In some of its applications, this subjunctive is often more exactly defined by an expression of doubt or of assurance: as,fors fuat anin Plautus,forsitanfrom Terence on (rarelyforsan,fors),fortasse,may be,perhaps;opīnor,haud sciō an,I fancy;facile,easily,sine ūllā dubitātiōne,unhesitatingly, &c., &c. The negative used with this subjunctive isnōn.
1555.This subjunctive is particularly common in guarded or diffident statements: thus,velim,I could wish,nōlim,I should not be willing,mālim,I would rather,dīxerim,I should say, are often preferred to a bluntervolō,I insist,nōlō,I won’t,mālō,I prefer, ordīcō,I say.
1556.The present denotes action in an indefinite future: as,
(a.)ego forsitan in grege adnumerer,RA.89,as for me, I might perhaps be counted in the common herd.mūtuom argentum rogem, Pl.Tri.758,money I might borrow.haud sciō an rēctē dīcāmus,Sest.58,I rather think we may say with propriety. (b.) The second person singular generally has an imaginary subject (1030): as,dīcās hīc forsitan, J. 1, 150,here peradventure thou mayst say, i.e. anybody may say.rogēs mē quid sit deus, auctōre ūtar Simōnidē,DN.1, 60,you may ask me what god is; I should follow the lead of Simonides.migrantīs cernās, V. 4, 401,thou canst descry them on the move(1635). Often with some generalizing word, such assaepe,numquam,plūrēs: as,saepe videās, H.S.1, 4, 86,thou oft canst see.Fortūnam citius reperiās quam retineās, Publil. Syr. 168,dame Fortune thou mayst sooner find than bind. (c.)nunc aliquis dīcat mihi, H.S.1, 3, 19,now somebody may say to me(more commonlydīcet aliquis,dīcēs,1620).forsitan aliquis dīcat, L. 5, 52, 5,perhaps somebody may say.hoc vōbīs incrēdibile videātur,V.3, 109,this may seem incredible to you.
1557.(1.) The perfect seldom occurs in old Latin. Later, it is rarely used of past time. In this use it resembles the perfect of concession (1553): as,
(a.)forsitan temere fēcerim,RA.31,peradventure I may have acted rashly.errāverim fortasse, Plin.Ep.1, 23, 2,I may have been mistaken perhaps. (b.)concēdō; forsitan aliquis aliquandō eius modī quippiam fēcerit,V.2, 78,I grant it; perhaps somebody, at some time or other, may have done something of the sort.haec ipsa forsitan fuerint nōn necessāria,Br.52,even this may perhaps have been superfluous.
1558.(2.) The perfect is oftenest used with a future meaning, and particularly the first person singular active of verbs meaningthinkorsay: as,
(a.)nōn facile dīxerim,TD.5, 121,I could not readily say.hoc sine ūllā dubitātiōne cōnfirmāverim,Br.25,this I can assert without any hesitation.pāce tuā dīxerim,TD.5, 12,by your leave I would say. The first person plural occurs first in Cornificius, and is rare: as,hunc deum rīte beātum dīxerīmus,DN.1, 52,such a god we should be right in pronouncing happy. (b.)plānē perfectum Dēmosthenem facile dīxerīs,Br.35,you would readily pronounce Demosthenes absolutely perfect(1030).tū vērō eum nec nimis valdē umquam nec nimis saepe laudāverīs,Leg.3, 1,oh no, rest assured you never can praise him too emphatically nor too often.conluviem istam nōn nisi metū coērcuerīs, Ta. 14, 44,such a motley rabble you can only keep under by terrorism. (c.)forsitan quispiam dīxerit,Off.3, 29,perhaps somebody may say.
1559.(1.) The imperfect properly denotes action which might have taken place in the past: as,
(a.)nōn ego hoc ferrem calidus iuventā cōnsule Plancō, H. 3, 14, 27,this I should not have brooked in my hot youth, in Plancus’ consulate. (b.) The second person singular, particularly of verbs meaningsee,make out,think,say, generally has an imaginary subject (1030): as,vidērēs, H.S.2, 8, 77,thou mightst have seen.cernerēs, L. 22, 7, 12,you might have descried.nescīrēs, L. 3, 35, 3,you could not have told.tē columen rē̆ī pūblicae dīcerēs intuērī,Sest.19,you would have sworn you were gazing on a pillar of the state. (c.)quī vidēret, urbem captam dīceret,V.4, 52,anybody who saw it, would have said it was a captured city.dīcī hoc in tē nōn potest, posset in Tarquiniō, cum rēgnō esset expulsus,TD.1, 88,this cannot be said in your case; it might have been said in Tarquin’s, when he was driven from the throne.numquam faceret, T.Ph.121,he never would have done it.
1560.(2.) The imperfect often denotes action not performed at the present time; so especiallyvellem(nōllem,māllem): as,
(a.)nimis vellem habēre perticam, Pl.As.589,I wish so much I had a stick.vellem adesse posset Panaetius; quaererem ex eō,TD.1, 81,I only wish Panaetius could be with us: I should ask him(Panaetius was dead).cuperem voltum vidēre tuum,Att.4, 16, 7,I should like to see the expression of your face.māllem Cerberum metuerēs,TD.1, 12,I would rather you stood in dread of Cerberus.possem idem facere,TD.1, 84,I could do the same. (b.)melius sequerēre cupīdine captam, O. 14, 28,better for thee it were a loving bride to woo. (c.)in hāc fortūnā perūtilis eius opera esset,Att.9, 17, 2,in the present pinch his services would be extremely valuable.
1561.The pluperfect represents action which did not take place in the past: as,
(a.)vellem quidem licēret: hoc dīxissem,RA.138,I only wish it were allowed; I should have said so and so. (b.)dedissēs huic animō pār corpus, fēcisset quod optābat, Plin.Ep.1, 12, 8,you might have given this spirit a body to match; he would have done what he craved to do. (c.)urbēs et rēgna celeriter tanta nēquitia dēvorāre potuisset,Ph.2, 67,such colossal prodigality might have been capable of swallowing down cities and kingdoms speedily.vīcissent inprobōs bonī; quid deinde?Sest.43,the good might have overpowered the bad; what next?
1562.It may be mentioned here, that the subjunctive of action conceivable often extends to subordinate sentences: see1731.
1563.I. The subjunctive is often used to ask what action or whether any action is desired, commanded, proper, or necessary.
In many instances a negative answer or no answer at all is expected The negative isnē, sometimesnōn.
(a.)quō mē vertam?Scaur.19,which way shall I turn?quid faciam, praescrībe :: quiēscās :: nē faciam, inquis, omnīnō versūs?H.S.2, 1, 5,lay down the law, what I’m to do :: keep still :: wilt have me write, sayst thou, no verse at all?quid igitur faciam? nōn eam?T.Eu.46,what then am I to do? not go?quid nī meminerim?DO.2, 273,why should not I remember?orof course I remember.huic cēdāmus? huius condiciōnēs audiāmus?Ph.13, 16,shall we bow the knee to him? shall we listen to his terms?(b.)quid tandem mē facere decuit? quiēscerem et paterer?L. 42, 41, 12,what in the world ought I to have done? keep inactive and stand it?
1564.Such questions sometimes have the alternative form: as,Corinthiīs bellum indīcāmus, an nōn?Inv.1, 17,are we to declare war against Corinth, or not?utrum indicāre mē e͡i thēnsaurum aequom fuit, an ego alium dominum paterer fierī hīsce aedibus?Pl.Tri.175,should I have pointed out the hoard to him, or should I have allowed another to become the owner of this house?herepatereris equivalent toaequom fuit patī(1495).
1565.II. The subjunctive is often used to ask whether action is conceivable: as,
(a.)quis putet celeritātem ingenī L. Brūtō dēfuisse?Br.53,who can suppose that Brutus lacked ready wit?i.e.nēmō putet(1556),putābit(1620), orputāre potest.sī enim Zēnōnī licuit, cūr nōn liceat Catōnī?Fin.3, 15,for if it was allowed Zeno, why should not it be allowed Cato?(b.)hoc tantum bellum quis umquam arbitrārētur ab ūnō imperātōre cōnficī posse?IP.31,who would ever have dreamed that this stupendous war could be brought to a close by a single commander?The imperfect sometimes denotes action not performed at the present time (1560):quis enim cīvis rēgī nōn favēret?D.6,for what Roman would not feel for the king?(c.)ego tē vidēre nōluerim?QFr.1, 3, 1,I have objected to seeing you?
1566.The subjunctive is often used in interrogative outbursts of surprise, disapprobation, indignation, or captious rejoinder. In such questions a pronoun,ego,tū(ille), is usually expressed. The negative isnōn.
This subjunctive occurs in Plautus and Terence, in Cicero, oftenest the letters, in Horace, Vergil, and Livy. Not in Caesar nor Sallust.
1567.(1.) The question may have no interrogative word, or may have-ne, especially in comedy: as,
(a.)nōn tacēs? :: taceam?T.Ph.987,you hold your tongue :: I hold my tongue?nē flē :: egone illum nōn fleam?Pl.Cap.139,weep not :: what, I not weep for him?tū pulsēs omne quod obstat?H.S.2, 6, 30,what, you, sir, punch whatever’s in your way?faveās tū hostī? ille litterās ad tē mittat?Ph.7, 5,you, sir, sympathize with the enemy? he correspond with you?sapiēnsne nōn timeat?Ac.2, 135,a sage not be afraid?(b.)ego mihī̆ umquam bonōrum praesidium dēfutūrum putārem?Mil.94,could I have dreamed that I should ever lack the protection of the patriotic?(c.)‘apud exercitum mihī̆ fuerīs’ inquit ‘tot annōs?’Mur.21,‘to think of your having been with the army, bless my soul?’ says he, ‘so many years.’(d.)mihī̆ cuiusquam salūs tantī fuisset, ut meam neglegerem?Sull.45,could anybody’s safety have been so important in my eyes as to make me disregard my own?
1568.(2.) The question may haveutīorut: as,
tē ut ūlla rēs frangat? tū ut umquam tē corrigās?C.1, 22,any thing break you down? you ever reform?pater ut obesse fīlīo dēbeat?Planc.31,a father morally bound to work against his son?
1569.(3.) The question withutīorutis sometimes attended by a remnant of another question with-neor-n. In this combination,-neeither precedes, joined to an emphatic word, or it is attached directly toutīorut: as,
(a.)egone ut tē interpellem?TD.2, 42,what I? interrupt you?illīne ut impūne concitent fīnitima bella?L. 4, 2, 12,what, they be allowed to stir up border warfare with impunity?virgō haec līberast :: meane ancilla lībera ut sit, quam ego numquam ēmīsī manū?Pl.Cur.615,this girl is free :: my servant-girl? she to be free, when I have never set her free?(b.)utne tegam spurcō Dāmae latus?H.S.2, 5, 18,what, I’m to shield a nasty Dama’s side?somnium. utine haec īgnōrāret su͡om patrem?T.Ph.874,oh bosh, not to have known the father that begat her?See1505and1532.
1570.It may be mentioned here, that the interrogative subjunctive is often used in subordinate sentences: see1731.
Command.
1571.The second person of the imperative mood is used in commands, either particular or general.
Commands are very often attended by a vocative or vocative nominative, or bytū,sir,sirrah, orvōs,gentlemen,you people(1118). They are of various kinds, as follows: (a.) Order, often to an inferior: thus, to an official:līctor, conligā manūs,Rab.13, L. 1, 26, 7, Gell. 12, 3, 2,lictor, tie up his wrists. To soldiers: as,dēsilīte mīlitēs, 4, 25, 3,overboard, my men.sīgnifer, statue sīgnum, L. 5, 55, 1,standardbearer, plant your standard.īnfer mīles sīgnum, L. 6, 8, 1,advance your standard, man, orcharge. To sailors: as,hūc dīrigite nāvēs, L. 29, 27, 13,head your galleys this way. To slaves: as,convorrite aedēs scōpīs, agite strēnuē, Pl.B.10,sweep up the house with brooms, be brisk. Also to an equal: as,aperīte aliquis, Pl.Mer.130,open the door there somebody(1080). Or to a superior: as,heus, exī, Phaedrome, Pl.Cur.276,ho Phaedromus, come out. (b.) Exhortation, entreaty, summons, request, prayer, imprecation, wish, concession, &c.: as,vōs vōbīs cōnsulite, 7, 50, 5,every man of you for himself.ēs, bibe, animō obsequere, Pl.MG.677,eat, drink, and be merry.sperne voluptātēs, H.E.1, 2, 55,scorn thou delights.quīn tū ī intrō, Pl.Most.815,go in, go in, won’t you go in?(1527).patent portae, proficīscere, ēdūc tēcum etiam omnīs tuōs,C.1, 10,the gates are open, march forth; take out all your myrmidons with you too.audī, Iuppiter, L. 1, 32, 6,bow down thine ear, Jupiter.ī in crucem, Pl.As.940,get you gone to the cross.vīve valēque, H.S.2, 5, 109,long live and thrive, orfarewell.tibī̆ habē, Pl.Men.690,you keep it yourself.
1572.The imperative is often softened by the addition ofamābō,obsecrō,quaesō,prithee,I beg, orsīs,sultis,sōdēs,please(97). It is sharpened byage,agedumoragidum,age sīs,mark me, orī,go,come on, or bymodo,only. The concessive imperative sometimes hassānē,for all me.
1573.In Plautus and Terence, the encliticdum,a while,a minute,just, is often attached to the imperative: as,manedum, Pl.As.585,wait a minute. In classical Latin,dumis retained withageandagite: as,agedum cōnferte cum illīus vītā P. Sūllae,Sull.72,come now, compare Sulla’s life with that man’s(1075).
1574.It may be mentioned here, that the imperative is often used in the protasis of a conditional sentence: as,
tolle hanc opīniōnem, lūctum sustuleris,TD.1, 30,do away with this notion, and you will do away with mourning for the dead. Once only in old Latin, but often in late Latin, with a copulative: as,perge, ac facile ecfēceris, Pl.B.695,start on, and you will do it easily.
1575.(1.) The third person, and the longer forms of the second person, are used particularly in laws, legal documents, and treaties, and also in impressive general rules and maxims: as,
(a.)rēgiō imperiō duō suntō,Leg.3, 8,there shall be two men vested with the power of kings.amīcitia rēgī Antiochō cum populō Rōmānō hīs lēgibus estō, L. 38, 38, 1,there shall be amity between king Antiochus and Rome on the following terms. (b.)vīcīnīs bonus estō, Cato,RR.4,always be good to your neighbours.mōribus vīvitō antīquīs, Pl.Tri.295,live thou in old-time ways. The longer forms are often called theFuture Imperative.
1576.(2.) The longer forms of the second person are also sometimes used in the ordinary speech of everyday life: as,cavētō,QFr.1, 3, 8,beware. In old Latin, oftenēs,be thou, but in classical Latin, oftenerestō(orsīs). Usuallyhabētō, meaningkeep, orconsider, regularlyscītō,scītōte,you must know(846). In verse, the long forms may sometimes be due to the metre: as,hīc hodiē cēnātō, Pl.R.1417,take dinner here today.pār prō parī refertō, T.Eu.445,pay tit for tat. But also without such necessity: as,aufertō intrō, Pl.Tru.914,take it within.quiētus estō, inquam, T.Ph.713,be not concerned, I say.
1577.(3.) It may be mentioned here, that the longer forms are very often used in the apodosis of a complex sentence, particularly with a future or a future perfect protasis: as,
sī iste ībit, ītō, Pl.Ps.863,if he shall go, go thou.medicō mercēdis quantum poscet, prōmittī iubētō,Fam.16, 14, 1,you must order your medical man to be promised all he shall charge in the way of a fee.ubī̆ nihil erit quod scrībās, id ipsum scrībitō,Att.4, 8b,4,when you don’t have anything to write, then write just that.cum ego P. Grānium testem prōdūxerō, refellitō, sī poteris,V.5, 154,when I put Granius on the witness stand, refute him if you can.
1578.In such combinations, however, the shorter forms are sometimes found: as,ubi volēs, accerse, T.Andr.848,fetch me when you will. And conversely the longer forms are also found with a present protasis: as,ūnum illud vidētō, sī mē amās,Fam.16, 1, 2,attend to this one thing, an thou lovest me.
1579.A command is sometimes expressed by the subjunctive, accompanyingfac,facitō,fac ut,facitō ut,cūrā ut,cūrātō ut,vidē,vidē ut,volō, or particularlyvelim: as,
magnum fac animum habeās et spem bonam,QFr.1, 2, 16,see that you keep up an heroic soul and unabated hope(1712).fac cōgitēs,Fam.11, 3, 4,see that you bear in mind.cūrā ut valeās,Fam.12, 29, 3,take good care of yourself.velim exīstimēs,Fam.12, 29, 2,I should like to have you consider. For commands in the subjunctive alone, see1547; in the future indicative, 1624; in the form of a question, 1531.
1580.A periphrastic perfect passive form is rare: as,iūre caesus estō, Twelve Tables in Macrob.Sat.1, 4, 19,he shall be regarded as killed with justifying circumstances.probē factum estō, L. 22, 10, 6,let it be considered justified.at vōs admonitī nostrīs quoque cāsibus este, O.Tr.4, 8, 51,but be ye warned by our misfortunes too.
Prohibition.
1581.(1.) In prohibitions with the second person, the imperative withnēis used in old Latin, and withnēveas a connective, rarelyneque: as,
nē flē, Pl.Cap.139,weep not.nē saevī tantō opere, T.Andr.868,be not thus wroth. Sometimes in classical poetry also, in imitation of old style: as,nē saevī, magna sacerdōs, V. 6, 544,rave not, thou priestess grand. Once in Livy:nē timēte, 3, 2, 9,be not afraid.
1582.From Ovid on,nōnis used a few times fornē: as,nōn cārīs aurēs onerāte lapillīs, O.AA.3, 129,load not with precious stones your ears.
1583.(2.) Prohibitions in the second person are usually expressed bynōlīornōlītewith the infinitive, particularly in classical prose: as,
obiūrgāre nōlī,Att.3, 11, 2,don’t scold.nōlīte id velle quod fierī nōn potest,Ph.7, 25,don’t yearn after the unattainable.
1584.In poetry, equivalents fornōlīare sometimes used with the infinitive, such asfuge,parceorcomperce,conpesce,mitteoromitte,absiste: as,quid sit futūrum crās, fuge quaerere, H. 1, 9, 13,what fate the morrow brings, forbear to ask. Livy has onceparce, 34, 32, 20.
1585.(3.) A prohibition in the second person is often expressed by the subjunctive accompanyingcavē̆,fac nē,vidē nē,vidētō nē,cūrā nē,cūrātō nē, ornōlim, and in old Latincavē̆ nē: as,
cavē festīnēs,Fam.16, 12, 6,don’t be in a hurry.cavētō nē suscēnseās, Pl.As.372,see that thou beest not wroth.hoc nōlim mē iocārī putēs,Fam.9, 15, 4,I should hate to have you think I am saying this in fun. For prohibitions in the second person withnēand the present or perfect subjunctive, see1551. For the subjunctive coordinated withcavē̆, see1711.
1586.In law language, prohibitions are expressed by the third person of the imperative withnē, and withnēveas a connective: as,
hominem mortuom in urbe nē sepelītō nēve ūritō, Twelve Tables inLeg.2, 58,he shall not bury nor yet shall he burn a dead man in town.mulierēs genās nē rāduntō nēve lessum fūneris ergō habentō, Twelve Tables inLeg.2, 59,women shall not tear their cheeks nor shall they keen in lamentation for the dead(1257). Likewise withnēmō: as,nēminī pārentō, Twelve Tables inLeg.3, 8,they shall not be subject to anybody. See also1548.
The Present Tense.
1587.The present indicative represents action as going on at the time of speaking or writing: as,
scrībō,I write, orI am writing.nunc prīmum audiō, T.Andr.936,for the first time I hear.notat ad caedem ūnum quemque nostrūm,C.1, 2,he is marking us out for death, each and all.domus aedificātur,Att.4, 2, 7,the house is building.
1588.The present is used to denote action customary or repeated at any time, or a general truth: as,
agrī cultūrae nōn student, 6, 22, 1,they do not apply themselves to farming.virī in uxōrēs vītae necisque habent potestātem, 6, 19, 3,the married men have power of life and death over their wives.probitās laudātur et alget, J. 1, 74,uprightness gets extolled, and left out in the cold.dum vītant stultī vitia, in contrāria currunt, H.S.1, 2, 24,while fools essay a vice to shun, into its opposite they run.mors sōla fatētur quantula sint hominum corpuscula, J. 10, 172,death is the only thing that tells what pygmy things men’s bodies be.stultōrum plēna sunt omnia,Fam.9, 22, 4,the world is full of fools.rīsū ineptō rēs ineptior nūllast, Cat. 39, 16,there’s nothing sillier than a silly laugh.
1589.The present, when accompanied by some expression of duration of time, is often used to denote action which has been going on some time and is still going on.
This present is translated by the English perfect: as,Lilybaeī multōs iam annōs habitat,V.4, 38,he has lived at Lilybaeum this many a year.iam dūdum auscultō, H.S.2, 7, 1,I have been listening for an age.satis diū hōc iam saxum vorsō, T.Eu.1085,I’ve trundled at this boulder long enough as ’t is.nimium diū tē castra dēsīderant,C.1, 10,the camp has felt your absence altogether too long.iam diū īgnōrō quid agās,Fam.7, 9, 1,I have not known this long time how you are getting on. This use extends to the subjunctive and to nouns of the verb also. But if the action is conceived as completed, the perfect is used: as,sērō resistimus ē̆ī quem per annōs decem aluimus,Att.7, 5, 5,it is too late to oppose a man whom we have been supporting ten long years.
1590.The present is often used to represent past action as going on now. This is called thePresent of Vivid Narration: as,
trānsfīgitur scūtum Puliōni et verūtum in balteō dēfīgitur. āvertit hīc cāsus vāgīnam, inpedītumque hostēs circumsistunt, 5, 44, 7,Pulio has his shield run through, and a javelin sticks fast in his sword belt. This mischance puts his scabbard out of reach, and the enemy encompass him in this hampered condition. This present often stands side by side with a past tense. It is common in subordinate sentences also.
1591.The present is sometimes used in brief historical or personal memoranda, to note incidents day by day or year by year as they occur. This is called theAnnalistic Present: as,
Proca deinde rēgnat. is Numitōrem prōcreat. Numitōrī rēgnum vetustum Silviae gentis lēgat, L. 1, 3, 9,after this Proca is king; this man begets Numitor; to Numitor he bequeaths the ancient throne of the Silvian race.duplicātur cīvium numerus. Caelius additur urbī mōns, L. 1, 30, 1,number of citizens doubled; Mt. Caelius added to city.in Māmurrārum lassī deinde urbe manēmus, H.S.1, 5, 37,in the Mamurras’ city then forspent we sleep. Particularly common with dates: as,A. Vergīnius inde et T. Vetusius cōnsulātum ineunt, L. 2, 28, 1,then Verginius and Vetusius enter on the consulship.M. Sīlānō L. Nōrbānō cōnsulibus Germānicus Aegyptum proficīscitur, Ta. 2, 59,in the consulship of Silanus and Norbanus, Germanicus leaves for Egypt.
1592.Verbs of hearing, seeing, and saying are often put in the present, even when they refer to action really past: as,
audiō Valerium Mārtiālem dēcessisse, Plin.Ep.3, 21, 1,I hear that Martial is dead, i.e. the epigrammatist, 102A.D.Particularly of things mentioned in books, or in quoting what an author says: as,Hercyniam silvam, quam Eratosthenī nōtam esse videō, 6, 24, 2,the Hercynian forest, which I see was known to Eratosthenes.Platō ‘ēscam malōrum’ appellat voluptātem,CM.44,Plato calls pleasure the ‘bait of sin.’
1593.The present is sometimes loosely used of future action: as,
crās est mihī̆ iūdicium, T.Eu.338,tomorrow I’ve a case in court.ego sȳcophantam iam condūcō dē forō, Pl.Tri.815,for me, a sharper from the market place I’ll straight engage.quam mox inruimus?T.Eu.788,how soon do we pitch in?This present is also used in subordinate sentences withantequamandpriusquam(1912,1915), withdum,until(2006), and sometimes withsī.
The Imperfect Tense.
1594.The imperfect indicative represents action as going on in past time: as,
scrībēbam,I was writing, orI wrote.ei mihi quālis erat, V. 2, 274,woe’s me, how ghastly he appeared.multōsque per annōs errābant āctī fātīs, V. 1, 31,and they for many a year were roaming round, by fates pursued.
1595.The imperfect often denotes past action lasting while something else occurred: as,
an tum erās cōnsul, cum mea domus ardēbat?Pis.26,were you perhaps consul at the time my house was burning down?neque vērō tum īgnōrābat sē ad exquīsīta supplicia proficīscī,Off.3, 100,and all the time he knew perfectly well that he was starting off to suffer studied torments.
1596.The imperfect is used to denote repeated or customary past action or condition: as,
commentābar dēclāmitāns cōtīdiē,Br.310,I always practised speaking my compositions every day.noctū ambulābat in pūblicō Themistoclēs,TD.4, 44,Themistocles used to promenade the streets nights.
1597.The imperfect, when accompanied by some expression of duration of time, is used to denote action which had been going on for some time, and was still going on.
This imperfect, which is translated by the English pluperfect, is analogous to the present in 1589: as,pater grandis nātū iam diū lectō tenēbātur,V.5, 16,his aged father had long been bedridden.hōram amplius iam permultī hominēs mōliēbantur,V.4, 95,something over an hour a good many men had been prizing away. But if the action is conceived as completed at a past time, the pluperfect is used: as,diem iam quīntum cibō caruerat, 6, 38, 1,four whole days he had gone without eating.
1598.In a few examples, the imperfect is used to denote action suddenly recognized, though going on before: as,ehem, Parmenō, tūn hīc erās?T.Hec.340,why bless me, Parmeno, were you here all this time?
1599.In descriptions of place or in general truths, where the present might be expected, the imperfect is sometimes used, by assimilation to past action in the context: as,ipsum erat oppidum Alesia in colle summō, 7, 69, 1,Alesia proper was situated on the top of a hill. Often also in subordinate sentences.
1600.For the imperfect indicative of certain verbs relating to action not performed at the present time, see1497; for the conative use, see2302.
1601.In letters, the imperfect may denote action at the time of writing, the writer transferring himself to the time of the reader: as,
haec tibi dictābam post fānum putre Vacūnae, H.E.1, 10, 49,I dictate this for thee behind Vacuna’s crumbling shrine.nihil habēbam quod scrīberem,Att.9, 10, 1,I have nothing to write. Similarly in the delivery of messages: as,scrībae ōrābant, H.S.2, 6, 36,the clerks request. The present, however, is very often used where the imperfect would be applicable. Compare 1616.
The Perfect Tense.
1602.The Latin perfect indicative represents two English tenses: thus, the preterite,I wrote, and the perfect,I have written, are both expressed by the perfectscrīpsī. In the first sense, this perfect is called theHistorical Perfect; in the second sense, it is called thePerfect Definite.
The Historical Perfect.
1603.The historical perfect simply expresses action as having occurred at an indefinite past time, without implying anything as to the duration of the action: as,
scrīpsī,I wrote.vēnī, vīdī, vīcī, Caesar in Suet.Iul.37,came, saw, overcame.apud Helvētiōs longē nōbilissimus fuit Orgetorīx, 1, 2, 1,among the Helvetians, the man of highest birth by all odds was Orgetorix.Diodōrus prope triennium domō caruit,V.4, 41,for nearly three years Diodorus had to keep away from home.in Graeciā mūsicī flōruērunt, discēbantque id omnēs,TD.1, 4,in Greece musicians stood high, and everybody studied the art(1596).