Chapter 26

61.Some English travellers have criticised the position of the town, and regretted that it is not placed lower down, at the immediate junction of the Rio Negro with the Solimoens. But its actual situation is much better, on account of the more quiet port, removed as it is from the violent currents caused by the meeting of the two rivers.—L. A.

62.When this was written there was hardly any prospect of the early opening of the Amazons to the free commerce of the world. The circumstance that since the 7th of September last this great fresh-water ocean has been made free to the mercantile shipping of all nations will, no doubt, immensely accelerate the development of civilization in these desert regions. No act could have exhibited more unequivocally the liberal policy which actuates the Brazilian government than this. To complete the great work, two things are still wanting,—a direct high road between the upper tributaries of the Rio Madeira and Rio Paraguay, and the abolition of the subsidies granted to privileged companies, that the colossal traffic of which the whole basin is susceptible may truly be thrown open to a fair competition.—L. A.

63.Senahor Pimenta Bueno.My dear Friend:—You will probably be surprised to receive only a few lines from me after the time which has elapsed since my last letter. The truth is, that, since Obydos, I have passed from surprise to surprise, and that I have scarcely had time to take care of the collections we have made, without being able to study them properly. Thus, during the week we spent in the environs of Villa Bella, at Lago José Assú and Lago Maximo, we have collected one hundred and eighty species of fishes, two thirds of which, at least, are new, while those of my companions who remained at Santarem and upon the Tapajoz have brought back some fifty more, making already more than three hundred species, including those of Porto do Moz, of Gurupá, of Tajapurú, and of Monte Alégre. You see that before having ascended the Amazons for one third of its course, the number of fishes is more than triple that of all the species known thus far, and I begin to perceive that we shall not do more than skim over the surface of the centre of this great basin. What will it be when it becomes possible to study all its affluents at leisure and in the most favorable season! I have resolved to make more numerous stations in the upper part of the river and to stay as long as my strength and means will allow. Do not think, however, that I forget to whom I owe such a success. It is you who have put me on the path, by making known to me the resources of the forest, and, better still, by furnishing me with the means to profit by them. Thanks, a thousand times, thanks. I ought also to acknowledge the assistance afforded me by the agents of the Company, at all the points where we have touched. Our amiable commander has also exerted himself, and while I explored the lakes in the neighborhood of Villa Bella, he made a very fine collection in the Amazons, especially of the numerous small species always overlooked by fishermen. On the arrival of the Belem I received your kind letter and a part of the alcohol I had asked from Mr. Bond. I am writing to-day to ask him to send me a part to Teffé, and, somewhat later, more to Manaos. Thank you for the catalogue of Pará fishes; I shall give it back on our return, with the additions I shall make during the remainder of the voyage. Adieu, my dear friend.Ever yours,L. Agassiz.

63.

Senahor Pimenta Bueno.

My dear Friend:—You will probably be surprised to receive only a few lines from me after the time which has elapsed since my last letter. The truth is, that, since Obydos, I have passed from surprise to surprise, and that I have scarcely had time to take care of the collections we have made, without being able to study them properly. Thus, during the week we spent in the environs of Villa Bella, at Lago José Assú and Lago Maximo, we have collected one hundred and eighty species of fishes, two thirds of which, at least, are new, while those of my companions who remained at Santarem and upon the Tapajoz have brought back some fifty more, making already more than three hundred species, including those of Porto do Moz, of Gurupá, of Tajapurú, and of Monte Alégre. You see that before having ascended the Amazons for one third of its course, the number of fishes is more than triple that of all the species known thus far, and I begin to perceive that we shall not do more than skim over the surface of the centre of this great basin. What will it be when it becomes possible to study all its affluents at leisure and in the most favorable season! I have resolved to make more numerous stations in the upper part of the river and to stay as long as my strength and means will allow. Do not think, however, that I forget to whom I owe such a success. It is you who have put me on the path, by making known to me the resources of the forest, and, better still, by furnishing me with the means to profit by them. Thanks, a thousand times, thanks. I ought also to acknowledge the assistance afforded me by the agents of the Company, at all the points where we have touched. Our amiable commander has also exerted himself, and while I explored the lakes in the neighborhood of Villa Bella, he made a very fine collection in the Amazons, especially of the numerous small species always overlooked by fishermen. On the arrival of the Belem I received your kind letter and a part of the alcohol I had asked from Mr. Bond. I am writing to-day to ask him to send me a part to Teffé, and, somewhat later, more to Manaos. Thank you for the catalogue of Pará fishes; I shall give it back on our return, with the additions I shall make during the remainder of the voyage. Adieu, my dear friend.

Ever yours,L. Agassiz.

Ever yours,

L. Agassiz.

64.In the course of the investigation, I have ascertained that this slaty rock, as well as the hard sandstone seen along the river-banks at Manaos, forms part of the great drift formation of the Amazons, and that there is neither old red sandstone, nor trias, here, as older observers supposed.—L. A.

65.Teffé, 14 September, 1865.Sire:—On arriving here this morning I had the most agreeable and unexpected surprise. The first fish brought to me was the Acara, which your Majesty kindly permitted me to dedicate to you, and by an unlooked-for good fortune it was the breeding season, and it had its mouth full of little young ones in the process of development. Here, then, is the most incredible fact in embryology fully confirmed, and it remains for me only to study, in detail and at leisure, all the changes which the young undergo up to the moment when they leave their singular nest, in order that I may publish a complete account of this curious history. My anticipations as to the distribution of fishes are confirmed; the river is inhabited by several very distinct ichthyological faunæ, which have, as a common link, only a very small number of species to be met with everywhere. It remains now to ascertain with precision the limits of these ichthyological regions, and I may perhaps be drawn on to devote some time to this study, if I find the means of accomplishing it. There is a question which now becomes very interesting; it is to know how far the same phenomenon is reproduced in each one of the great affluents of the river Amazons, or, in other words, whether the fishes of the upper regions of the Rio Madeira, the Rio Negro, &c., &c., are the same as those of the lower course of these rivers. As to the diversity of fishes in the whole basin, my expectations are far surpassed. Before arriving at Manaos I had already collected more than three hundred species, that is to say, at least three times the number of species thus far known. About half have been painted from life by Mr. Burkhardt; if I can succeed in publishing all these documents, the information I shall be able to furnish on this subject will exceed all that has been thus far made known. I should be very glad to learn that your Majesty has not met with difficulties on the voyage, and has been able fully to accomplish the ends proposed. We are here without news from the South since we left Rio, and all we had learned then was, that after a very stormy passage your Majesty had reached the Rio Grande. May God protect and bless your Majesty!With sentiments of the most profound respect and the liveliest gratitude, I amYour Majesty’s very humble and obedient servant,L. Agassiz.

65.

Teffé, 14 September, 1865.

Sire:—On arriving here this morning I had the most agreeable and unexpected surprise. The first fish brought to me was the Acara, which your Majesty kindly permitted me to dedicate to you, and by an unlooked-for good fortune it was the breeding season, and it had its mouth full of little young ones in the process of development. Here, then, is the most incredible fact in embryology fully confirmed, and it remains for me only to study, in detail and at leisure, all the changes which the young undergo up to the moment when they leave their singular nest, in order that I may publish a complete account of this curious history. My anticipations as to the distribution of fishes are confirmed; the river is inhabited by several very distinct ichthyological faunæ, which have, as a common link, only a very small number of species to be met with everywhere. It remains now to ascertain with precision the limits of these ichthyological regions, and I may perhaps be drawn on to devote some time to this study, if I find the means of accomplishing it. There is a question which now becomes very interesting; it is to know how far the same phenomenon is reproduced in each one of the great affluents of the river Amazons, or, in other words, whether the fishes of the upper regions of the Rio Madeira, the Rio Negro, &c., &c., are the same as those of the lower course of these rivers. As to the diversity of fishes in the whole basin, my expectations are far surpassed. Before arriving at Manaos I had already collected more than three hundred species, that is to say, at least three times the number of species thus far known. About half have been painted from life by Mr. Burkhardt; if I can succeed in publishing all these documents, the information I shall be able to furnish on this subject will exceed all that has been thus far made known. I should be very glad to learn that your Majesty has not met with difficulties on the voyage, and has been able fully to accomplish the ends proposed. We are here without news from the South since we left Rio, and all we had learned then was, that after a very stormy passage your Majesty had reached the Rio Grande. May God protect and bless your Majesty!

With sentiments of the most profound respect and the liveliest gratitude, I am

Your Majesty’s very humble and obedient servant,L. Agassiz.

Your Majesty’s very humble and obedient servant,

L. Agassiz.

66.At this point the Amazonian meets the Peruvian steamer, and they exchange cargoes. Formerly the Brazilian company of Amazonian steamers extended its line of travel to Laguna, at the mouth of the Huallaga. Now this part of the journey has passed into the hands of a Peruvian company, whose steamers run up to Urimaguas on the Huallaga. They are, however, by no means so comfortable as the Brazilian steamers, having little or no accommodation for passengers. The upper Marañon is navigable for large steamers as far as Jaen, as are also its tributaries, the Huallaga and Ucayali on the south, the Moronha, Pastazza, and Napo on the north, to a great distance above their junction with the main stream. There is reason to believe that all these larger affluents of the Amazons will before long have their regular lines of steamers like the great river itself. The opening of the Amazons, no doubt, will hasten this result.—L. A.

67.These gentlemen descended the river with us as far as Teffé, and we afterwards heard of their safe arrival in Madrid. They had, however, suffered much in health, and Mr. Isern died soon after his return to his native land.

68.It is a curious fact, that though a large number of cows were owned in Teffé, and were constantly seen feeding about the houses, milk was among the unattainable luxuries. Indeed, milk is little used in Brazil, so far as our observation goes. It is thought unhealthy for children, and people will rather give coffee or tea to a two-year-old baby than pure milk. The cows are never milked regularly, but the quantity needed for the moment is drawn at any time.

69.Teffé, September 22, 1865.My dear Friend and honored Colleague:—Here I have been for two months in the basin of the Amazons, and it is here that I have heard with sorrow of the death of my old friend Valenciennes. I am the more affected by it, because no one would have appreciated more than he the results of my journey, which I had hoped soon to share with him. You will naturally understand that it is to the class of fishes I consecrate the better part of my time, and my harvest exceeds all my anticipations. You will judge of it by a few statements.On reaching Manaos, at the junction of the Rio Negro and the Amazons, I had already collected more than three hundred species of fishes, half of which have been painted from life, that is, from the fish swimming in a large glass tank before my artist. I am often pained to see how carelessly colored plates of these animals have been published. Not only have we tripled the number of species, but I count new genera by dozens, and I have five or six new families for the Amazons, and one allied to the Gobioides entirely new to Ichthyology. Among the small species especially I have found novelties. I have Characines of five or six centimetres and less, adorned with the most beautiful tints, Cyprinodonts resembling a little those of Cuba and the United States, Scomberesoces allied to the Belone of the Mediterranean, a considerable number of Carapoides, and Rays of different genera from those of the ocean, and therefore not species which ascend the river; and a crowd of Goniodonts and Chromides of unpublished genera and species. But what I appreciate most highly is the facility I have for studying the changes which all these fishes undergo with age and the differences of sex among them; which are often very considerable. Thus I have observed a species of Geophagus in which the male has a very conspicuous protuberance on the forehead, wholly wanting in the female and the young. This same fish has a most extraordinary mode of reproduction. The eggs pass, I know not how, into the mouth, the bottom of which is lined by them, between the inner appendages of the branchial arches, and especially into a pouch, formed by the upper pharyngials, which they completely fill. There they are hatched, and the little ones, freed from the egg-case, are developed until they are in a condition to provide for their own existence. I do not yet know how long this continues; but I have already met with specimens whose young had no longer any vitelline sac, but were still harbored by the progenitor. As I shall still pass a month at Teffé I hope to be able to complete this observation. The examination of the structure of a great number of Chromides has led me to perceive the affinities between these fishes and several other families with which we have never thought of associating them. In the first place, I have convinced myself that the Chromides, formerly scattered among the Labroides and the Sciænoids, really constitute a natural group recognized nearly at the same time and in an independent manner by Heckel and J. Müller. But, beside these, there are the genera Enoplosus, Pomotis, Centrarchus, and some other neighboring genera, classed among the Percoids by all Ichthyologists, which seem to me, from this distance and without means of direct comparison, so near the Chromides that I do not see how they can be separated, especially now that I know the lower pharyngials not to be invariably soldered in the Chromides. And then the embryology and metamorphoses of the Chromides, which I have just been studying, have convinced me that the fishes with labyrinthic branchiæ, separated from all other fishes by Cuvier, as a family entirely isolated on account of the strange structure of its respiratory organs, are closely related to the Chromides. Thus this group becomes, by its various affinities, one of the most interesting of the class of fishes, and the basin of the Amazons seems to be the true home of this family. I will not fatigue you with my ichthyological researches; let me only add, that the fishes are not uniformly spread over this great basin. I have already acquired the certainty that we must distinguish several ichthyological faunæ very clearly characterized. Thus the species inhabiting the river of Pará, from the borders of the sea to the mouth of the Tocantins, differ from those which are met in the network of anastomoses uniting the river of Pará with the Amazons proper. The species of the Amazons below the Xingu differ from those which occur higher up; those of the lower course of the Xingu differ from those of the lower course of the Tapajoz. Those of the numerous igarapés and lakes of Manaos differ as much from those of the principal course of the great river and of its great affluents. It remains now to study the changes which may take place in this distribution in the course of the year, according to the height of the waters, and perhaps also according to the epoch at which the different species lay their eggs. Thus far I have met but a small number of species having a very extensive area of distribution. One of those is the Sudis gigas, found almost everywhere. It is the most important fish of the river, that which, as food, corresponds to cattle for the population along the banks. Another problem to be solved is, how far this phenomenon of the local distribution of fishes is repeated in the great affluents of the Amazons. I shall try to solve it in ascending the Rio Negro and Rio Madeira, and as I return to Manaos I shall be able to compare my first observations in this locality with those of another season of the year. Adieu, my dear friend. Remember me to M. Elie de Beaumont and to those of my colleagues of the Academy who are interested in my present studies. My kind remembrance also to your son.Always yours,L. Agassiz.

69.

Teffé, September 22, 1865.

My dear Friend and honored Colleague:—Here I have been for two months in the basin of the Amazons, and it is here that I have heard with sorrow of the death of my old friend Valenciennes. I am the more affected by it, because no one would have appreciated more than he the results of my journey, which I had hoped soon to share with him. You will naturally understand that it is to the class of fishes I consecrate the better part of my time, and my harvest exceeds all my anticipations. You will judge of it by a few statements.

On reaching Manaos, at the junction of the Rio Negro and the Amazons, I had already collected more than three hundred species of fishes, half of which have been painted from life, that is, from the fish swimming in a large glass tank before my artist. I am often pained to see how carelessly colored plates of these animals have been published. Not only have we tripled the number of species, but I count new genera by dozens, and I have five or six new families for the Amazons, and one allied to the Gobioides entirely new to Ichthyology. Among the small species especially I have found novelties. I have Characines of five or six centimetres and less, adorned with the most beautiful tints, Cyprinodonts resembling a little those of Cuba and the United States, Scomberesoces allied to the Belone of the Mediterranean, a considerable number of Carapoides, and Rays of different genera from those of the ocean, and therefore not species which ascend the river; and a crowd of Goniodonts and Chromides of unpublished genera and species. But what I appreciate most highly is the facility I have for studying the changes which all these fishes undergo with age and the differences of sex among them; which are often very considerable. Thus I have observed a species of Geophagus in which the male has a very conspicuous protuberance on the forehead, wholly wanting in the female and the young. This same fish has a most extraordinary mode of reproduction. The eggs pass, I know not how, into the mouth, the bottom of which is lined by them, between the inner appendages of the branchial arches, and especially into a pouch, formed by the upper pharyngials, which they completely fill. There they are hatched, and the little ones, freed from the egg-case, are developed until they are in a condition to provide for their own existence. I do not yet know how long this continues; but I have already met with specimens whose young had no longer any vitelline sac, but were still harbored by the progenitor. As I shall still pass a month at Teffé I hope to be able to complete this observation. The examination of the structure of a great number of Chromides has led me to perceive the affinities between these fishes and several other families with which we have never thought of associating them. In the first place, I have convinced myself that the Chromides, formerly scattered among the Labroides and the Sciænoids, really constitute a natural group recognized nearly at the same time and in an independent manner by Heckel and J. Müller. But, beside these, there are the genera Enoplosus, Pomotis, Centrarchus, and some other neighboring genera, classed among the Percoids by all Ichthyologists, which seem to me, from this distance and without means of direct comparison, so near the Chromides that I do not see how they can be separated, especially now that I know the lower pharyngials not to be invariably soldered in the Chromides. And then the embryology and metamorphoses of the Chromides, which I have just been studying, have convinced me that the fishes with labyrinthic branchiæ, separated from all other fishes by Cuvier, as a family entirely isolated on account of the strange structure of its respiratory organs, are closely related to the Chromides. Thus this group becomes, by its various affinities, one of the most interesting of the class of fishes, and the basin of the Amazons seems to be the true home of this family. I will not fatigue you with my ichthyological researches; let me only add, that the fishes are not uniformly spread over this great basin. I have already acquired the certainty that we must distinguish several ichthyological faunæ very clearly characterized. Thus the species inhabiting the river of Pará, from the borders of the sea to the mouth of the Tocantins, differ from those which are met in the network of anastomoses uniting the river of Pará with the Amazons proper. The species of the Amazons below the Xingu differ from those which occur higher up; those of the lower course of the Xingu differ from those of the lower course of the Tapajoz. Those of the numerous igarapés and lakes of Manaos differ as much from those of the principal course of the great river and of its great affluents. It remains now to study the changes which may take place in this distribution in the course of the year, according to the height of the waters, and perhaps also according to the epoch at which the different species lay their eggs. Thus far I have met but a small number of species having a very extensive area of distribution. One of those is the Sudis gigas, found almost everywhere. It is the most important fish of the river, that which, as food, corresponds to cattle for the population along the banks. Another problem to be solved is, how far this phenomenon of the local distribution of fishes is repeated in the great affluents of the Amazons. I shall try to solve it in ascending the Rio Negro and Rio Madeira, and as I return to Manaos I shall be able to compare my first observations in this locality with those of another season of the year. Adieu, my dear friend. Remember me to M. Elie de Beaumont and to those of my colleagues of the Academy who are interested in my present studies. My kind remembrance also to your son.

Always yours,L. Agassiz.

Always yours,

L. Agassiz.

70.We found that this information was incorrect, at least for some species, as will be seen hereafter. I let the statement stand in the text, however, as an instance of the difficulty one has in getting correct facts, and the danger of trusting to the observations even of people who mean to tell the real truth. No doubt some of these Acaras do occasionally deposit their young in the sand, and continue a certain care of them till they are able to shift for themselves. But the story of the fisherman was one of those half truths as likely to mislead, as if it had been wholly false. I will add here a few details concerning these Acaras, a name applied by the natives to all the oval-shaped Chromides. The species which lay their eggs in the sand belong to the genera Hydrogonus and Chætobranchus. Like the North American Pomotis, they build a kind of flat nest in the sand or mud, in which they deposit their eggs, hovering over them until the young are hatched. The species which carry their young in the mouth belong to several genera, formerly all included under the name of Geophagus by Heckel. I could not ascertain how the eggs are brought into the mouth, but the change must take place soon after they are laid, for I have found in that position eggs in which the embryo had just begun its development as well as those in a more advanced stage of growth. Occasionally, instead of eggs, I have found the cavity of the gills, as also the space enclosed by the branchiostegal membrane, filled with a brood of young already hatched. The eggs before hatching are always found in the same part of the mouth, namely, in the upper part of the branchial arches, protected or held together by a special lobe or valve formed of the upper pharyngeals. The cavity thus occupied by the eggs corresponds exactly to the labyrinth of that curious family of fishes inhabiting the East Indian Ocean, called Labyrinthici by Cuvier. This circumstance induces me to believe that the branchial labyrinth of the eastern fishes may be a breeding pouch, like that of our Chromides, and not simply a respiratory apparatus for retaining water. In the Amazonian fish a very sensitive network of nerves spreads over this marsupial pouch, the principal stem of which arises from a special nervous ganglion, back of the cerebellum, in the medulla oblongata. This region of the central nervous system is strangely developed in different families of fishes, and sends out nerves performing very varied functions. From it arise, normally, the nerves of movement and sensation about the face; it also provides the organs of breathing, the upper part of the alimentary canal, the throat and the stomach. In the electric fishes the great nerves entering the electric battery arise from the same cerebral region, and now I have found that the pouch in which the egg of the Acara is incubated and its young nursed for a time, receives its nerves from the same source. This series of facts is truly wonderful, and only shows how far our science still is from an apprehension of the functions of the nervous system.—L. A.

71.It is a very general habit among the South American Indians to pierce the nose, ears, and lips with holes, in which they hang pieces of wood and feathers, as ornaments.

72.See “Expeditions into the Valley of the Amazons,” published by the Hakluyt Society.

73.This species belongs to one of the subdivisions of the genus Auchenipterus; it is undescribed, and Mr. Burkhardt has made five colored sketches of a number of specimens of different sizes, varying in their markings.—L. A.

74.When I attempted to record my impression of the basin of the Amazons, and characterized it as a fresh-water ocean with an archipelago of islands, I did not mean to limit the comparison to the wide expanse of water and the large number of islands. The resemblance extends much further, and the whole basin may be said to be oceanic also, in the character of its fauna. It is true, we are accustomed to consider the Chromides, the Characines, the Siluroids, and the Goniodonts, which constitute the chief population of this network of rivers, as fresh-water fishes; but in so doing we shut our eyes to their natural affinities, and remember only the medium in which they live. Let any one enter upon a more searching comparison, and he will not fail to perceive that, under the name of Chromides, fishes are united which in their form and general appearance recall several families of the class, only known as inhabitants of the sea. The genus Pterophyllum, for instance, might be placed side by side with the Chætodonts, without apparently violating its natural affinities, since even Cuvier considered it as a Platax. The genera Symphysodon and Uaru would not seem very much out of place, by the side of Brama. The genus Geophagus and allied forms recall at once the Sparoids, with which some of them were associated by earlier ichthyologists; while the genus Crenicichla forms a striking counterpart to the genus Malacanthus. Finally, the genus Acara and their kindred closely resemble the Pomacentroids. Indeed, had not the fresh-water genera Pomotis, Centrarchus, and the like, been erroneously associated with the Percoids, the intimate relations which bind them to the Chromides, and these again to the marine types mentioned above, would long ago have been acknowledged. The genus Monocirrus is a miniature Toxotes, with a barbel. Polycentrus, which is also found in the Amazons, stands nearest to Acara and Heros; it has only a larger number of anal spines. In this connection it ought not to be overlooked that these fishes are not pelagic, like the Scomberoids, but rather archipelagic, if I may use this word to designate fishes dwelling among low islands. If we discard the long-prevailing idea of a close relationship between the Characines and Salmonides, based solely upon the presence of an adipose fin, we may at once perceive how manifold are the affinities between the Characines on one hand, and on the other the Scopelines and Clupeoids, all of which are essentially marine. These relations may be traced to the details of the genera; Gasteropelecus, from the family of Characines, is the pendant of Pristigaster among the Clupeoids, as Chalcinus recalls Pellona. In the same way may Stomias and Chauliodus be compared to Cynodon and the like; or Sudis and Osteoglossum to Megalops, and Erythrinus to Ophicephalus, &c., &c. The Goniodonts may at first sight hardly seem to have any kindred among marine fishes; but if we take into account the affinity which unquestionably links the genus Loricaria and its allies with Pegasus, and further remember that to this day all the ichthyologists, with the sole exception of C. Duméril, have united Pegasus in one order with the Pipe-fishes, it will no longer be doubted that the Goniodonts have at least a remarkable analogy with the Lophobranches, if they should not be considered as bearing a close structural relation to them. But this relation truly exists. The extraordinary mode of rearing their young, which characterizes the various representatives of the old genus Syngnathus, is only matched by the equally curious incubation of the eggs in Loricaria. And as to the other families represented in the basin of the Amazons, such as the Skates, the Sharks, the Tetraodonts, the Flat-fishes (Pleuronectides), the Bill-fishes (Scomberesoces), the Anchovis, Herrings, and other forms of the family of Clupeoids, the Murænoids, the genuine Sciænoids, the Gobioids, &c., &c., they are chiefly known as marine types; while the Cyprinodonts occur elsewhere both in salt and fresh water. The Gymnotines are thus far only known as fresh-water fishes, nor do I see any ground for comparing them to any marine type. They cannot be compared to the Murænoids, with which they have thus far been associated. The only real affinity I can trace in them is with the Mormyri of the Nile and Senegal, and with the Notopteri of the Sunda Islands. Eel-shaped fishes are by no means all related to one another, and their elongated form, with a variety of patterns, is no indication of their relationship. It may, nevertheless, be inferred from what precedes, that the fishes of the Amazons have, as a whole, a marine character peculiarly their own, and not at all to be met with among the inhabitants of the other great rivers of the world.These peculiarities extend to other classes besides fishes. Among the Bivalve shells, it has long been known that the Amazons nourishes genera of Naiades peculiar to its waters, or only found besides in the other great rivers of South America; such as Hyria, Castalia, and Mycetopus, to which I would add another genus, founded upon slender, sickle-shaped Unios, common to North and South America. But what seems to have escaped the attention of conchologists is the striking resemblance of Hyria and Avicula, of Castalia and Arca, of Mycetopus and Solen, &c. Thus exhibiting another repetition of marine types in a family exclusively limited to fresh waters, and having structural characters of its own, entirely distinct from the marine genera, the appearance of which they so closely ape. In this connection I cannot suppress the remark, that it would be puerile to consider such mimicry as indicative of a community of origin. Some of the land shells even recall marine forms; such are some of the Bulimus tribe, which resemble the genus Phasianella and Littorina far more than their own relatives. The similarity of the fringes of the anterior margin of the foot is particularly striking. The Ampullariæ remind one also, in a measure, of the marine genera Struthiolaria, Natica, &c., and many fossils of the latter family have been confounded with fresh-water Ampullariæ.The most noticeable feature of the Amazonian fauna, considered with reference to its oceanic character, is, however, the abundance of Cetaceans through its whole extent. Wherever I have navigated these waters, from Pará, where the tides still send the salt brine up the river, to Tabatinga on the borders of Peru, in all the larger and smaller tributaries of the great stream as well as in the many lakes connected with their ever-changing course, I have seen and heard them, gamboling at the surface and snoring rhythmically, when undisturbed in their breathing. At night, especially, when quietly at anchor in the river, you hardly ever fail to be startled by the noise they make, when reaching the surface to exhale forcibly the air they have long retained in their lungs while under water. I have noticed five different species of this order of animals in the waters of the Amazons, four of which belong to the family of Porpoises and one to that of Manatees. Mr. Burkhardt has drawn three of them from fresh specimens for me, and I hope before long to secure equally faithful representations of the others, when I shall describe them all comparatively. One of the Porpoises belongs to the genus Inia, and may be traced on the upper tributaries of the Amazons to Bolivia, another resembles more our common Porpoise, while still another recalls the Dolphin of the sea-coast; but I have been unable to ascertain whether any one of them is identical with the marine species. At all events, the black Porpoise of the bay of Marajo, frequently seen in the vicinity of Pará, is totally different from the gray species seen higher up the stream.—L. A.

These peculiarities extend to other classes besides fishes. Among the Bivalve shells, it has long been known that the Amazons nourishes genera of Naiades peculiar to its waters, or only found besides in the other great rivers of South America; such as Hyria, Castalia, and Mycetopus, to which I would add another genus, founded upon slender, sickle-shaped Unios, common to North and South America. But what seems to have escaped the attention of conchologists is the striking resemblance of Hyria and Avicula, of Castalia and Arca, of Mycetopus and Solen, &c. Thus exhibiting another repetition of marine types in a family exclusively limited to fresh waters, and having structural characters of its own, entirely distinct from the marine genera, the appearance of which they so closely ape. In this connection I cannot suppress the remark, that it would be puerile to consider such mimicry as indicative of a community of origin. Some of the land shells even recall marine forms; such are some of the Bulimus tribe, which resemble the genus Phasianella and Littorina far more than their own relatives. The similarity of the fringes of the anterior margin of the foot is particularly striking. The Ampullariæ remind one also, in a measure, of the marine genera Struthiolaria, Natica, &c., and many fossils of the latter family have been confounded with fresh-water Ampullariæ.

The most noticeable feature of the Amazonian fauna, considered with reference to its oceanic character, is, however, the abundance of Cetaceans through its whole extent. Wherever I have navigated these waters, from Pará, where the tides still send the salt brine up the river, to Tabatinga on the borders of Peru, in all the larger and smaller tributaries of the great stream as well as in the many lakes connected with their ever-changing course, I have seen and heard them, gamboling at the surface and snoring rhythmically, when undisturbed in their breathing. At night, especially, when quietly at anchor in the river, you hardly ever fail to be startled by the noise they make, when reaching the surface to exhale forcibly the air they have long retained in their lungs while under water. I have noticed five different species of this order of animals in the waters of the Amazons, four of which belong to the family of Porpoises and one to that of Manatees. Mr. Burkhardt has drawn three of them from fresh specimens for me, and I hope before long to secure equally faithful representations of the others, when I shall describe them all comparatively. One of the Porpoises belongs to the genus Inia, and may be traced on the upper tributaries of the Amazons to Bolivia, another resembles more our common Porpoise, while still another recalls the Dolphin of the sea-coast; but I have been unable to ascertain whether any one of them is identical with the marine species. At all events, the black Porpoise of the bay of Marajo, frequently seen in the vicinity of Pará, is totally different from the gray species seen higher up the stream.—L. A.

75.As from the beginning our arrangements were made to stay at least a month in Teffé, it became possible to lay out our work in a more systematic form than during our rambling travels. It was here that I secured the largest number of fish skeletons and had several of the larger animals of the country prepared for the Museum; such as Manatees, Porpoises, Pirarucus, Sorubims, and the like. I also undertook here, for the first time, a regular search for the young of all the species of fishes that could be obtained. Here again my neighbors, and indeed all the inhabitants of the place, vied with one another in their efforts to procure specimens for me. Senhor Joaō da Cunha and Dr. Romualdo made frequent fishing excursions for my benefit; and when I could not accompany them, a boatful of fish was nevertheless moored to the shore, in the evening, from which I could select whatever was useful or interesting. The grocer of the place, Mr. Pedro Mendez, who employed a skilful fisherman daily to supply his large family, gave directions that all the fishes caught should be brought in, and before the kitchen received its provisions, I had my choice of everything. This was a great favor, especially since the Indian fisherman, José, whom I had engaged in Manaos to accompany me through the rest of my journey, was now at Tabatinga, assisting Mr. Bourget, who had been left there when I returned to Teffé. An old Passé Indian, who was as familiar with the fishes of the waters as with the animals of the forest, and whom Major Coutinho had befriended for many years, rendered also great service in hunting particular kinds of fishes and reptiles, the haunts of which he alone seemed to know. The schoolmaster and his boys, in short, everybody who knew how to catch fish or fowl, was out at work, and, with the assistance of my young friends Dexter, Hunnewell, and Thayer, and the co-operation of Major Coutinho and Mr. Burkhardt, our daily progress was unmistakable. They generally took care of the collections of land animals, while I reserved the fishes to myself, and Major Coutinho was busy with geological and meteorological observations. Even the servants helped in cleaning the skeletons. I made here a very extensive collection of fish brains, embracing most genera found in this locality, but it was unfortunately lost on arriving at Manaos. Aware of the difficulty of transporting preparations so delicate, I kept them always by my side, simply packed in an open barrel, in the hope of bringing them safely home, and also that I might, without difficulty, add to the number. In an unguarded moment, however, while landing, one of our attendants capsized the whole into the Rio Negro. It is the only part of my collections which was completely lost.After setting my whole party well under way in Teffé, I made the very instructive excursion with Major Estolano, of which an account is given in the text, to the Lago do Boto, a small sheet of water, by the side of his sitio on the banks of the main course of the Amazons, where I had a fair opportunity of ascertaining how widely different the fishes may be that inhabit adjoining faunæ in the same hydrographic basin. To this day I have not yet recovered from my surprise at finding that shores which, from a geographic point of view, must be considered simply as opposite banks of the same stream, were, nevertheless, the abode of an essentially different ichthyological population. Among the most curious fishes obtained here, I would mention a new genus, allied to Phractocephalus, of which I know only a single very large species, remarkable for its uniform canary-yellow color. Doras, Acestra, Pterygoplichthys, &c., were particularly common. Small as this lake is, the largest animals known in the whole basin are found in it: such as Manatees Botos,—the Porpoise of the Amazons, which has given its name to the lake, Alligators, Pirarucus,—the Sudis gigas of systematic writers; Sorubims, the large flat-headed Hornpouts; Pacamums, the large, yellow Siluroid above alluded to, &c., &c.—L. A.

After setting my whole party well under way in Teffé, I made the very instructive excursion with Major Estolano, of which an account is given in the text, to the Lago do Boto, a small sheet of water, by the side of his sitio on the banks of the main course of the Amazons, where I had a fair opportunity of ascertaining how widely different the fishes may be that inhabit adjoining faunæ in the same hydrographic basin. To this day I have not yet recovered from my surprise at finding that shores which, from a geographic point of view, must be considered simply as opposite banks of the same stream, were, nevertheless, the abode of an essentially different ichthyological population. Among the most curious fishes obtained here, I would mention a new genus, allied to Phractocephalus, of which I know only a single very large species, remarkable for its uniform canary-yellow color. Doras, Acestra, Pterygoplichthys, &c., were particularly common. Small as this lake is, the largest animals known in the whole basin are found in it: such as Manatees Botos,—the Porpoise of the Amazons, which has given its name to the lake, Alligators, Pirarucus,—the Sudis gigas of systematic writers; Sorubims, the large flat-headed Hornpouts; Pacamums, the large, yellow Siluroid above alluded to, &c., &c.—L. A.

76.It was Cuvier who first ascertained that the small Hyrax belongs to the same order as the elephant.

77.The most accurate information upon the industrial resources of the Valley of the Amazons may be found in a work published by Senhor Tavares Bastos, on his return to Rio de Janeiro, after this journey, entitled “O Valle do Amazonas—Estudo sobre a livre Navegaçaō do Amazonas, Estatistica, Producçöes, Commercio, Questöes Fiscaes do Valle do Amazonas.” Rio de Janeiro, 1866.

78.This relation is a much nearer one throughout Brazil than with us. A god-child is treated as a member of their own family by its sponsors.

79.In the course of our journey on the Amazons, Mr. Burkhardt made more than eight hundred paintings of fishes, more or less finished.—L. A.

80.The fruit of the Persea gratissima.

81.I was indebted to the President for many valuable specimens on this excursion, many of the birds and fishes brought in by the Indians for the table being turned over to the scientific collections. My young friends Dexter and James were also efficient, passing always a part of the day in the woods, and assisting me greatly in the preparation and preservation of the specimens. Among others we made a curious skeleton of a large black Doras, a species remarkable for the row of powerful scales extending along the side, each one provided with a sharp hook bent backward. It is the species I have described, in Spix and Martius’s great work, under the name of Doras Humboldti. The anterior vertebræ form a bony swelling of a spongeous texture, resembling drums, on each side of the backbone.—L. A.

82.I trust that the motive will not be misunderstood which induces me to add here a translation of the general cards of invitation distributed on this occasion. The graceful expression of a thought so kind, and the manner in which the President merges his own personality in the name of the Province of which he is the administrative head, are so characteristic of his mingled courtesy and modesty, that I am tempted to insert the note, notwithstanding its personal character. Unfortunately, I cannot always do full justice to the kindness shown Mr. Agassiz throughout our journey, or to the general appreciation of his scientific objects, without introducing testimonials into this narrative which it would perhaps be more becoming in me to suppress. But I do not know how otherwise to acknowledge our obligations, and I trust it will be attributed, by candid readers, to the true motive,—to gratitude and not to egotism.“The scientific labors undertaken at this time by the learned and illustrious Professor Agassiz in this Province, merit from the Amazonenses the most sincere gratitude and acknowledgment, and elicit on our part a manifestation by which we seek to show due appreciation of his high intellectual merit. I wish that for this object I could dispose of more abundant resources, or that the Province had in readiness better means of showing the veneration and cordial esteem we all bear to him, the respect and admiration we feel for his scientific explorations. But the uncertainty of his stay among us obliges me to offer at once some proof, however insignificant, of our profound esteem for this most deserving American.“To this end, the accomplishment of which I cannot longer defer, I invite all to join me in offering to Professor Agassiz and to his wife, in the name of the Province of the Amazonas, a modest rural breakfast (almoço campestre) in the Casa dos Educandos, on Sunday, the 18th of this month, at 11 o’clock in the morning. I hereby invite you and your family to be present, in order that this festival, great in the earnestness of our intentions, however small as compared with the importance of those to whom it is offered, should be gay and brilliant.“Antonio Epaminondas de Mello.“Palace of the Government at Manaos, 13 November, 1865.”

“The scientific labors undertaken at this time by the learned and illustrious Professor Agassiz in this Province, merit from the Amazonenses the most sincere gratitude and acknowledgment, and elicit on our part a manifestation by which we seek to show due appreciation of his high intellectual merit. I wish that for this object I could dispose of more abundant resources, or that the Province had in readiness better means of showing the veneration and cordial esteem we all bear to him, the respect and admiration we feel for his scientific explorations. But the uncertainty of his stay among us obliges me to offer at once some proof, however insignificant, of our profound esteem for this most deserving American.

“To this end, the accomplishment of which I cannot longer defer, I invite all to join me in offering to Professor Agassiz and to his wife, in the name of the Province of the Amazonas, a modest rural breakfast (almoço campestre) in the Casa dos Educandos, on Sunday, the 18th of this month, at 11 o’clock in the morning. I hereby invite you and your family to be present, in order that this festival, great in the earnestness of our intentions, however small as compared with the importance of those to whom it is offered, should be gay and brilliant.

“Antonio Epaminondas de Mello.

“Palace of the Government at Manaos, 13 November, 1865.”

83.As I do not wish to mislead, and this narrative may perhaps influence some one to make a journey in this region, I should add, that, while the above is strictly true, there are many things essential to the comfort of the traveller not to be had. There is not a decent hotel throughout the whole length of the Amazons, and any one who thinks of travelling there must provide himself with such letters as will secure accommodation in private houses. So recommended, he may safely depend upon hospitality, or upon such assistance from individuals as will enable him to find a private lodging.

84.Much of what follows upon social abuses, tyranny of the local police, prison discipline, &c., though not quoted in his own words, has been gathered from conversations with Mr. Agassiz, or from discussions between him and his Brazilian friends. The way in which this volume has grown up, being as it were the result of a double experience, makes it occasionally difficult to draw the exact line marking the boundaries of authorship; the division being indeed somewhat vague in the minds of the writers themselves. But since criticisms of this sort would have little value, except as based upon larger opportunities for observation than fell to my share, I am the more anxious to refer them, wherever I can, to their right source.

85.Let any one who doubts the evil of this mixture of races, and is inclined, from a mistaken philanthropy, to break down all barriers between them, come to Brazil. He cannot deny the deterioration consequent upon an amalgamation of races, more wide-spread here than in any other country in the world, and which is rapidly effacing the best qualities of the white man, the negro, and the Indian, leaving a mongrel nondescript type, deficient in physical and mental energy. At a time when the new social status of the negro is a subject of vital importance in our statesmanship, we should profit by the experience of a country where, though slavery exists, there is far more liberality toward the free negro than he has ever enjoyed in the United States. Let us learn the double lesson: open all the advantages of education to the negro, and give him every chance of success which culture gives to the man who knows how to use it; but respect the laws of nature, and let all our dealings with the black man tend to preserve, as far as possible, the distinctness of his national characteristics, and the integrity of our own.—L. A.

86.For some remarks concerning the structural peculiarities of the Indians and Negroes, see Appendix No.V.

87.I did not succeed in getting good likenesses of this Mundurucu pair. The above wood-cuts do no justice to their features and expression, though they give a faithful record of the peculiar mode of tattooing.—L. A.

88.During my short stay in the neighborhood of Villa Bella and Obydos I was indebted to several residents of these towns for assistance in collecting; especially to Padre Torquato and to Padre Antonio Mattos. My friend, Mr. Honorio, who accompanied me to this point, with the assistance of the Delegado, at Villa Bella, made also a very excellent collection of fishes in this vicinity. At Obydos Colonel Bentos contributed a very large collection of fishes from the Rio Trombetas.—L. A.

89.See Chapter XIII., on the Physical History of the Amazons.

90.It is but fitting that I should express here my thanks to Captain Faria for the courteous manner in which he accomplished the task assigned him by the government. He was not only a most hospitable host on board his vessel, but he allowed me to encumber his deck with all kinds of scientific apparatus, and gave me very efficient assistance in collecting.—L. A.

91.Pará, February 23, 1866.Sire:—On arriving at Pará in the beginning of this month, I had the pleasure to find your Majesty’s kind letter, which had been awaiting me for several days. I ought to have acknowledged it immediately, but I was not in a condition to do so, being overcome by fatigue. It is only during the last two or three days that I begin once more to occupy myself as usual. I confess that nothing but the presentiment of regrets which would have pursued me to the end of my days has prevented me from returning directly to the United States. Even now I find it difficult to take up the most simple occupations. And yet I am not ill; I am only exhausted by incessant work, and by the contemplation, each day more vivid and impressive, of the grandeur and beauty of this tropical nature. I need to look for a time upon the sombre and monotonous aspect of a pine forest.How good you are, Sire, to think of me in the midst of the vital affairs which absorb your attention, and how considerate are your acts! The New Year’s present you announce enchants me.[93]The prospect of being able to add some comparisons of the fishes from the basin of the Uruguay to such as I have already made between the Amazonian species and those of the rivers on the eastern coast of Brazil has a special attraction for me. It will be the first step towards a knowledge of the types of the temperate zone in South America. I wait with increasing impatience for the moment when I shall be able to examine them. In the mean while allow me to give you a rapid sketch of the results thus far obtained in my voyage on the Amazons.I will not return to the surprising variety of species of fishes contained in this basin, though it is very difficult for me to familiarize myself with the idea that the Amazons nourishes nearly twice as many species as the Mediterranean, and a larger number than the Atlantic, taken from one pole to the other. I can no longer say, however, with precision, what is the exact number of species which we have procured from the Amazons, because, on retracing my steps as I descended the great river, I have seen fishes about to lay their eggs which I had seen at first under other conditions, andvice versa; and without consulting the collections made six months ago, and which are not now accessible to me, it is often impossible for me to determine from memory whether they are the same species, or different ones which escaped my observation in my first examination. However, I estimate the total number of species which I actually possess at eighteen hundred, and it may be two thousand.[94]But it is not only the number of species which will astonish naturalists; the fact that they are for the most part circumscribed within definite limits is still more surprising, and cannot but have a direct influence on the ideas now prevalent respecting the origin of living beings. That in a river like the Mississippi, which from the north to the south passes successively through cold, temperate, and warm zones,—whose waters flow sometimes over one geological formation, sometimes over another, and across plains covered at the north by an almost arctic vegetation, and at the south by a sub-tropical flora,—that in such a basin aquatic animals of different species should be met at various points of its course is easily understood by those who are accustomed to consider general conditions of existence, and of climate especially, as the first cause of the difference between animals and plants inhabiting separate localities. But that from Tabatinga to Pará, in a river where the waters differ neither in temperature nor in the nature of their bed, nor in the vegetation along their borders,—that under such circumstances there should be met, from distance to distance, assemblages of fishes completely distinct from each other, is indeed astonishing. I would even say that henceforth this distribution, which may be verified by any one who cares to take the trouble, must throw much doubt on the opinion which attributes the diversity of living beings to local influences. Another side of this subject, still more curious perhaps, is the intensity with which life is manifested in these waters. All the rivers of Europe united, from the Tagus to the Volga, do not nourish one hundred and fifty species of fresh-water fishes; and yet, in a little lake near Manaos, called Lago Hyanuary, the surface of which covers hardly four or five hundred square yards, we have discovered more than two hundred distinct species, the greater part of which have not been observed elsewhere. What a contrast!The study of the mixture of human races in this region has also occupied me much, and I have procured numerous photographs of all the types which I have been able to observe. The principal result at which I have arrived is, that theracesbear themselves towards each other as do distinct species; that is to say, that the hybrids, which spring from the crossing of men of different races, are always a mixture of the two primitive types, and never the simple reproduction of the characters of one or the other progenitor, as is the case among the races of domestic animals.I will say nothing of my other collections, which have been made for the most part by my young companions, rather with a view to enrich our Museum than to solve scientific questions. But I cannot allow this occasion to pass without expressing my lively gratitude for all the facilities, in my explorations, which I have owed to the kindness of your Majesty. From the President to the most humble employés of the provinces I have visited, all have competed with each other to render my work more easy; and the steamship company of the Amazons has shown an extreme liberality towards me. Finally, Sire, the generosity with which you have placed at my disposition a vessel of war has allowed me to make collections which, with less ample and rapid means of transport, must have remained utterly inaccessible to me. Permit me to add, that, of all the favors with which your Majesty has crowned this voyage, the most precious has been the presence of Major Coutinho, whose familiarity with all which concerns the Amazons has been an inexhaustible source of important information and of useful directions; by means of which the loss of time in unremunerative excursions has been avoided. His co-operation during this journey has been most laborious; he has applied himself to zoölogy as if the physical sciences had not hitherto been the special object of his study, while at the same time he has made numerous thermometric, barometric, and astronomical observations, which will furnish important additions to what is already known concerning the meteorology and topography of these provinces. We have, for instance, been the first to carry the barometer into the midst of the hills of Almeyrim, of Monte Alégre and Ereré, and to measure their highest summits. The study of the formation of the valley of the Amazons has naturally occupied me, though in a secondary degree, from the first day of my arrival.[95]

91.

Pará, February 23, 1866.

Sire:—On arriving at Pará in the beginning of this month, I had the pleasure to find your Majesty’s kind letter, which had been awaiting me for several days. I ought to have acknowledged it immediately, but I was not in a condition to do so, being overcome by fatigue. It is only during the last two or three days that I begin once more to occupy myself as usual. I confess that nothing but the presentiment of regrets which would have pursued me to the end of my days has prevented me from returning directly to the United States. Even now I find it difficult to take up the most simple occupations. And yet I am not ill; I am only exhausted by incessant work, and by the contemplation, each day more vivid and impressive, of the grandeur and beauty of this tropical nature. I need to look for a time upon the sombre and monotonous aspect of a pine forest.

How good you are, Sire, to think of me in the midst of the vital affairs which absorb your attention, and how considerate are your acts! The New Year’s present you announce enchants me.[93]The prospect of being able to add some comparisons of the fishes from the basin of the Uruguay to such as I have already made between the Amazonian species and those of the rivers on the eastern coast of Brazil has a special attraction for me. It will be the first step towards a knowledge of the types of the temperate zone in South America. I wait with increasing impatience for the moment when I shall be able to examine them. In the mean while allow me to give you a rapid sketch of the results thus far obtained in my voyage on the Amazons.

I will not return to the surprising variety of species of fishes contained in this basin, though it is very difficult for me to familiarize myself with the idea that the Amazons nourishes nearly twice as many species as the Mediterranean, and a larger number than the Atlantic, taken from one pole to the other. I can no longer say, however, with precision, what is the exact number of species which we have procured from the Amazons, because, on retracing my steps as I descended the great river, I have seen fishes about to lay their eggs which I had seen at first under other conditions, andvice versa; and without consulting the collections made six months ago, and which are not now accessible to me, it is often impossible for me to determine from memory whether they are the same species, or different ones which escaped my observation in my first examination. However, I estimate the total number of species which I actually possess at eighteen hundred, and it may be two thousand.[94]But it is not only the number of species which will astonish naturalists; the fact that they are for the most part circumscribed within definite limits is still more surprising, and cannot but have a direct influence on the ideas now prevalent respecting the origin of living beings. That in a river like the Mississippi, which from the north to the south passes successively through cold, temperate, and warm zones,—whose waters flow sometimes over one geological formation, sometimes over another, and across plains covered at the north by an almost arctic vegetation, and at the south by a sub-tropical flora,—that in such a basin aquatic animals of different species should be met at various points of its course is easily understood by those who are accustomed to consider general conditions of existence, and of climate especially, as the first cause of the difference between animals and plants inhabiting separate localities. But that from Tabatinga to Pará, in a river where the waters differ neither in temperature nor in the nature of their bed, nor in the vegetation along their borders,—that under such circumstances there should be met, from distance to distance, assemblages of fishes completely distinct from each other, is indeed astonishing. I would even say that henceforth this distribution, which may be verified by any one who cares to take the trouble, must throw much doubt on the opinion which attributes the diversity of living beings to local influences. Another side of this subject, still more curious perhaps, is the intensity with which life is manifested in these waters. All the rivers of Europe united, from the Tagus to the Volga, do not nourish one hundred and fifty species of fresh-water fishes; and yet, in a little lake near Manaos, called Lago Hyanuary, the surface of which covers hardly four or five hundred square yards, we have discovered more than two hundred distinct species, the greater part of which have not been observed elsewhere. What a contrast!

The study of the mixture of human races in this region has also occupied me much, and I have procured numerous photographs of all the types which I have been able to observe. The principal result at which I have arrived is, that theracesbear themselves towards each other as do distinct species; that is to say, that the hybrids, which spring from the crossing of men of different races, are always a mixture of the two primitive types, and never the simple reproduction of the characters of one or the other progenitor, as is the case among the races of domestic animals.

I will say nothing of my other collections, which have been made for the most part by my young companions, rather with a view to enrich our Museum than to solve scientific questions. But I cannot allow this occasion to pass without expressing my lively gratitude for all the facilities, in my explorations, which I have owed to the kindness of your Majesty. From the President to the most humble employés of the provinces I have visited, all have competed with each other to render my work more easy; and the steamship company of the Amazons has shown an extreme liberality towards me. Finally, Sire, the generosity with which you have placed at my disposition a vessel of war has allowed me to make collections which, with less ample and rapid means of transport, must have remained utterly inaccessible to me. Permit me to add, that, of all the favors with which your Majesty has crowned this voyage, the most precious has been the presence of Major Coutinho, whose familiarity with all which concerns the Amazons has been an inexhaustible source of important information and of useful directions; by means of which the loss of time in unremunerative excursions has been avoided. His co-operation during this journey has been most laborious; he has applied himself to zoölogy as if the physical sciences had not hitherto been the special object of his study, while at the same time he has made numerous thermometric, barometric, and astronomical observations, which will furnish important additions to what is already known concerning the meteorology and topography of these provinces. We have, for instance, been the first to carry the barometer into the midst of the hills of Almeyrim, of Monte Alégre and Ereré, and to measure their highest summits. The study of the formation of the valley of the Amazons has naturally occupied me, though in a secondary degree, from the first day of my arrival.[95]

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