius, but the only one extant is his history of King Alfred, which is a chronicle of various events between the year of Alfred's birth,A.D.849, toA.D.889.

Asserius is supposed to have died Bishop of Sherborne,A.D.910.

[12]The compounds of the Anglo-Saxon wordware=occupants,inhabitants, are too numerous to leave any doubt as to this, and several other, derivations.Cant-ware=Cant-icolæ=people of Kent:Hwic-ware=Hviccas=the peopleof parts of Worcestershire,[67]Glostershire, and (to judge from the name) ofWar-wickshire also.

[13]The Annales Saxonici, or Saxon Chronicles, embrace the history of Britain, between the landing of Cæsar and the accession of Henry II. They are evidently the work of various and successive writers, who were Saxon ecclesiastics. But nothing certain can be affirmed of the authors of their respective portions.—See Note10.

[14]See Note2.

[15]Adam of Bremen was a Minor Canon of the Cathedral of Bremen, about the years 1067-1077. He travelled in Denmark, and was in great favour with King Sweyn of that country. He wrote an Ecclesiastical History of the spread of Christianity in the North, to which he appended a description of the geography, population, and archæology of Denmark and the neighbouring countries.

[16]Ethelward was an Anglo-Saxon nobleman, who wrote a chronicle of events from the creation of the world to the death of King Edgar,A.D.875.

[17]The following is a specimen of the Frisian of Gysbert Japicx, in metre. It is part of a rustic song, supposed to be sung by a peasant on his return from a wedding feast. Date aboutA.D.1650.

"Swíet, ja swíet, is't oer 'e míete,'T boáskiere fóar é jonge lie,Kreftich swíet is't, sizz ik jiette,As it giet mei alders ríe.Mai óars tiget 'et to 'n pléach,As ik óan myn geafeunt seach."

"Swíet, ja swíet, is't oer 'e míete,

'T boáskiere fóar é jonge lie,

Kreftich swíet is't, sizz ik jiette,

As it giet mei alders ríe.

Mai óars tiget 'et to 'n pléach,

As ik óan myn geafeunt seach."

Translation of the same from Bosworth'sAnglo-Saxon Dictionary, p. lxxiii.

"Sweet, yes, sweet is over (beyond) measure,The marrying for the young lede (people);Most sweet is it, I say yet (once more),When (as) it goes with the rede (counsel) of the elders.But otherwise it tends to a plague,As I saw on (by the example of) my village fellow."

"Sweet, yes, sweet is over (beyond) measure,

The marrying for the young lede (people);

Most sweet is it, I say yet (once more),

When (as) it goes with the rede (counsel) of the elders.

But otherwise it tends to a plague,

As I saw on (by the example of) my village fellow."

[18]Of the early constitution of states of East Friesland, we have a remarkable illustration in the old Frisian Laws. These are in the native Frisian tongue, and, except that they represent republican rather than monarchical institutions, are similar in form, in spirit, to the Saxon.

[19]The great blow against the sovereignty of Rome, and the one which probably prevented Germany from becoming a Roman province, was struck by the Cheruscan Arminius against Quintilius Varus, in the reign of Augustus. The date of the organized insurrection of Arminius wasA.D.9; the place, the neighbourhood of Herford, or Engern, in Westphalia. Drawn into an inpracticable part of the country, the troops of Varus were suddenly attacked and cut to pieces—consisting of more than three legions. "Never was victory more decisive, never was the liberation of an oppressed people more instantaneous and complete. Throughout Germany the Roman garrisons were assailed and cut off; and, within a few weeks after Varus had fallen, the German soil was freed from the foot of an invader.

"Had Arminius been supine or unsuccessful, our Germanic ancestors would have been enslaved or exterminated in their original seats along the Eyder and the Elbe. This island would never have borne the name ofEngland, and we, this great English nation, whose race and language are now overrunning the earth, from one end of it to the other, would have been utterly cut off from existence."[68]

[20]Heliandis the gerund fromhelian=heal, and meansthe HealerorSaviour. It is the name of an old Saxon poem, in alliterative metre, of the tenth or eleventh century, in the dialect supposed to have belonged to the parts about Essen, Cleves, and Munster in Westphalia. It is a sort of Gospel Harmony, or Life of Christ, taken from the Gospels. It has been edited by Schmeller.

[21]Hildubrand and Hathubrant, father and son, are two legendary heroes belonging to that cycle of German fiction of which Theodoric of Verona is the centre. A fragment containing an account of their hostile meeting, being mutually unknown, in alliterative metre, represents thefictionalpoetry of the old Saxons in the same way (though not to the same extent) that the Heliand represents their sacred poetry. The "Hildubrand and Hathubrant" have been edited by Grimm.

[22]In a language which for a long time was considered to be the Dutch of Holland in its oldest known form, there is an imperfect translation of the Psalms; referred by the best writers on the subject to the reign of Charlemagne, and thence called the Carolinian Psalms. The best text of this is to be found in a Dutch periodical, theTaalkundig Magazijn.

[23]Beowulfis by far the most considerable poem, not only in Anglo-Saxon, but in any old Gothic tongue. It has been admirably edited and translated by Mr. Kemble. The subject is the account of Beowulf, an Angle hero—Angle but not English, as the scene of the poem is on the Continent. In its present form it shows traces of the revision of some Christian writer: the basis, however, of its subject, and the manners it describes, are essentially Pagan. The most remarkable feature in the poem is the fact that no allusion is made to England—so that,Anglo-Saxon as the work is—it belongs to the Anglo-Saxons of Germany before they became English.

[24]A Gospel Harmony translated from the one of Tatian, exists in a dialect too little purely High German, to pass absolutely as such, yet lessLowGerman than the Dutch of Holland. This belongs to theMiddleRhine, and is calledFrank.

[25]The Alemannic is the German of theUpperRhine; the dialect out of which the Bavarian and Swiss grew. Its chief specimens occur in—

a.The Glosses of Kero—b.The Psalmsby a monk namedNotker.c.A life ofAnnoof Cologne.d.The Song of Solomon, by Willeram.e.Musrpilli, an alliterative poem.f.Krist, a life of Christ, by Otford, and others less important.

a.The Glosses of Kero—

b.The Psalmsby a monk namedNotker.

c.A life ofAnnoof Cologne.

d.The Song of Solomon, by Willeram.

e.Musrpilli, an alliterative poem.

f.Krist, a life of Christ, by Otford, and others less important.

Most of these (along with Tatian), are to be found in Schilter'sThesaurus.

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