(ii) The sub-typeB2, or B with disyllabic second thesis, is rarely found when the first thesis has only one syllable,þe drýhtnes bibṓdCri. 1159,þū wá̄st gif hit isBeow. 272,þām wī́fe þā wórdBeow. 640; with resolution of the first arsis,þurh dároða gedrépAn. 1446, and of the second,þurh níhta genípuGū. 321; it is commoner with a disyllabic first thesis,þā of wéalle geséahBeow. 229,hē þæs frṓfre gebā́dBeow. 76; with resolution of the first arsis,mid his hǽleða gedríhtBeow. 663,ofer wároða gewéorpAn. 306; with trisyllabic first thesis,þonne hē ǣ́r oððe sī́ðEl. 74,wes þū ūs lā́rena gṓdBeow. 269; with resolution of the first arsis,þēah hē þǣr mónige geséahBeow. 1614, and of the second arsis,þæt nǣfre Gréndel swā félaBeow. 592; with first thesis offour and five syllables,hwæðre hē in brḗostum þā gítAn. 51,þæs be hire sē wílla gelámpBeow. 627.
Verses with trisyllabic second thesis are extremely rare and doubtful.[76]It should be noticed that, in this second type too, the thesis seldom consists of a second part of a compound, ashine fýrwìt brǽcBeow. 232, the exceptions are proper names, asnū ic Bḗowùlf þécBeow. 947,ne wearð Héremṑd swā́Beow. 1710.
Type B, according to Sievers, occurs 1014 times in Beowulf, of which 293 are in the first hemistich and 721 in the second.
§27. The Type Chas three sub-types: (i)C1, the normal type×–́|–́×, without resolution, asoft Scýld ScḗfingBeow. 4,gebū̀n hǽfdon117. Here too the first thesis may consist of two, three, four, or five syllables,þæt hīe ǣ́ghwýlcneAn. 26,þone gód séndeBeow. 13,ofer hrónrā́deBeow. 10,ǣr hē onwég hwúrfeBeow. 264,mid þǣre wǽlfýlleBeow. 125,þe ic him tṓ sḗceEl. 319þāra þe mid BḗowúlfeBeow. 1052,oð þæt hine sémníngaAn. 821,þāra þe hē him míd hǽfdeBeow. 1625,swylce hīe ofer sǣ́e cṓmon, An. 247. (ii) C 2 is the normal type C with resolution of the first arsis, and is of such frequent occurrence that it may be looked on as a special type,on héreféldaAn. 10,forscrífen hǽfdeBeow. 106,in wórold wṓcunBeow. 60; a less common form is that with resolution of the first and second arsis,tō brímes fároðeBeow. 28,swā féla fýrenaBeow. 164; sometimes with resolution of the second arsis only,tō sǣ́es fároðeAn. 236 and 1660,for frḗan égesanAn. 457, but not in Beowulf. The first thesis may have two, three, or four syllables,þā wið góde wúnnonBeow. 113,ofer lágustrǣ́te; with two resolutions,ic þæs wíne DénigaBeow. 350,hū sē mága frémedeAn. 639,þæt him his wínemā́gasBeow. 65,ne hīe hūru wínedríhtenBeow. 863. (iii)C3is type C with short second arsis,×–́|⏑́×, and is pretty common,in gḗardágumBeow. 1,of fḗorwégumBeow. 37; the first thesis may have from two to five syllables,þæt wæs gṓd cýningBeow. 11,þæt hīe in bḗorséleBeow. 482,sē þe hine dḗað nímeðBeow. 441,ne meaht þū þæs sī́ðfǽtesAn. 211,þonne hē on þæt sínc stáraðBeow. 1486. Resolution seems to be avoided, though it occurs here and there,of hlíðes nósanBeow. 1892,on þǣm méðelstédeBeow. 1083. Thesis with secondary accent is not found. The number of hemistichs of type C in Beowulf is, according to Sievers, 564
§28. The type Dalways ends with a disyllabic thesis, of which the first is generally the second syllable of a compoundand has the secondary accent. There are four sub-types. (i)D1is the normal form,–́|–́×̀×, ashélm ǽlwìhtaAn. 118,fḗond máncỳnnesBeow. 164,wī́gwéorðùngaBeow. 176,wéard ScýldìngaBeow. 95,lándbúèndumBeow. 95,hríng gýldènne, Beow. 2810,hóf mṓdìgraBeow. 312,frḗan ū̀sèrneBeow. 3003. The chief variations arise from resolution of the first arsis,cýning ǽlmìhtigEl. 145,fǽder álwàldaBeow. 316,mérelī́ðèndeBeow. 255,flótan ḗowèrneBeow. 294,cýning ǣ́nìgneBeow. 1851, or of the second arsis,hḗan hýgegḕomorAn. 1089,mǣ́g Hígelà̄cesBeow. 738 and 759; resolution of first and second arsis,hláden hérewǣ̀dumBeow. 1898,néfan Hérerī̀cesBeow. 2207. Hemistichs likewiht unhǣloBeow. 120, which have compounds withun, may be readwíht únhǽloaccording to typeD2, orwíht unhǣ́loaccording to type A,–́×|–́×(Sievers,Paul-Braune’s Beiträge, x. 251, and Kluge inPaul’s Grundriss, i2, p. 1051). (ii)D2is the same form, but with the thesis short and with secondary accent,–́|–́⏑̀×béorht blǽdgìfaAn. 84,lḗof lándfrùmaBeow. 31,strḗam ū́t þònanBeow. 2546,rǣ́d éahtèdonBeow. 172; with resolution of the first arsis,mǽgen sámnòdeEl. 55,mága HéalfdènesBeow. 189; with resolution of the second arsis,hórd ópenìanBeow. 3057, the only example. (iii) D 3 is the normal type, but with short second arsis (rare),–́|⏑́×̀×,éorðcýnìngaEl. 1174; with resolution of the first arsis,rádorcýnìngesEl. 624. (iv) D 4 has the form–́|–́××̀, and is closely allied to the type E (–́×̀×|–́), as it has the secondary accent on the last syllable of the thesis (Sievers,Paul-Braune’s Beiträge, x. 256),brḗost ínnanwèardAn. 649,hólm ū̀p ætbæ̀rBeow. 519,fýrst fórð gewā́tib. 210; varied by resolution of the first arsis,géaro gū̀ðe fràmAn. 234,flóta fā́mighèalsBeow. 218,súnu dḗað fornàmBeow. 2120; by resolution of the second arsis,wlánc Wédera lṑod341, and of both first and second arsis,wlítig wéoruda hḕapAn. 872; and resolution of the last thesis with secondary accent,wṓp úp āhàfenBeow. 128,wúnað wíntra fèlaPh. 580. Certain hemistichs which may belong to this sub-type admit of an alternative accentuation, and may belong to the following type; for example,scop hwlum sangBeow. 496 may be read–́|–́××̀, or as E–́×̀×|–́, sowerod eall ārāsBeow. 652.
§29. The type Ehas two sub-types, distinguished by the position of the syllable bearing the secondary accent; this syllable is generally the second syllable of a compound or the heavy middle syllable of a trisyllabic word with a long root-syllable.
E1has the form–́×̀×|–́, the syllable with secondaryaccent standing first in the thesis,mṓdsòrge wǽgEl. 61,wéorðmỳndum þā́hBeow. 8,Sū̀ðdèna fólcBeow. 463,ḗhtènde wǽsBeow. 159,hǣ́ðènra hýhtBeow. 179,ǣ́nìgne þóncCri. 1498,wórdhòrd onléacBeow. 259,úplàng āstṓdBeow. 760,scóp hwī̀lum sángBeow. 496 (cf. above, § 29); varied by resolution of the first arsis,héofonrī̀ces weárdEl. 445,Scédelàndum ínBeow. 19,wlítebèorhtne wángBeow. 93,lífigènde cwṓmBeow. 1974,ǽðelìnges wḗoxEl. 12,médofùl ætbǽrBeow. 625,dúguð èall ārā́sBeow. 1791; resolution of the second arsis is rare,tī́rḕadge hǽleðAn. 2 (the MS. readingēadigemust be corrected toēadge, see Sievers,Beiträge, x. 459 on these middle vowels after long root-syllable),hélþègnes héteBeow. 142; resolution of both is rare,sélewèard āsétedBeow. 668,wínedrỳhten frǽgenAn. 921; resolution of the accented thesis,glḗdègesa grímBeow. 2651.
E2has the last syllable of the thesis with secondary accent, and is very rare,–́××̀|–́,mórðorbèd strḗdBeow. 2437; with resolution of last arsis,gḗomorgìdd wrécenAn. 1550,bǣ́ron ū̀t hrǽðeAn. 1223.
§30.Hemistichs of five members (extended) occur much more rarely than the normal types of four members. The extended types are denoted by the letters A*, B*, C*, &c.
Type A*has two sub-types distinguished by the position of the syllable with the secondary accent.
(i) A*1,–́×̀×|–́×occurs chiefly in the first hemistich,gódbèarn on gálganEl. 719; with resolution of first arsis,géolorànd tō gū́ðeBeow. 438; with thesis of two unaccented syllables following on the secondary accent,glǽdmṑd on gesíhðeCri. 911,fǽstrǽdne geþṓhtBeow. 611; with final thesis strengthened by secondary accent,gā́stlī̀cne góddrḕamGū. 602,gámolfèax ond gū́ðrṑfBeow. 609.
(ii) A*2–́××̀|–́×may possibly occur inmā́ððumfæ̀t mǣ́reBeow. 2405,wúldorlḕan wéorcaCri. 1080; with resolution of the thesis with secondary accent,mórðorbèalo mágaBeow. 1079. Possibly, however, the syllablesuminmāððumandorinwuldorandmorðorare to be writtenmandr, so that the scansion of the hemistich would beA2–́–̀|–́×and–́⏑̀͜×|–́×.[77]
Type B*×̀×–́|×–́does not seem to occur in O.E. poetry, though it does in Old Norse.
Type C*in the forms×̀×–́|–́×,×̀×⏑́×|–́×,××–́|⏑́×are also not found in O.E.
Type D*on the other hand does occur, but almost exclusively in the first hemistich. It has three sub-types: (i) D*1–́×|–́××,sī́de sǣ́næ̀ssasBeow. 223,áldres órwḕnaBeow. 1002; with resolution of the first arsis,ǽðeling ā́nhȳ̀digBeow. 2668; more commonly with resolution of the second arsis,mǣ́ton mérestræ̀taBeow. 514; with resolution of both,lócene léoðosỳrcanBeow. 1506. (ii) D*2–́×|–́⏑̀×,mǣ́re méarcstàpaBeow. 103,éaldor ÉastdènaBeow. 392; with resolution of the first arsis,ǽðele órdfrùmaBeow. 263; with resolution of the second arsis,mṓdges mérefàranBeow. 502,Bḗowulf máðelòdeBeow. 505, &c. (iii) D*3–́×|⏑́×̀×is not found. (iv) D*4–́×|–́××̀is rare,grḗtte Gḗata lḕodBeow. 625,þrȳ́ðlīc þégna hḕapBeow. 400; with resolution of first arsis,éaforan éllorsī̀ðBeow. 2452; with resolution of the second,ȳ́ðde éotena cỳnBeow. 421; with resolution of the secondarily accented syllable,wī́n of wúndorfàtumBeow. 1163; this type is varied by anacrusis,ongínneð gḗomormṑdBeow. 2045, and by anacrusis together with disyllabic thesis in the second foot,oferswám þā síoleða bigòngBeow. 2368.
Type E*does not occur in O.E.poetry.[78]
§31.To assign the different hemistichs of a poem to these various types we have to follow as a regulating principle the natural word accent and syntactical accent of each sentence. In some cases the similarity or relation with one another of the types renders it a matter of difficulty to determine exactly to what particular type a hemistich may belong. Systematic investigations as to the principles which govern the combinations of the five types in pairs to form the long line have not yet been made. From such observations as have been made it would appear that by preference hemistichs of different rhythmical structure (ascending and descending) were combined with a view to avoid a monotonous likeness between the two halves of the verse.[79].
§32.The combination of two hemistichs so as to form a long line is effected by means of alliteration, one at least of the two fully accented syllables being the bearer of an alliterative sound. In no case is an unaccented syllable or even a syllable with a secondary accent allowed to take part in the alliteration. This fact, that secondarily accented syllables are debarred from alliterating, is another proof that it is better to look on them as belonging to the thesis rather than to the arsis of the verse.
§33. Quality of the Alliteration.It is an all but invariable rule that the correspondence of sounds must be exact and not merely approximate. Agmust alliterate to ag, not to ac, adto ad, not to at, and so on. There is, however, one remarkable exception, namely, that no distinction is made between the gutturalc(as incūðe) and the palatalc(as incēosan), nor between the gutturalg(as ingod) and the palatalg(as ingierede), not even when the latter represents Germanicj(as ingeong,gēar). With exceptions hereafter to be noted, a consonant followed by a vowel may alliterate with itself followed by another consonant: thuscūðealliterates not only with words likecyning, but with words likecræft,cwellan; andhūsalliterates not only withheofonbut withhlēapan,hnǣgan, &c. The fact that different vowels, asī,ū, andæinīsig ond ūtfūs æðelinges færBeow. 33, alliterate together is only an apparent exception to the strictness of the rule, as it is really the glottal catch orspiritus lenis[80]before all vowels which alliterates here. Wherever a vowel seems to alliterate with anhwe are justified in assuming a corruption of the text, as inóretmecgas æfter hǽleðum frægnBeow. 332, where Grein improves both sense and metre by substitutingæðelumforhæleðum; other examples areBeow. 499, 1542, 2095, 2930. In some cases where foreign names beginning withhoccur we occasionally find instances of this inexact alliteration, asHólofernus únlyfigendesJud. 180 and 7, 21, 46, contrasted withHólofernus hógedon āninga250; in later works as in Ælfric’sMetrical Homilieswe find alliteration ofhwith a vowel not only in foreign names but with native words, as
and heǣ́fre his fýrde þamhǣ́lende betǣ́hte.Ælfr. Judges[81]417.
andhbefore consonants (viz.r,l,w) is disregarded as
and hē hig āhrédde of þāmrḗðan þḗowte.Ælfr. Judges 16.on hwám his stréngð wæs and hiswúndorlī̀ce míht.ibid. 306.
and hē hig āhrédde of þāmrḗðan þḗowte.Ælfr. Judges 16.on hwám his stréngð wæs and hiswúndorlī̀ce míht.ibid. 306.
and hē hig āhrédde of þāmrḗðan þḗowte.Ælfr. Judges 16.
on hwám his stréngð wæs and hiswúndorlī̀ce míht.ibid. 306.
It is important to observe that the combinationsst,sc,spare not allowed to alliterate with each other or with words beginning withsnot followed by a consonant, butstcan alliterate only withst,sconly withsc,sponly withsp; thusspereandscyld,stillanandspringan,sǣandstyrmando not count as alliterations. The invariable practice is seen in the followinglines:—
hētstrḗamfarestíllan,stórmas réstan.An. 1578.
hescḗaf þā mid þamscýlde, þæt sescéatt tōbǽrstand þætspérespréngde, þæt hitspráng ongḗan.Byrhtnoth 136–7.
hescḗaf þā mid þamscýlde, þæt sescéatt tōbǽrstand þætspérespréngde, þæt hitspráng ongḗan.Byrhtnoth 136–7.
hescḗaf þā mid þamscýlde, þæt sescéatt tōbǽrst
and þætspérespréngde, þæt hitspráng ongḗan.Byrhtnoth 136–7.
In later times this rule was not so strictly observed. The metrical Psalms alliteratescwithsandswwiths, as
hi hine himsámnuncgascéarpum strḗlum.Ps. lxiii. 4.on þī́ne þāswī́ðran, ond þe nescéaðeð ǣ́nig.Ps. xc. 7.
hi hine himsámnuncgascéarpum strḗlum.Ps. lxiii. 4.on þī́ne þāswī́ðran, ond þe nescéaðeð ǣ́nig.Ps. xc. 7.
hi hine himsámnuncgascéarpum strḗlum.Ps. lxiii. 4.
on þī́ne þāswī́ðran, ond þe nescéaðeð ǣ́nig.Ps. xc. 7.
butspandstdo not alliterate with each other or withs. In Ælfric all these combinations of consonants alliterate indifferently with each other or withs+ another consonant or with simples, as in
wið þā́m þe hēo beswī́ceSámson þonestrángan.Ælfr. Judges 308.
Sometimes in Ælfric the alliterating letter does not stand at the beginning of the word,
and hē hæfde héora gewéald ealles twéntig gḗara.ibid. 85.
and the alliteration may even fall on an unaccented particle as in
frám his gelēafan and his ǣforsāwon.ibid. 51.
For a full account of Ælfric’s alliteration the reader may be referred to an interesting essay by Dr. Arthur Brandeis,Die Alliteration in Aelfric’s metrischen Homilien, 1897 (Programm der Staatsrealschule im VII. Bezirk in Wien).
§34. Position of the alliterative words.Out of the four accented syllables of the line two at least, and commonly three, must begin with an alliterative sound, and this alliteration still further increases the stress which these syllables have in virtue of their syntactical and rhythmical accent.
The position of these alliterative sounds in the line may vary in the same way as their number. The general laws which govern the position of the alliteration are the following:—(i) One alliterating soundmust, and twomayoccur in the first hemistich; (ii) In the second hemistich the alliterating sound (called the head-stave[82]) must fall on the first of the two accented syllables of that hemistich, and the second accented syllable in the second hemistich does not take part in the alliteration at all; (iii) When there are three alliterating sounds in the whole line two of them must be in the first hemistich and only one in the second. Examples of lines with three alliterating sounds:
séolfa he geséttesúnnan ond mṓnan.Sat. 4.úfan ondū̀tan him wæsǣ́ghwǣr wā́.Sat. 342.
séolfa he geséttesúnnan ond mṓnan.Sat. 4.úfan ondū̀tan him wæsǣ́ghwǣr wā́.Sat. 342.
séolfa he geséttesúnnan ond mṓnan.Sat. 4.
úfan ondū̀tan him wæsǣ́ghwǣr wā́.Sat. 342.
Lines with only two alliterative sounds, the first of which may coincide with either of the accented syllables of the first hemistich (the second of course coinciding with the first accented syllable of the second hemistich) are very common:
hḗafod éalrahḗahgescéafta.Gen. 4.hī hýne þā ætbǣ́ron tobrímes fároðe.Beow. 28.
hḗafod éalrahḗahgescéafta.Gen. 4.hī hýne þā ætbǣ́ron tobrímes fároðe.Beow. 28.
hḗafod éalrahḗahgescéafta.Gen. 4.
hī hýne þā ætbǣ́ron tobrímes fároðe.Beow. 28.
If the first hemistich contains only one alliterative sound this alliteration generally falls on the more emphatic of the two accented syllables of the hemistich which is usually the first, as
onflṓdes ǣ́htféor gewī́tan.Beow. 42.
In the type A the single alliteration of the first hemistich not unfrequently falls on the second accented syllable, such cases being distinguished, asA3
þā́ wæs onbúrgumBḗowulf Scýldinga.Beow. 53.
In types C and D the single alliteration of the first section must always fall on the first accented syllable which in these types is more emphatic than the second. In types B and Ealliteration on the second arsis would bring the alliteration too near to the end of the hemistich, and is therefore rare.
Double alliteration in the first hemistich occurs in all of the five types, and chiefly when the two accented syllables have equally strong accents. It is, therefore, least common in C×–́|–́×where the first arsis predominates over the second, and is most frequent in the strengthened hemistichs, in D, E,A2, and in the five-membered D* types, where it is therule.[83]
A third form of alliteration, though much less important and frequent than these two, occurs when the second accented syllable of the second hemistich shares in alliteration, in addition to the first accented syllable. There are then two different pairs of alliterative sounds distributed alternately between the two hemistichs. The commonest form of this double alliteration of the whole line is represented by the formula a b | a b, as
hwæt! weGā́rdéna ingḗardágum.Beow. 1.ScýldeséaferanScédelandumín.Beow. 19.híldewǣ́þnum ondhéaðowǣ́dum.Beow. 39;
hwæt! weGā́rdéna ingḗardágum.Beow. 1.ScýldeséaferanScédelandumín.Beow. 19.híldewǣ́þnum ondhéaðowǣ́dum.Beow. 39;
hwæt! weGā́rdéna ingḗardágum.Beow. 1.
ScýldeséaferanScédelandumín.Beow. 19.
híldewǣ́þnum ondhéaðowǣ́dum.Beow. 39;
less commonly by the formula a b | b a:
þāwǣ́ronmónige þe hismǣ́gwríðon.Beow. 2982.hwī́lum fordúguðedóhtorHrṓðgà̄res.Beow. 2020;
þāwǣ́ronmónige þe hismǣ́gwríðon.Beow. 2982.hwī́lum fordúguðedóhtorHrṓðgà̄res.Beow. 2020;
þāwǣ́ronmónige þe hismǣ́gwríðon.Beow. 2982.
hwī́lum fordúguðedóhtorHrṓðgà̄res.Beow. 2020;
verses corresponding to the formula a a | b b are not found in early poetry. No doubt certain instances of this double alliteration may be accidental, but others seem intentional.
The foregoing rules as to alliteration are strictly observed in the early and classic poetry, but in later times certain licences crept in. Three of these may be noticed. (i) The second accented syllable of the second hemistich is allowed to carry the alliteration instead of the first accented syllable,
lā́staslégde oððǽt hē gelǣ́dde.Gen. 2536.
(ii) Both accented syllables of the second hemistich alliterate with one accented syllable of the firsthemistich,[84]
meséndon tṓ þēsǣ́mensnélle.Byrhtnoth 29.
(iii) The four accented syllables of the line all alliterate together,
Gódwine ondGódwīggū̀de negȳ́mdon.Byrhtn. 192.
In the majority of cases the same alliterative letter is not employed in two successive lines, but we find cases like
þā tōbrǣ́d Sámsonbḗgen his éarmasþæt þā rā́pas tobúrston þe he mid gebúnden wæs.Ælf. Judges 269;
þā tōbrǣ́d Sámsonbḗgen his éarmasþæt þā rā́pas tobúrston þe he mid gebúnden wæs.Ælf. Judges 269;
þā tōbrǣ́d Sámsonbḗgen his éarmas
þæt þā rā́pas tobúrston þe he mid gebúnden wæs.Ælf. Judges 269;
and earlier in Andreas 70, 197, 372, 796, 815, 1087, &c., or in Beowulf 403, 489, 644, 799, 865, 898, &c.
And even three lines in succession, as
swýlce he āfḗdde offíxum twā́mond offī́f hlā́fumfī́ra cýnnesfī́f þū̀sendo;fḗðan sǣ́ton.An. 589 ff.
swýlce he āfḗdde offíxum twā́mond offī́f hlā́fumfī́ra cýnnesfī́f þū̀sendo;fḗðan sǣ́ton.An. 589 ff.
swýlce he āfḗdde offíxum twā́m
ond offī́f hlā́fumfī́ra cýnnes
fī́f þū̀sendo;fḗðan sǣ́ton.An. 589 ff.
This usage, which in Middle English became very popular, is noticeably frequent in the poem of Judith, probably with a view to emphasis. Many examples of such pairs of verses are to be found collected by Dr. A. Brandeis from Ælfric.
The unaccented words may begin with the same letter as the accented words which bear the alliteration proper,[85]as
ne hīe huruhéofonahélmhérian ne cū̀ðon.Beow. 182,
or one of the unaccented words may begin with the same letter as an accented word which does not alliterate, as
þæt framhā́m gefrǣ́gnHígelāces bégn.Beow. 194;
this of course has nothing to do with alliteration, though in later times it was often mistaken for it.
Verses without any alliteration at all, as
he hélpeð þéarfan swýlce ēac wǣ́dlan.Ps. lxxi. 13,
occur only in late OE. poetry like Ælfric’s Homilies, and when rhyme was beginning to creep in.
§35. Alliteration in relation to the parts of speech and to the order the order of words.Both alliteration and the whole structure of the alliterative line depend in the first place on the natural or etymological accent of the single words, and next on the syntactical accent which these words bear in theirrelation to one another in the sentence. Just as only the accented syllable of a single word can take part in the alliteration, so only can those words take part in it which are marked out in the sentence as important and therefore strongly accented.
The relative degree of stress is influenced at times by the rhetorical accent, but generally speaking we find a certain gradation of accent among the accented words depending on their intrinsic and not on their rhetorical importance in building up the sentence.
Two general principles may be laid down: (1) If the syntactical value of the two accented syllables of the hemistich is not equal, then the word which has the stronger accent of the two is chosen to alliterate. In the second hemistich it is always the first accented word (the ‘head stave’), in the first hemistich it is generally the first accented word, though the second accented word may alliterate as well. (2) If the two accented syllables of the section are equal in syntactical value, then the first alliterates, and when double alliteration is allowed the second may also alliterate.
The various grammatical classes of words are treated in regard to the alliteration in the followingway:—
Nouns, including adjectives and the infinitives and participles of verbs, have the strongest accent of all words in the sentence. A noun therefore takes precedence over the other parts of speech among which it occurs and has the alliteration, as
nḗ in þācéastre becúman méahte.An. 931.híre þāÁdamandswárode.Gen. 827.
nḗ in þācéastre becúman méahte.An. 931.híre þāÁdamandswárode.Gen. 827.
nḗ in þācéastre becúman méahte.An. 931.
híre þāÁdamandswárode.Gen. 827.
If two nouns occur in the same hemistich it is always the first which alliterates,
hū̀sa sḗlest. Wæs sēohwī́l micel.Beow. 146.lánge hwī́le. Him wæslī́ffrḗa.Beow. 16.géongum ond éaldum, swylc himgód séalde.Beow. 72.
hū̀sa sḗlest. Wæs sēohwī́l micel.Beow. 146.lánge hwī́le. Him wæslī́ffrḗa.Beow. 16.géongum ond éaldum, swylc himgód séalde.Beow. 72.
hū̀sa sḗlest. Wæs sēohwī́l micel.Beow. 146.
lánge hwī́le. Him wæslī́ffrḗa.Beow. 16.
géongum ond éaldum, swylc himgód séalde.Beow. 72.
The only exceptions are when a special rhetorical emphasis is given to the second word.
When a noun and two adjectives or two nouns and an adjective occur in the same hemistich, one of these is always subordinated to the other, and the two together are treated as a combination. In such cases, where there is double alliterationin the hemistich, the position of the alliterating words may be eithera a x, ora x a, the subordinate element (x) standing either in the last or the second place in the hemistich,
béorhtbḗacen Gódesbrímu swáðredon.Beow. 570.twélf wintra tī́dtórn geþólode.Beow. 147.
béorhtbḗacen Gódesbrímu swáðredon.Beow. 570.twélf wintra tī́dtórn geþólode.Beow. 147.
béorhtbḗacen Gódesbrímu swáðredon.Beow. 570.
twélf wintra tī́dtórn geþólode.Beow. 147.
In the case of single alliteration, it is always the first of the nouns or adjectives which alliterates.
The verb(excluding the infinitive and participles) is usually less strongly accented than the noun. It may therefore precede or follow the noun or adjective without alliteration, either in the arsis or thesis, as
lḗt sehéardaHígelāces þégn.Beow. 2977.him þāScýld gewā́t tō gescǽp-hwī́le.Beow. 26.gewāt þātwélfa súmtórne gebólhen.Beow. 2401.
lḗt sehéardaHígelāces þégn.Beow. 2977.him þāScýld gewā́t tō gescǽp-hwī́le.Beow. 26.gewāt þātwélfa súmtórne gebólhen.Beow. 2401.
lḗt sehéardaHígelāces þégn.Beow. 2977.
him þāScýld gewā́t tō gescǽp-hwī́le.Beow. 26.
gewāt þātwélfa súmtórne gebólhen.Beow. 2401.
On the other hand, when a hemistich consists only of one noun and one verb, the verb may alliterate, as
gṓdne gegýrwan cwæð hēgū̀ð-cýning.Beow. 199.hwḗttonhígerōfnehǣ́l scḗawedon.Beow. 204.
gṓdne gegýrwan cwæð hēgū̀ð-cýning.Beow. 199.hwḗttonhígerōfnehǣ́l scḗawedon.Beow. 204.
gṓdne gegýrwan cwæð hēgū̀ð-cýning.Beow. 199.
hwḗttonhígerōfnehǣ́l scḗawedon.Beow. 204.
When a substantive and an adjective are closely combined, a verb in the same hemistich may alliterate, as
býreðblṓdig wæl,býrgean þénceð.Beow. 448.séofon nihtswúncon; hē þē ætsúnde oferflā́t.Beow. 517.
býreðblṓdig wæl,býrgean þénceð.Beow. 448.séofon nihtswúncon; hē þē ætsúnde oferflā́t.Beow. 517.
býreðblṓdig wæl,býrgean þénceð.Beow. 448.
séofon nihtswúncon; hē þē ætsúnde oferflā́t.Beow. 517.
In formulas consisting of noun + verb the noun predominates over the verb and takes the alliteration, as
wérodeswī́sawórdhord onlḗac.Beow. 259.
But if the verb is emphatic it may alliterate though there is a noun in the same hemistich; this occurs chiefly in the second hemistich, as
ond behéalse genám;hrúron him tḗaras.Beow. 1872.grýrelī̀cnegíst.Gýrede hine Beowulf.ib. 1441,
ond behéalse genám;hrúron him tḗaras.Beow. 1872.grýrelī̀cnegíst.Gýrede hine Beowulf.ib. 1441,
ond behéalse genám;hrúron him tḗaras.Beow. 1872.
grýrelī̀cnegíst.Gýrede hine Beowulf.ib. 1441,
but a few instances are found in the first hemistich, as
gemúnde þā segṓdamǣ́g Hígelā́ces.Beow. 758.
When one of two verbs in the hemistich is subordinate to the other the verb in the subordinate clause alliterates, having a stronger accent than the verb in the main clause,
mýnte þæt hē gedǣ́lde ǣr þondǽg cwṓme.Beow. 731.
If the two verbs are co-ordinate the first alliterates,
wórolde lī́fes:wýrce sē þe mṓte.Beow. 1387;
in the first hemistich both verbs commonly alliterate,
séomade ondsýredesínnìhte hḗold.Beow. 161.
The adverb.Adverbs of degree likemicle,swīðe,ful, &c., are commonly found in the thesis, and even if they stand in the arsis they usually do not alliterate, as
óftor mícle þonne onǣ́nne sī́ð.Beow. 1580.
When adverbs of this kind have a special rhetorical emphasis they may of course alliterate, as
éfne swāmícle swā biðmǣ́gða cræft.Beow. 1284.ac hē issnél andswíft andswī́ðe lḗoht.Phoen. 317.
éfne swāmícle swā biðmǣ́gða cræft.Beow. 1284.ac hē issnél andswíft andswī́ðe lḗoht.Phoen. 317.
éfne swāmícle swā biðmǣ́gða cræft.Beow. 1284.
ac hē issnél andswíft andswī́ðe lḗoht.Phoen. 317.
Adverbs which modify the meaning of the word which they precede alliterate, as
ǣ́scholtúfan grǣ̀g: wæs sēī́renþrḗat.Beow. 330.
Adverbial prepositions preceding the verb also alliterate,
hēt þāū́p béranǣ́ðelìnga gestrḗon.Beow. 1920,
but not when they follow the verb,
Gḗat wæsglǽdmōd,géong sṑna tṓ.Beow. 1785.
Adverbs derived from nouns are more strongly accented than the verb which they modify and therefore alliterate,
ālégdon þā tōmíddesmǣ́rne þḗoden.Beow. 3141.
Pronouns(and pronominal adjectives likemonig,eall,fela) are usually enclitic, and precede or follow the noun without alliterating, as
maniguṓðrugescéaftéfnswī̀ðe hím.Metr. xi. 44.ealnemíddangéard ōðmérestrḗamas.Dan. 503.fela icmónna gefrǽgnmǣ́gðum wéaldan.Wid. 10.
maniguṓðrugescéaftéfnswī̀ðe hím.Metr. xi. 44.ealnemíddangéard ōðmérestrḗamas.Dan. 503.fela icmónna gefrǽgnmǣ́gðum wéaldan.Wid. 10.
maniguṓðrugescéaftéfnswī̀ðe hím.Metr. xi. 44.
ealnemíddangéard ōðmérestrḗamas.Dan. 503.
fela icmónna gefrǽgnmǣ́gðum wéaldan.Wid. 10.
With a special rhetorical accent they may alliterate even if they precede the noun,
onþǣ́m dǽgeþýsses lī́fes.Beow. 197.
The pronounselfand the pronouns compounded with the prefixǣ(ǣghwā,ǣghwylc, &c.) are usually accented, and alliterate if they form the first arsis of the hemistich, as
sḗlran gesṓhte þǣm be himselfa dḗah.Beow. 1840.hǽfdeǣ́ghwæðerénde gefḗred.Beow. 2845.
sḗlran gesṓhte þǣm be himselfa dḗah.Beow. 1840.hǽfdeǣ́ghwæðerénde gefḗred.Beow. 2845.
sḗlran gesṓhte þǣm be himselfa dḗah.Beow. 1840.
hǽfdeǣ́ghwæðerénde gefḗred.Beow. 2845.
Prepositions, conjunctions, and particlesare not as a rule accented, but prepositions if followed by an enclitic pronoun take the accent and alliterate, as
éalduméarne andǣ́fter þón.Phoen. 238.nisúnder mḗǣ́nigṓðer.Riddle xli. 86.
éalduméarne andǣ́fter þón.Phoen. 238.nisúnder mḗǣ́nigṓðer.Riddle xli. 86.
éalduméarne andǣ́fter þón.Phoen. 238.
nisúnder mḗǣ́nigṓðer.Riddle xli. 86.
Whether words of these classes, standing in the first arsis of the first hemistich along with another alliterating word, were intended also to alliterate is somewhat uncertain, but it is probable that they were so, as in
mid þȳmǣ́stanmǽgenþrỳmme cýmeð.Crist 1009.
These laws of accentuation are strictly observed only in the older poetry; by the end of the tenth century, in Byrhtnoth, the Metres of Boethius and the Psalms, they are frequently neglected.
§36. Arrangement and relationship of verse and sentence.The following rules hold good in general for the distribution of the sentence or parts of the sentence between the hemistichs of the verse. Two distinct pauses occur in every alliterative line, one (commonly called the caesura) between the first and second hemistichs, the other at the end of the line, and these pauses are determined by the syntactical construction; that is to say, they coincide with the end of a clause or lesser member of the sentence. The hemistich must contain such parts of the sentence as belong closely together; and such coherent parts, as, for example, a pronoun and noun to which it refers or adverb with adjective, must not be separated from one another by the caesura, unless the pronoun or adverb is placed in the second arsis of the hemistich, as
wýrd æfter þíssumwórdgeméarcum.Gen. 2355.gif ge wíllaðmī́nremíhte gelḗfan.Sat. 251.
wýrd æfter þíssumwórdgeméarcum.Gen. 2355.gif ge wíllaðmī́nremíhte gelḗfan.Sat. 251.
wýrd æfter þíssumwórdgeméarcum.Gen. 2355.
gif ge wíllaðmī́nremíhte gelḗfan.Sat. 251.
In Beowulf this separation of closely connected words ispermitted only if the word standing in the arsis alliterates at the same time. Longer parts of a sentence may be separated both by the caesura and the pause at the end of the line. The syntactical connexion between the parts of a sentence thus broken up makes the unity of the parts clear, and when the division occurs in the caesura between the two halves of the verse, the alliteration common to both hemistichs serves further to emphasize this unity.
The single alliterative lines are connected with one another by the prevailing usage of ending the sentence not at the end of the completed line, but at the end of the first hemistich or in the middle of the line, and of beginning a new sentence with the second hemistich. The great variety of expression, and the predilection for paraphrase by means of synonyms which is so characteristic of OE. poetry, contribute to make such breaks in the line easy. Whatever may be the explanation, it is certainly the fact that in the OE. poetry the metrical and syntactical members do sometimes coincide, but at other times overlap in a way which does not admit of being reduced torule.[86]
§37.Besides the normal four-beat line (with two beats to each hemistich) there is in OE. and Old Saxon another variety, thelengthened line(Schwellvers) with three beats in each hemistich.[87]These verses occur in almost all OE. poems, either isolated or more commonly in groups, and occasionally we find lines with one hemistich of two beats and the second hemistich of three, like.
gā́stes dúgeðum þǣ́ra þe midgā́res órde.Gen. 1522,
andJud.96,Crist1461, &c., or with a lengthened hemistich of three beats and a normal hemistich of two beats, like
bǣ́ronbrándas onbrýneblā́can fȳ́res.Dan. 246,
andSat.605,Gnom. Ex.200, &c.
In thePsalmsand in Cynewulf’sJulianathey are wanting entirely, in Cynewulf’sEleneout of 1321 verses there are only fourteen lengthened whole lines, and three lengthened hemistichs.Examples of groups of these lengthened verses will be found inGen.44–46, 1015–1019, 2167–2169, 2854–2858;Exodus569–573,Dan.59–106, 203–205, 226–228, 238–246, 262–271, 435–438, 441, 448, 452–458;Judith2–12, 16–21, 30–34, 54–61, 63–68, 88–99, 272–274, 289–291, 338–349;Satan202, 232, 237, 605,Crist621, 889, 922, 1050, 1382–1386, &c., and in many of the smallerpoems.[88]
Lengthened verses of a looser type occur inSalomon and Saturn, andGenesisB; they have unusually long theses of four or five unaccented syllables after the first accented syllable, as
ǣ́nne hæfde hē swā swī́ðne gewórhtne.Gen. 252,
or have equally long anacruses before the first accented syllable, as