Chapter 35

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FOOTNOTES:[1]TheHistoria, in four volumes, was first published in the years 1900 to 1911, at Barcelona. It has now reached its third edition,—1913 to 1914. An excellent bibliography eighty-eight pages in length with well over a thousand items is to be found in the fourth volume.[2]The founding of Spanish California(The Macmillan Company. New York. 1916), chap. IX.[3]The first and most important social question in the history of the Spanish people, says Altamira, is that of modifying the physical conditions of the peninsula, as the basis of their national development. They have been able to count on the fertility of some regions, the abundant waters of others at some seasons of the year (most of which is lost in the sea, without being utilized), the wealth of subterranean waters in many localities, and the mineral wealth which lends itself also to industrial development. In other words, the problem is that of correcting the unequal distribution of Spain’s resources, rather than of a lack of them.[4]So called from the localities in Germany where bones of men of this type were discovered.[5]The inhabitants of the Canary Islands, a Spanish group off the northwest coast of Africa, are of this race. They preserved their racial characteristics with great purity until the fifteenth century, since which time more and more intermixture has taken place.[6]As an illustration of the close relationship between Spain and northern Africa it may be mentioned that the diocese of Spain under Diocletian included the province of Mauretania, or northern Africa. A seventh province was formed of the Balearic Islands.[7]Many of these city camps date from the period of Augustus, whose name appears in most of them,e.g.:Cæsaria Augusta(Saragossa);Urbs Septima Legionis(León);Asturica Augusta(Astorga)Lucas Augusti(Lugo);Emerita Augusta(Mérida);Pax Augusta(Badajoz); andBracara Augusta(Braga).[8]Spain contributed its share of martyrs during the periods of persecution, especially in the time of Diocletian. San Vicente of Valencia, Santa Eulalia of Mérida, San Severo of Barcelona, Santa Leocadia of Toledo, and Santa Engracia of Saragossa were among those put to death in Diocletian’s reign.[9]This term, characterized by Joaquín Escriche (Diccionario razonado de legislación y jurisprudencia. Madrid, 1847) as “barbarous,” is about equivalent to “Charter of the laws.”[10]Named for him, Gebel-al-Tarik, or hill of Tarik.[11]Near Medina Sidonia and Vejer.[12]Province of Salamanca.[13]The laws themselves furnish numerous indications of the customary evils. Doctors, for example, were forbidden to cure women, unless in the presence of certain specified persons. It may be added that doctors were made responsible by law for the effect of their medicines.[14]One curious superstitious practice was that of celebrating a mass for an enemy who was yet alive. It was believed that this would accelerate his death.[15]The word “count” was not at that time a title of nobility.[16]The figures are 300,000 and 5,408,000 dinars respectively, or roughly $700,000 and $12,600,000. It is of course impossible to reckon the comparative purchasing power of a dinar then and its equivalent today, although it was no doubt much greater then; hence, the above figures have only a relative value.[17]Almansor burned great numbers of philosophical works so as to win the favor of the Mohammedan priesthood.[18]Rueda continued independent,—an unimportant exception.[19]Less famous than the Cid, but quite as representative of his time, was the figure of Bishop Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela, who played an important part in the events of Urraca’s reign. He was a vigorous, ambitious, restless, not overscrupulous man, breaking pledges and changing from one side to another with the usual facility of men of that age. He was not only ambitious for himself but was also an ardent votary of the extension of church authority. He was a fighting bishop, who engaged in military campaigns himself and encountered many vicissitudes both in the civil wars of the kingdom and in the local uprisings of his own subjects. On one occasion the citizens of Santiago besieged him in his church, and set fire to a tower in which he took refuge. Nevertheless, the bishop escaped in the guise of a beggar. In the end he was usually successful. He procured the erection of Santiago de Compostela into an archbishopric, and enjoyed the distinction, equally with the church of Rome, of having seven cardinals as canons. He also gained the influential post of chaplain to Alfonso VII.[20]The word “merino” is an untranslatable term for an official in Spanish administration whose powers varied greatly from century to century. While themerinoswere at times “judges of sheep-walks,” as the word is often translated, they usually had much broader power as officials of the king. Themerinos mayores, or greatermerinos, were appointed by the king, with functions largely judicial in character and with authority extending over the greater provinces, such as Castile, León, or Galicia.Merinos menores, or lessermerinos, might be the appointees and subordinates ofmerinos mayores, or, similarly, of thecorregidores, or rulers of districts.[21]The term “adelantado” comes from the fact that the officials so-called were “advanced,” or “put forward,” in the place of the king, to act in his name. There is some authority to the effect that the title was in existence as early as the tenth century, but it was certainly employed by the latter part of the twelfth century. In origin theadelantados mayores, or greateradelantados, were judicial officials, hearing appeals that had formerly gone to the king. Theadelantado menor, or lesseradelantado, came into existence early in the thirteenth century, at which time he was a judicial officer of higher rank than themerinos, but also possessed extensive administrative powers. Many of theadelantados menoreswere stationed in frontier districts, and indeed they were often calledadelantados fronterizos(frontieradelantados). It was natural, therefore, that they should acquire military functions. It was theadelantado fronterizoof Spain who figured so prominently in the conquest of the Americas. Most of the conquerors of the sixteenth century wereadelantados. After that the title died out. Hill, Roscoe R.,The office of adelantado, inPolitical science quarterly, v. XXVIII, no. 4; Dec., 1913.[22]Taxes at that time were many and varied in kind, but may be reduced to three types: regular contributions, but depending on the happening of some event; indemnities to escape rendering certain due services; and fines. As examples of the first type may be mentioned thegoyosa(rejoicing) payable by a married man at the birth of a child; themovicio(removal) payable whenever one changed his residence; theyantar, or food supplies, for the king and his retinue whenever he visited a town; theservicios(services), or subsidies, granted by theCortes; thediezmos de mar(tithes of the sea), or customs duties collected at the ports. The most notable tax of the second class was thefonsado(foss), payable by those who wished to escape the obligation of going on a military campaign. One of the third group was thecaloña(fine), due from the inhabitants of a region where a crime had been committed and the guilty person had not been found. Gradually it became the practice to commute these taxes for a single payment, except for thefonsadoand theyantar, which were not dispensed with.[23]At the present time the wordalférezis equivalent to “sub-lieutenant.”[24]It is still allowed to exist in a chapel of the cathedral of Toledo, and in another of Salamanca.[25]To Saint Dominic is due the institution of the rosary.[26]A curious law of Jaime I recommended that ladies of noble rank should not offer food or lodging to jugglers, or even give them kisses.[27]Neoplatonism was a late and decadent form of the Greek philosophies. It endeavored to unite the precepts of Christian, Jewish, and oriental religions, and displayed a disregard for the empirical investigation of the universe, holding that the way to redemption lay through rising superior to the material manifestations of life.[28]The wars of Sancho and Juan gave rise to the celebrated act of heroism of Guzmán el Bueno. Guzmán was governor of Tarifa, and had promised Sancho that he would not surrender the place. Juan appeared before Tarifa with a Moslem army, and threatened to kill Guzmán’s infant son, whom he had in his power, unless the fortress were delivered. Guzmán preferred to keep faith with his king, and sent his own dagger for Juan to use in fulfilling his threat. Juan had the boy beheaded in front of the walls of Tarifa, but failed to take the town. The incident is illustrative of the savage brutality of the age, and was a rather unusual instance for that time of keeping political faith at any cost.[29]So called from a legend respecting his death. He is said to have ordered two men put to death for a crime which they protested they did not commit. As the sentence was being executed they summoned Ferdinand to appear before the tribunal of God within thirty days, and on the thirtieth day thereafter Ferdinand was dead.[30]The eldest son of Fernando de la Cerda, and therefore the rightful king according to the laws of Alfonso X.[31]This document is often rendered in English as “Privilege of Union,” a phrase which is frequently misunderstood to mean, privilege to unite. The use of the article is necessary in order to give the correct connotation.[32]The lack of regular armies in the medieval period gave rise to the employment of mercenary troops composed of adventurers from all countries, whose presence became a danger to the state, once the purpose for which they had been hired had been achieved. Fadrique of Sicily found himself in this position at the end of the war with his father in 1302. He therefore suggested to Roger de Flor, one of his mercenary leaders, that he go to the aid of the Roman emperor of Constantinople, then in grave danger from the Turks, who had overrun Asia Minor. Roger de Flor accepted the idea, and embarked for the east with a large body of mercenaries, many of whom were Catalans. Through their aid the emperor won great successes against the Turks, and he therefore granted wealth and honors to his mercenary helpers, with the result that yet more mercenaries came to share in the prosperity of their brothers in arms. Some of the Byzantine Greek nobles became jealous of the favor accorded to Roger de Flor and his men, and planned a massacre which was so successfully executed that that leader and thousands of his followers were killed. The survivors, some 3300 in number, did not lose courage, but on the contrary resolved to avenge this treachery, and did so, so effectively that the “Catalan vengeance” has become quite as famous a term in history as the “Sicilian vespers.” They defeated their enemies in several battles, and sacked and burned many towns, but at length accepted a call from the duke of Athens to assist him in his wars. They freed the duke from the danger which threatened him, but when he tried to deal with them as the Byzantine Greeks had done they dethroned him and sent a message to Fadrique of Sicily asking him to take them under his protection. Fadrique sent his son, Manfred, who established the Catalan duchy of Athens, which was destined to endure over half a century, from 1326 to 1387 or 1388.[33]This was at the time of the Great Schism in the church. Benedict was an Avignon pope.[34]Blanche was the unfortunate queen divorced by Henry the Impotent of Castile. Shortly after her imprisonment in Navarre she died suddenly, probably poisoned by order of her sister.[35]The figure of Pedro López de Ayala (1332-1407) is typical of the nobility of the times, illustrating also the new tendency to win triumphs in court intrigues rather than in warlike pursuits. Despite the facility with which he changed from one side to another, he was able to procure a profit for himself (even out of his reverses) without scandal and under a pretence of serving the public good, being always on the border of immorality without falling openly and resolutely into it. Thus he was able to rise from untitled poverty to nobility and extraordinary wealth, and to the position of chancellor of Castile. He was also the most noted historian of his time.A worthy successor of the preceding was Pedro Téllez Girón, grand master of Calatrava, whose achievements occupied the latter years of Juan II and most of the reign of Henry IV. As a favorite of the latter before he became king he was influential in causing the downfall of Álvaro de Luna, and profited by that event to secure honors and wealth for himself, so that in the reign of Henry IV he proved to be the most powerful of the Castilian lords. He was also one of the most turbulent and disloyal of the nobles, and knew how to procure a good price for his services in the civil wars of his time. He would have married Isabella, the successor of Henry IV, if he had lived, and in that event the history of Spain might have taken a different course.[36]Usually the “royal thirds” amounted to two-ninths. At a later time, both in Spain and the colonies, this tax was specifically called thedos novenas(two-ninths).[37]The customs of the clergy will be taken up more fully in chapter XIV.[38]It was still the practice to farm out the revenues for a fixed sum, leaving the contractor to collect them as a private venture.[39]Despite the existence of bull-fighting in much earlier times,—for example, in the Visigothic period,—there is no clear documentary reference to that game for centuries prior to the reign of Alfonso X.[40]The earliest recorded petition in their favor in the popular branch of theCorteswas in 1626![41]An estimate of 1359 states that there were 25,731 dwellings on royal lands, and 57,278 on those of the lords. As late as the seventeenth century it is said that 1800 cities and towns out of 2400 belonged to the nobles or the church, or three-fourths of the total.[42]Thus Queen María felt it incumbent upon her to enact, in 1454, that naked men should not take part in processions of masqueraders.[43]See page 90, note 1.[44]Literally “audience,” or “hearing.” Originally, the king gave “audience” for the decision of cases. Later, he was relieved of this duty by other officials, or bodies, and the name was applied finally to the courts referred to in this volume.[45]The most famous of these leagues was theSanta Real Hermandad(Royal Holy Brotherhood) of Toledo, Talavera, and Villarreal which lasted until the nineteenth century, although with modifications of its jurisdiction and activities. The members of the league might pursue an offender as far as the borders of Portugal or Aragon. When they caught him they had a banquet, after which the criminal was tied to a post to serve as a target, and a prize was given to the one who first shot him through the heart. When the accused was already dead, a trial was held and he was sentenced. This procedure helps one to visualize the real insecurity of the times,—for the same summary methods were employed which men have used both before and since when the central authority was not strong enough to guarantee public security. The California Vigilance Committees in the days of the gold rush are an instance in point.[46]Literally “corrector.” While the royal agent of this name might originally have been considered a “corrector” rather than an administrator, he later came to rule over areas ranging from that of a city to a province, with wide judicial and executive functions.[47]In 1283 the General Privilege was added as book eight, for there had been the usual seven parts in the code of Jaime I; in 1300 the reforms of Jaime II; in 1348 those of Pedro IV; and finally those of Juan I and Martín I.[48]In medieval schools grammar, rhetoric, and logic (comprising thetrivium) were the principal studies, supplemented by arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music (or thequadrivium). These subjects were almost unrecognizably unlike those of the same names today.[49]See page 110.[50]The Basque game, with which the people of Navarre were equally familiar. This game bears no resemblance to American base-ball; rather it is more like a combination of tennis and hand-ball. At the present time the players, three on a side, use a kind of bat, or racket, and a leather-covered, solid rubber ball. The ball is served against a side wall, and must be made to bound back over a net. The ball is thus kept in play until one side misses a return, which scores a point for the opponents. The side first making a required number of points wins the match.[51]After referring to the wealth of jewelry worn by the women of his time a Moslem writer goes on to say, “The women of Granada are beautiful, being distinguished for the symmetry of their figures, the gracefulness of their bodies, the length and waviness of their hair, the whiteness and brilliance of their teeth, the perfume of their breath, the pleasing lightness of their movements, the cleverness of their speech, and the charm of their conversation.”[52]See p. 159.[53]Cf. p. 155, n. 3.[54]Therealwas a former Spanish coin of elusive value. Prior to the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella it was worth slightly more than ninetymaravedísand after that reign slightly less than eighty-nine. Today therealof copper (a theoretical coin) is worth thirty-fourmaravedísand therealof silver sixty-eight. As themaravedí(which is no longer coined) was worth about a sixth of a cent in present-day United States money, it will be seen that therealhas ranged from about fifteen to five cents in value. These amounts do not, of course, represent the actual value, or purchasing power, of thereal. That cannot be determined, but it was certainly many times greater than it would be today.[55]The two most important, those of Valladolid and Granada, were distinguished from the others by being calledchancillerías.[56]Compare the figures on population given atpage 333.[57]The addition of the name “de Jesús” to that of some of the mystics came from their assertions of a marriage with Christ, according to which fact their names, in Spanish fashion, required this indication of their marital partner.[58]The best place to see them is in the Velázquez room of the Prado at Madrid.[59]The British settlement was abandoned in 1774, after which the Spaniards returned. Following the establishment of Argentine independence that country occupied the Falklands, and still claims them. Since 1833, however, they have been in the possession of England.[60]For negotiating this treaty, which certainly did not redound greatly to the advantage of Spain, Godoy won the title of Prince of the Peace.[61]Those who have lived in Spanish boarding-houses (fondas) in our own times will recognize that this description lacks very little of fitting contemporary Spain.[62]See note at page 196.[63]The Jansenists were a sect within the Catholic Church following the teachings of Cornelis Jansen (1585-1638), who relied upon the tenets of Saint Augustine as the basis for a reform of the church. They were opposed to the doctrine of papal infallibility, and were bitter enemies of the Jesuits, besides differing from other Catholics in certain points of dogma. Their views were eventually pronounced heretical.[64]On the basis of the usual size of Spanish families, this would have meant one churchman to every five to ten adult men.[65]One well-known case of clerical impropriety was that of the two ambitious priests whom Queen María Luisa employed as spies to keep her informed whether Godoy were faithful to her or not.[66]Afanegaequals about 1.59 acres.[67]There were some relatively unimportant combats after this date, and Spain did not acknowledge defeat until 1836.[68]Belloc, Hilaire, “The International,” inThe Dublin Review, v. CXLVI, nos. 292-293, pp. 167-181, 396-411. London. Jan. and Apr., 1910. This is an article about the Ferrer case.

FOOTNOTES:

[1]TheHistoria, in four volumes, was first published in the years 1900 to 1911, at Barcelona. It has now reached its third edition,—1913 to 1914. An excellent bibliography eighty-eight pages in length with well over a thousand items is to be found in the fourth volume.

[2]The founding of Spanish California(The Macmillan Company. New York. 1916), chap. IX.

[3]The first and most important social question in the history of the Spanish people, says Altamira, is that of modifying the physical conditions of the peninsula, as the basis of their national development. They have been able to count on the fertility of some regions, the abundant waters of others at some seasons of the year (most of which is lost in the sea, without being utilized), the wealth of subterranean waters in many localities, and the mineral wealth which lends itself also to industrial development. In other words, the problem is that of correcting the unequal distribution of Spain’s resources, rather than of a lack of them.

[4]So called from the localities in Germany where bones of men of this type were discovered.

[5]The inhabitants of the Canary Islands, a Spanish group off the northwest coast of Africa, are of this race. They preserved their racial characteristics with great purity until the fifteenth century, since which time more and more intermixture has taken place.

[6]As an illustration of the close relationship between Spain and northern Africa it may be mentioned that the diocese of Spain under Diocletian included the province of Mauretania, or northern Africa. A seventh province was formed of the Balearic Islands.

[7]Many of these city camps date from the period of Augustus, whose name appears in most of them,e.g.:Cæsaria Augusta(Saragossa);Urbs Septima Legionis(León);Asturica Augusta(Astorga)Lucas Augusti(Lugo);Emerita Augusta(Mérida);Pax Augusta(Badajoz); andBracara Augusta(Braga).

[8]Spain contributed its share of martyrs during the periods of persecution, especially in the time of Diocletian. San Vicente of Valencia, Santa Eulalia of Mérida, San Severo of Barcelona, Santa Leocadia of Toledo, and Santa Engracia of Saragossa were among those put to death in Diocletian’s reign.

[9]This term, characterized by Joaquín Escriche (Diccionario razonado de legislación y jurisprudencia. Madrid, 1847) as “barbarous,” is about equivalent to “Charter of the laws.”

[10]Named for him, Gebel-al-Tarik, or hill of Tarik.

[11]Near Medina Sidonia and Vejer.

[12]Province of Salamanca.

[13]The laws themselves furnish numerous indications of the customary evils. Doctors, for example, were forbidden to cure women, unless in the presence of certain specified persons. It may be added that doctors were made responsible by law for the effect of their medicines.

[14]One curious superstitious practice was that of celebrating a mass for an enemy who was yet alive. It was believed that this would accelerate his death.

[15]The word “count” was not at that time a title of nobility.

[16]The figures are 300,000 and 5,408,000 dinars respectively, or roughly $700,000 and $12,600,000. It is of course impossible to reckon the comparative purchasing power of a dinar then and its equivalent today, although it was no doubt much greater then; hence, the above figures have only a relative value.

[17]Almansor burned great numbers of philosophical works so as to win the favor of the Mohammedan priesthood.

[18]Rueda continued independent,—an unimportant exception.

[19]Less famous than the Cid, but quite as representative of his time, was the figure of Bishop Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela, who played an important part in the events of Urraca’s reign. He was a vigorous, ambitious, restless, not overscrupulous man, breaking pledges and changing from one side to another with the usual facility of men of that age. He was not only ambitious for himself but was also an ardent votary of the extension of church authority. He was a fighting bishop, who engaged in military campaigns himself and encountered many vicissitudes both in the civil wars of the kingdom and in the local uprisings of his own subjects. On one occasion the citizens of Santiago besieged him in his church, and set fire to a tower in which he took refuge. Nevertheless, the bishop escaped in the guise of a beggar. In the end he was usually successful. He procured the erection of Santiago de Compostela into an archbishopric, and enjoyed the distinction, equally with the church of Rome, of having seven cardinals as canons. He also gained the influential post of chaplain to Alfonso VII.

[20]The word “merino” is an untranslatable term for an official in Spanish administration whose powers varied greatly from century to century. While themerinoswere at times “judges of sheep-walks,” as the word is often translated, they usually had much broader power as officials of the king. Themerinos mayores, or greatermerinos, were appointed by the king, with functions largely judicial in character and with authority extending over the greater provinces, such as Castile, León, or Galicia.Merinos menores, or lessermerinos, might be the appointees and subordinates ofmerinos mayores, or, similarly, of thecorregidores, or rulers of districts.

[21]The term “adelantado” comes from the fact that the officials so-called were “advanced,” or “put forward,” in the place of the king, to act in his name. There is some authority to the effect that the title was in existence as early as the tenth century, but it was certainly employed by the latter part of the twelfth century. In origin theadelantados mayores, or greateradelantados, were judicial officials, hearing appeals that had formerly gone to the king. Theadelantado menor, or lesseradelantado, came into existence early in the thirteenth century, at which time he was a judicial officer of higher rank than themerinos, but also possessed extensive administrative powers. Many of theadelantados menoreswere stationed in frontier districts, and indeed they were often calledadelantados fronterizos(frontieradelantados). It was natural, therefore, that they should acquire military functions. It was theadelantado fronterizoof Spain who figured so prominently in the conquest of the Americas. Most of the conquerors of the sixteenth century wereadelantados. After that the title died out. Hill, Roscoe R.,The office of adelantado, inPolitical science quarterly, v. XXVIII, no. 4; Dec., 1913.

[22]Taxes at that time were many and varied in kind, but may be reduced to three types: regular contributions, but depending on the happening of some event; indemnities to escape rendering certain due services; and fines. As examples of the first type may be mentioned thegoyosa(rejoicing) payable by a married man at the birth of a child; themovicio(removal) payable whenever one changed his residence; theyantar, or food supplies, for the king and his retinue whenever he visited a town; theservicios(services), or subsidies, granted by theCortes; thediezmos de mar(tithes of the sea), or customs duties collected at the ports. The most notable tax of the second class was thefonsado(foss), payable by those who wished to escape the obligation of going on a military campaign. One of the third group was thecaloña(fine), due from the inhabitants of a region where a crime had been committed and the guilty person had not been found. Gradually it became the practice to commute these taxes for a single payment, except for thefonsadoand theyantar, which were not dispensed with.

[23]At the present time the wordalférezis equivalent to “sub-lieutenant.”

[24]It is still allowed to exist in a chapel of the cathedral of Toledo, and in another of Salamanca.

[25]To Saint Dominic is due the institution of the rosary.

[26]A curious law of Jaime I recommended that ladies of noble rank should not offer food or lodging to jugglers, or even give them kisses.

[27]Neoplatonism was a late and decadent form of the Greek philosophies. It endeavored to unite the precepts of Christian, Jewish, and oriental religions, and displayed a disregard for the empirical investigation of the universe, holding that the way to redemption lay through rising superior to the material manifestations of life.

[28]The wars of Sancho and Juan gave rise to the celebrated act of heroism of Guzmán el Bueno. Guzmán was governor of Tarifa, and had promised Sancho that he would not surrender the place. Juan appeared before Tarifa with a Moslem army, and threatened to kill Guzmán’s infant son, whom he had in his power, unless the fortress were delivered. Guzmán preferred to keep faith with his king, and sent his own dagger for Juan to use in fulfilling his threat. Juan had the boy beheaded in front of the walls of Tarifa, but failed to take the town. The incident is illustrative of the savage brutality of the age, and was a rather unusual instance for that time of keeping political faith at any cost.

[29]So called from a legend respecting his death. He is said to have ordered two men put to death for a crime which they protested they did not commit. As the sentence was being executed they summoned Ferdinand to appear before the tribunal of God within thirty days, and on the thirtieth day thereafter Ferdinand was dead.

[30]The eldest son of Fernando de la Cerda, and therefore the rightful king according to the laws of Alfonso X.

[31]This document is often rendered in English as “Privilege of Union,” a phrase which is frequently misunderstood to mean, privilege to unite. The use of the article is necessary in order to give the correct connotation.

[32]The lack of regular armies in the medieval period gave rise to the employment of mercenary troops composed of adventurers from all countries, whose presence became a danger to the state, once the purpose for which they had been hired had been achieved. Fadrique of Sicily found himself in this position at the end of the war with his father in 1302. He therefore suggested to Roger de Flor, one of his mercenary leaders, that he go to the aid of the Roman emperor of Constantinople, then in grave danger from the Turks, who had overrun Asia Minor. Roger de Flor accepted the idea, and embarked for the east with a large body of mercenaries, many of whom were Catalans. Through their aid the emperor won great successes against the Turks, and he therefore granted wealth and honors to his mercenary helpers, with the result that yet more mercenaries came to share in the prosperity of their brothers in arms. Some of the Byzantine Greek nobles became jealous of the favor accorded to Roger de Flor and his men, and planned a massacre which was so successfully executed that that leader and thousands of his followers were killed. The survivors, some 3300 in number, did not lose courage, but on the contrary resolved to avenge this treachery, and did so, so effectively that the “Catalan vengeance” has become quite as famous a term in history as the “Sicilian vespers.” They defeated their enemies in several battles, and sacked and burned many towns, but at length accepted a call from the duke of Athens to assist him in his wars. They freed the duke from the danger which threatened him, but when he tried to deal with them as the Byzantine Greeks had done they dethroned him and sent a message to Fadrique of Sicily asking him to take them under his protection. Fadrique sent his son, Manfred, who established the Catalan duchy of Athens, which was destined to endure over half a century, from 1326 to 1387 or 1388.

[33]This was at the time of the Great Schism in the church. Benedict was an Avignon pope.

[34]Blanche was the unfortunate queen divorced by Henry the Impotent of Castile. Shortly after her imprisonment in Navarre she died suddenly, probably poisoned by order of her sister.

[35]The figure of Pedro López de Ayala (1332-1407) is typical of the nobility of the times, illustrating also the new tendency to win triumphs in court intrigues rather than in warlike pursuits. Despite the facility with which he changed from one side to another, he was able to procure a profit for himself (even out of his reverses) without scandal and under a pretence of serving the public good, being always on the border of immorality without falling openly and resolutely into it. Thus he was able to rise from untitled poverty to nobility and extraordinary wealth, and to the position of chancellor of Castile. He was also the most noted historian of his time.A worthy successor of the preceding was Pedro Téllez Girón, grand master of Calatrava, whose achievements occupied the latter years of Juan II and most of the reign of Henry IV. As a favorite of the latter before he became king he was influential in causing the downfall of Álvaro de Luna, and profited by that event to secure honors and wealth for himself, so that in the reign of Henry IV he proved to be the most powerful of the Castilian lords. He was also one of the most turbulent and disloyal of the nobles, and knew how to procure a good price for his services in the civil wars of his time. He would have married Isabella, the successor of Henry IV, if he had lived, and in that event the history of Spain might have taken a different course.

A worthy successor of the preceding was Pedro Téllez Girón, grand master of Calatrava, whose achievements occupied the latter years of Juan II and most of the reign of Henry IV. As a favorite of the latter before he became king he was influential in causing the downfall of Álvaro de Luna, and profited by that event to secure honors and wealth for himself, so that in the reign of Henry IV he proved to be the most powerful of the Castilian lords. He was also one of the most turbulent and disloyal of the nobles, and knew how to procure a good price for his services in the civil wars of his time. He would have married Isabella, the successor of Henry IV, if he had lived, and in that event the history of Spain might have taken a different course.

[36]Usually the “royal thirds” amounted to two-ninths. At a later time, both in Spain and the colonies, this tax was specifically called thedos novenas(two-ninths).

[37]The customs of the clergy will be taken up more fully in chapter XIV.

[38]It was still the practice to farm out the revenues for a fixed sum, leaving the contractor to collect them as a private venture.

[39]Despite the existence of bull-fighting in much earlier times,—for example, in the Visigothic period,—there is no clear documentary reference to that game for centuries prior to the reign of Alfonso X.

[40]The earliest recorded petition in their favor in the popular branch of theCorteswas in 1626!

[41]An estimate of 1359 states that there were 25,731 dwellings on royal lands, and 57,278 on those of the lords. As late as the seventeenth century it is said that 1800 cities and towns out of 2400 belonged to the nobles or the church, or three-fourths of the total.

[42]Thus Queen María felt it incumbent upon her to enact, in 1454, that naked men should not take part in processions of masqueraders.

[43]See page 90, note 1.

[44]Literally “audience,” or “hearing.” Originally, the king gave “audience” for the decision of cases. Later, he was relieved of this duty by other officials, or bodies, and the name was applied finally to the courts referred to in this volume.

[45]The most famous of these leagues was theSanta Real Hermandad(Royal Holy Brotherhood) of Toledo, Talavera, and Villarreal which lasted until the nineteenth century, although with modifications of its jurisdiction and activities. The members of the league might pursue an offender as far as the borders of Portugal or Aragon. When they caught him they had a banquet, after which the criminal was tied to a post to serve as a target, and a prize was given to the one who first shot him through the heart. When the accused was already dead, a trial was held and he was sentenced. This procedure helps one to visualize the real insecurity of the times,—for the same summary methods were employed which men have used both before and since when the central authority was not strong enough to guarantee public security. The California Vigilance Committees in the days of the gold rush are an instance in point.

[46]Literally “corrector.” While the royal agent of this name might originally have been considered a “corrector” rather than an administrator, he later came to rule over areas ranging from that of a city to a province, with wide judicial and executive functions.

[47]In 1283 the General Privilege was added as book eight, for there had been the usual seven parts in the code of Jaime I; in 1300 the reforms of Jaime II; in 1348 those of Pedro IV; and finally those of Juan I and Martín I.

[48]In medieval schools grammar, rhetoric, and logic (comprising thetrivium) were the principal studies, supplemented by arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music (or thequadrivium). These subjects were almost unrecognizably unlike those of the same names today.

[49]See page 110.

[50]The Basque game, with which the people of Navarre were equally familiar. This game bears no resemblance to American base-ball; rather it is more like a combination of tennis and hand-ball. At the present time the players, three on a side, use a kind of bat, or racket, and a leather-covered, solid rubber ball. The ball is served against a side wall, and must be made to bound back over a net. The ball is thus kept in play until one side misses a return, which scores a point for the opponents. The side first making a required number of points wins the match.

[51]After referring to the wealth of jewelry worn by the women of his time a Moslem writer goes on to say, “The women of Granada are beautiful, being distinguished for the symmetry of their figures, the gracefulness of their bodies, the length and waviness of their hair, the whiteness and brilliance of their teeth, the perfume of their breath, the pleasing lightness of their movements, the cleverness of their speech, and the charm of their conversation.”

[52]See p. 159.

[53]Cf. p. 155, n. 3.

[54]Therealwas a former Spanish coin of elusive value. Prior to the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella it was worth slightly more than ninetymaravedísand after that reign slightly less than eighty-nine. Today therealof copper (a theoretical coin) is worth thirty-fourmaravedísand therealof silver sixty-eight. As themaravedí(which is no longer coined) was worth about a sixth of a cent in present-day United States money, it will be seen that therealhas ranged from about fifteen to five cents in value. These amounts do not, of course, represent the actual value, or purchasing power, of thereal. That cannot be determined, but it was certainly many times greater than it would be today.

[55]The two most important, those of Valladolid and Granada, were distinguished from the others by being calledchancillerías.

[56]Compare the figures on population given atpage 333.

[57]The addition of the name “de Jesús” to that of some of the mystics came from their assertions of a marriage with Christ, according to which fact their names, in Spanish fashion, required this indication of their marital partner.

[58]The best place to see them is in the Velázquez room of the Prado at Madrid.

[59]The British settlement was abandoned in 1774, after which the Spaniards returned. Following the establishment of Argentine independence that country occupied the Falklands, and still claims them. Since 1833, however, they have been in the possession of England.

[60]For negotiating this treaty, which certainly did not redound greatly to the advantage of Spain, Godoy won the title of Prince of the Peace.

[61]Those who have lived in Spanish boarding-houses (fondas) in our own times will recognize that this description lacks very little of fitting contemporary Spain.

[62]See note at page 196.

[63]The Jansenists were a sect within the Catholic Church following the teachings of Cornelis Jansen (1585-1638), who relied upon the tenets of Saint Augustine as the basis for a reform of the church. They were opposed to the doctrine of papal infallibility, and were bitter enemies of the Jesuits, besides differing from other Catholics in certain points of dogma. Their views were eventually pronounced heretical.

[64]On the basis of the usual size of Spanish families, this would have meant one churchman to every five to ten adult men.

[65]One well-known case of clerical impropriety was that of the two ambitious priests whom Queen María Luisa employed as spies to keep her informed whether Godoy were faithful to her or not.

[66]Afanegaequals about 1.59 acres.

[67]There were some relatively unimportant combats after this date, and Spain did not acknowledge defeat until 1836.

[68]Belloc, Hilaire, “The International,” inThe Dublin Review, v. CXLVI, nos. 292-293, pp. 167-181, 396-411. London. Jan. and Apr., 1910. This is an article about the Ferrer case.

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