terga fatīgāmūs hastā, nec tarda senectus,V. 9, 610.tum sīc Mercurium adloquitūr ac tālia mandat,V. 4, 222.caeca timēt aliunde fāta,H. 2, 13, 16.In many such cases this lengthening is not arbitrary, but the “lengthened” syllable is one that was originally long (see132).2506.The enclitic-queis sometimes lengthened under the ictus when another-queprecedes or follows in the arsis: as,cālōnēs famulīque metallīquḗ caculaeque(Accius).2507.Systolé(Greekσυστολή,a drawing together). Conversely a syllable which in verse is regularly long is sometimes shortened for metrical convenience: as,dedĕrunt(Hor.),nūllĭus(Hor.), imperat.commodă(Cat.).In most cases this shortening is not arbitrary, but represents a pronunciation which was in actual use, especially among the common people.2508.Syncopé(Greekσυγκοπή,a cutting short). A short vowel is often dropped between two consonants: as,surpiteforsurripite(Hor.),repostumforrepositum(Verg.).This usage doubtless reflects the common pronunciation; see110,111.2509.Tmesis(Greekτμῆσις,a cutting) is the separation of the parts of a word: as,septem subiecta triōnī=septemtriōnī subiecta(Verg.).This usually occurs only in compounds; but early poets sometimes divided other words: as,saxō cere comminuit brumforsaxō cerebrum comminuit(Ennius).2510.Synapheia(Greekσυνάφεια,a joining together) is the linking together of two verses belonging to the same system. Here elision or word division may occur at the end of the first verse: as,Iōve nōn probante u-xōrius amnis,H. 1, 2, 19.Iam licet veniās marīt(e),uxor in thalamō tibī̆ est,Cat. 61, 191.III. VERSIFICATION.By Herman W. Hayley, Ph.D.2511.Rhythm(Gr.ῥυθμός, fromῥεῖν,to flow) is the effect of regularity produced by the discrimination of a movement or sound into uniform intervals of time. It is often marked by a stress orictusrecurring at fixed intervals.Rhythm is by no means confined to verse. Music, dancing, and even the regular beat of a trip-hammer, have rhythm. Particular kinds of movement are often called rhythms, as anapaestic rhythms, dactylic rhythms, &c.2512.Metre(Gr.μέτρον,a measure) is the definite measurement of verse by feet, lines, strophes, systems, &c.2513.Latin verse is quantitative, the rhythm depending upon the quantity of the syllables (but see2548). The ictus naturally falls upon a long syllable (or its equivalent). English verse, on the other hand, is accentual, its rhythm depending upon the accent of words.Quantity.2514.Signs of Quantity.A long syllable is indicated by –, a short one by ⏑. A syllable which varies in quantity, being sometimes long, sometimes short, is indicated by ⏓ or ⏒.In the following metrical schemes, ⏓ indicates that the long is more usual or more strictly in accordance with the rhythm than the short. The reverse is indicated by ⏒.2515.TheUnit of Measureis the duration of a short syllable and is called aTime,Tempus, orMora. Themoradid not have an absolute length, but varied with the nature of the rhythm. For greater convenience, however, it is assumed that its length was uniform, and equalled that of an eighth note ♪ A long syllable, being equal to two shorts, has a length of twomorae, which is assumed to be the same as that of our quarter-note ♩ Hence in notation ⏑ = ♪ and – = ♩2516.Protraction.A long syllable may be prolonged (Protraction) so as to have a length of threemorae, in which case it is called atriseme(marked ⏗), or of fourmorae, when it is termed atetraseme(marked ⏘). See2537and2541.2517.Correption.A long or short syllable may be shortened so as to occupy less than its normal time. This is calledCorreption(Lat.correptiō,a shortening). See2523and2524.2518.Resolution and Contraction.In some kinds of verse a long syllable may be, as it were, broken up (Resolution) into the equivalent two shorts; and conversely two short syllables may in some cases be united (Contraction) into the equivalent long.Feet.2519.Feet.Latin verse (like English) is measured by groups of syllables calledFeet. Each of these groups has a definite length of so manymorae(2515).It is theoretically more accurate to make the foot purely a time-division, as some authorities do; but the definition given above is sanctioned by established usage.2520.ArsisandThesis. Every complete foot consists of two parts, an accented and an unaccented. The part on which the rhythmical accent orictusfalls is called theThesis(Gr.θέσις,a setting down). The unaccented part of the foot is termed theArsis(Gr.ἄρσις,a raising).The nameThesisoriginally referred to the setting down of the foot in beating time or marching, or to the movement of the leader’s hand in making the downward beat; andArsisin like manner meant the raising of the foot or hand. But the Roman grammarians misunderstood the Greek terms, supposing them to refer to the lowering and raising of the voice, and so interchanged them. Hence many modern writers prefer to useArsisto denote the accented, andThesisthe unaccented, part of the foot.KINDS OF FEET.2521.The feet in common use are the following:—Feet of Three Morae.Name.Sign.Musically.Example.Trochee– ⏑♩♪dūcitIambus⏑ –♪♩leguntTribrach⏑ ⏑ ⏑♪♪♪hominisFeet of Four Morae.Dactyl– ⏑ ⏑♩♪♪dūcimusAnapaest⏑ ⏑ –♪♪♩regerentSpondee– –♩♩fēcīProceleusmatic⏑ ⏑ ⏑ ⏑♪♪♪♪hominibusFeet of Five Morae.Cretic– ⏑ –♩♪♩fēcerintFirst Paeon– ⏑ ⏑ ⏑♩♪♪♪lēgeritisFourth Paeon⏑ ⏑ ⏑ –♪♪♪♩celeritāsBacchīus⏑ – –♪♩♩regēbantFeet of Six Morae.Choriambus– ⏑ ⏑ –♩♪♪♩horribilēsIonicā māiōre– – ⏑ ⏑♩♩♪♪dēdūcimusIonicā minōre⏑ ⏑ – –♪♪♩♩relegēbant2522.Other feet mentioned by the ancient grammarians are:—Name.Sign.Pyrrhic⏑ ⏑Amphibrach⏑ – ⏑Antibacchīus orPalimbacchīus– – ⏑Molossus– – –Dispondee– – – –Ditrochee– ⏑ – ⏑Diiambus⏑ – ⏑ –Antispast⏑ – – ⏑Second Paeon⏑ – ⏑ ⏑Third Paeon⏑ ⏑ – ⏑First Epitrite⏑ – – –Second Epitrite– ⏑ – –Third Epitrite– – ⏑ –Fourth Epitrite– – – ⏑But these are of little practical importance, as most of them never are employed in Latin poetry, and the few which do occur are used only as substitutes for other feet.Cyclic Feet.2523.A dactyl occurring in 3/8 time did not have the value of 2morae+ 1 + 1, but was given instead that of 1½ + ¾ + ¾; in other words both arsis and thesis suffered correption (2517), but the ratio between them remained unchanged. Such a dactyl is calledcyclic, and is marked – ⏖, or musicallydotted 8th note, dotted 16th, dotted 16thThere is also acyclic anapaest, marked ⏖ – ordotted 16th note, dotted 16th, dotted 8thSome scholars, however, hold that the cyclic dactyl had approximately the value 1½ + ½ + 1, ordotted 8th note, dotted 16th, 8th, and mark it –⏑ ⏑. In like manner they mark the cyclic anapaest ⏑ ⏑–. The true nature of these cyclic feet is very uncertain.Irrational Syllables and Feet.2524.A long syllable sometimes stands in place of a short. A syllable thus used is calledirrational(marked >) because it destroys the normalratiobetween arsis and thesis. The foot which contains such a syllable is itself called irrational. The most common irrational foot is theirrational spondee(– >when it stands for a trochee; >– when it replaces an iambus), which is found in iambic, trochaic, and logaoedic rhythms.Probably the irrational long suffered a slight correption (2517), so that its duration was between that of the ordinary long and that of a short syllable.Rhythms.2525.The different rhythms or metres are named trochaic, iambic, &c., according to their fundamental feet.2526.Much of the Latin poetry (though not by any means all) was written to be sung. The Greeks and Romans employed in their music not only common (or 2/4) time and triple (3/8, 3/4) time, but also 5/8 time, which last is very rarely used in modern music.2527.The Greek and Roman metricians divided the rhythms into three classes, according to the ratio between arsis and thesis in their fundamental feet. These classes were:— (a.) theEqual Class(γένος ἴσον,genus pār) in which thesis and arsis are equal in duration, as in dactylics, anapaestics, &c.; (b.) theDouble Class(γένος διπλάσιον,genus duplex) in which the thesis has twice the duration of the arsis, as in trochaics, iambics, &c.; (c.) theHemiolic Class(γένος ἡμιόλιον,genus sēscuplex) in which the thesis has one and a half times the duration of the arsis, as in bacchiacs, cretics, etc.2528.Ascending and Descending Rhythms.Rhythms in which the thesis follows the arsis (as in iambics) are calledascending; those in which it precedes the arsis (as in trochaics) are termeddescending.Anacrusis.2529.The ancients recognized both ascending and descending rhythms (2528), and regarded the former class as at least equal in importance to the latter; but many modern scholars since the time of Bentley have preferred to treat all rhythms as descending, regarding the first arsis of an ascending rhythm as merely answering to a preliminary upward beat in music. Such an initial arsis was named by Gottfried HermannAnacrūsis(Gr.ἀνάκρουσις,a striking up).Scholars have been influenced to adopt the anacrustic theory in its widest extent largely by the fact that in most modern music a measure must commence with a downward beat, a rule which did not hold in ancient music. By this theory an iambic verse becomes trochaic with anacrusis, an anapaestic verse dactylic with anacrusis, &c. But in many cases those kinds of verse which begin with an arsis were subject to different rules of construction from those which begin with a thesis. Hence it seems best to restrict anacrusis to logaoedic verse, in which it undoubtedly occurs.2530.The anacrusis may be a long syllable, a short syllable, or two shorts (but not two longs). It is often irrational (2524). In metrical schemes it is often set off from the rest of the verse by a vertical row of dots: thus, ⁝Groups of Feet.2531.A group of two feet is called adipody, one of three atripody, one of four atetrapody, one of five apentapody, and one of six ahexapody. The dipody is the measure of trochaic, iambic, and anapaestic verse. Other kinds of verse are measured by the single foot.A single foot is sometimes called amonopody. A group of three half feet, i.e. a foot and a half, is sometimes called atrithemimeris, one of two and a half feet apenthemimeris, one of three and a half ahephthemimeris, &c.2532.ARhythmical Series,Rhythmical Sentence, orColonis a group of two or more feet (but not more than six) which are united into a rhythmic whole by strengthening one of the ictuses, so that it becomes the principal or dominant ictus of the whole group.2533.The Verse.A rhythmical series, or group of two (or even three) series, which forms a distinct and separate whole is called aVerse. The final syllable of a verse must terminate a word (except in cases of synapheia, see2510), and may be either long or short (whence it is termedsyllaba anceps) without regard to the rhythm. Hiatus (2474) is freely allowed at the end of a verse (though in rare cases elision occurs before a vowel at the beginning of the following verse; see2492and2568).A verse is generally (but not always) written as one line. Hence, the words “verse” and “line” are often used as synonyms.Syllaba Anceps.2534.In the present work, the final syllable of each verse is marked long or short as the rhythm may require, without reference to its quantity in a given example; and in the general schemes it is to be understood that the final syllable issyllaba anceps(2533) unless the contrary is expressly stated.2535.Dicolic and Asynartetic Verses.A verse which consists of two rhythmical series (or cola) is calleddicolic. If the series of which the verse is made up are quasi-independent of each other, so that hiatus or syllaba anceps occurs in the caesura, the verse is styledasynartetic(Gr.ἀσυνάρτητος,not joined together).2536.Names of Verses.Verses are calledtrochaic,iambic,dactylic, &c., according to their fundamental (or characteristic) feet. A verse which contains one foot (or one dipody if iambic, trochaic, or anapaestic; see2531) is called amonometer, one of two adimeter, one of three atrimeter, one of four atetrameter, one of five apentameter, and one of six ahexameter.Trochaic, iambic, and anapaestic verses are often named by Latin adjectives in-ārius(used as nouns) denoting the number of feet. Thus, such a verse of eight feet is called anoctōnārius, one of seven aseptēnārius, one of six asēnārius, &c. A short verse which is employed to close a system (2547), or to mark a metrical or musical transition between longer verses, is called aclausula.Catalexis, Pause, Syncope.2537.Catalexis.A verse, the last foot of which is incomplete, is said to sufferCatalexis(Gr.κατάληξις,a stopping short) or to becatalectic; one of which the last foot is complete is calledacatalectic.It is usually the last part of the foot that is omitted; but (according to the theory now generally accepted) in catalectic iambic verses it is the last arsis that is omitted, the preceding thesis being protracted (2516) to compensate for the loss, thus: ⏑ ⏗́ –́2538.A verse in which both the last arsis and the next to the last are suppressed, so that a whole foot appears to be wanting, is calledbrachycatalectic.2539.A verse is said to be catalecticin syllabam,in disyllabum, orin trisyllabum, according to the number of syllables remaining in the last foot. Thus, the dactylic tetrameter– ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ ⏑ | –is catalecticin syllabam, but– ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑is catalecticin disyllabum.2540.Pauses.Theoretically all the feet (or dipodies; see2531) into which a verse is divided must be equal in duration. Hence, when a final syllable (or two final syllables) is lost by catalexis, compensation is made for the loss by a pause at the end of the verse. Such a pause, which serves to fill out the last measure, answers to arestin music.A pause of onemorais often indicated by the sign ⌃, and one of twomoraeby ⌅.2541.Syncopeis the omission of one or more arses in the body of a verse. Compensation is made for the suppression of an arsis by protracting (2516) the preceding thesis.Caesura.2542.Caesura and Diaeresis.ACaesūra(literallya cutting, fromcaedo,I cut) is the break in a verse produced by the ending of a word within a foot. When the end of a word coincides with the end of a foot, the break is called aDiaeresis(Gr.διαίρεσις,a separating). A caesura is marked ‖, a diaeresis #.The wordcaesurais often loosely used to include both caesura proper and diaeresis.2543.Strictly speaking, there is a caesura (or diaeresis, as the case may be) wherever a word ends within a verse; but the main incision in the verse is so much more important than the rest that it is often called theprincipal caesura, or simplythe caesura.2544.Caesuras are named according to their position in the verse; thus a caesura after the third half-foot (i.e. in the second foot) is calledtrithemimeral(from Gr.τριθημιμερής,containing three halves), one after the fifth half-foot (i.e. in the third foot)penthemimeral(Gr.πενθημιμερής,consisting of five halves), one after the seventh half-foot (i.e. in the fourth foot)hephthemimeral(Gr.ἑφθημιμερής), &c.The Latin namescaesūra sēmiternāria(= the trithemimeral caesura),sēmiquīnāria(= the penthemimeral),sēmiseptēnāria(= the hepthemimeral), &c., are sometimes used. For themasculineandfemininecaesuras, see2557.Strophe. System.2545.The Strophe.A fixed number of verses recurring in a regular order is called aStrophe. A strophe commonly contains verses of different kinds, but some strophes are composed of verses which are all alike. The most common strophes in Latin poetry are eitherdistichs(i.e. groups of two lines each),tristichs(of three lines each), ortetrastichs(of four).Strophes and verses are frequently named after some poet who made use of them. So the Alcaic strophe (named after Alcaeus), the Sapphic strophe (named after Sappho), the Glyconic verse (named after Glycon), the Asclepiadean (after Asclepiades), the Phalaecean (after Phalaecus), the Pherecratean (after Pherecrates), &c.2546.AStichic Seriesis a series of verses of the same kind not combined into strophes.2547.The System.A group of rhythmical series (see2532) which is of greater extent than a verse is called aSystem. Long systems, such as are common in Greek poetry, are comparatively rare in Latin verse.Few verses have more than two rhythmical series; none more than three.2548.Although in all probability the Latin accent was mainly one of stress rather than of pitch, it seems to have been comparatively weak. Hence, when it conflicted with the metrical ictus, it could be the more easily disregarded. But accentual or semi-accentual poetry seems to have existed among the common people even in the Augustan age, and even in classical Latin verse in certain cases (as in the last part of the dactylic hexameter) conflict between ictus and accent was carefully avoided. After the third centuryA.D.the accent exerted a stronger and stronger influence upon versification, until in the Middle Ages the quantitative Latin verse was quite supplanted by the accentual.NUMERI ITALICI.2549.Some of the earliest remains of Latin literature are believed to show a rhythmical structure. These are chiefly prayers, imprecations, sacred songs and the like, couched in a set form of words. Of the rules according to which thesecarminawere composed, almost nothing is known. According to one theory, they are wholly accentual, and are composed of rhythmical series, each series containing four theses. Frequently an arsis is suppressed, and compensation for the omission is made by dwelling longer upon the thesis. As an example is given the prayer in Cato,Dē Rē Rūsticā, 141:Mā́rs páter tḗ précor | quaésṓque útī síēs | vólēns própítiúsmíhī́ dómṓ | fámiliaéque nóstraé, &c.THE SATURNIAN.2550.The Saturnianis the best known and most important of the old Italian rhythms; but its nature long has been, and still is, matter of high dispute. There are two principal theories as to its character, the quantitative and the accentual, each of which is advocated by many distinguished scholars.2551.(1.)The Quantitative Theory.According to this theory, the Saturnian is a verse of six feet, with an anacrusis (2529). There is a break after the fourth arsis, or more rarely after the third thesis. Each thesis may be either a long syllable or two shorts; each arsis may be a short syllable, a long, or two shorts, but an arsis is not resolved before the principal break or at the end of the verse. Hiatus is common, especially at the principal break in the verse. A short final syllable may be lengthened by the influence of the verse-ictus. An arsis is frequently suppressed, especially the penultimate arsis. Two arses are never suppressed in the same half-verse, and rarely two in the same verse. Examples of the Saturnian, measured quantitatively, are:Dabúnt malúm Metéllī # Naéviṓ poḗtae.Novém Iovís concórdēs # fī́liaé sorṓrēs.(Naevius.)Virúm mihī́, Camḗna, # ī́nsecḗ versū́tum.(Livius Andronicus.)E͡ōrúm sectám sequóntur # múltī mórtā́lēs.(Naevius.)Compare in English: “The queén was ín the párlour, éating bréad and hóney.”2552.Most of the Roman grammarians who discussed the nature of the Saturnian seem to have regarded it as quantitative. In modern times the quantitative theory has been advocated by Ritschl, Buecheler, Havet, Christ, Lucian Mueller, W. Meyer, Reichardt and many others.2553.(2.)The Accentual Theory.According to this theory, the Saturnian is an accentual verse, constructed without regard to quantity. It is divided by the principal break into two halves, the first of which has three theses. The second half usually has three, but may have only two, in which case it is usually preceded by an anacrusis (2529). Two accented syllables are regularly separated by an unaccented syllable, but in strictly constructed Saturnians the second and third unaccented syllables are regularly separated by two unaccented ones. Hiatus was at first freely admitted, but in the Saturnians of the second centuryB.C.occurs only at the principal break. Examples of the Saturnian, measured according to this theory, are:Dábunt málum Metéllī # Naéviṓ poḗtae.Nóvem Ióvis concórdēs # fī́liaé sorṓrēs.(Naevius.)Vírum míhi, Camḗna, # ī́nsecḗ versū́tum.(Livius Andronicus.)E͡ōrum séctam sequóntur # múltī mórtā́lēs.(Naevius.)2554.The accentual theory was held by the scholiast on V.G.2, 385, and in modern times has been upheld (in one form or another) by O. Keller, Thurneysen, Westphal, Gleditsch, Lindsay and others. The brief statement given above agrees essentially with that of O. Keller. Gleditsch holds that each half-verse has four accents, as:Dábunt málum Métellī́ ‖ Naéviṓ poḗtaé; Lindsay that the first hemistich has three accents and the second two, as:Dábunt málum Metéllī ‖ Naéviō poḗtae. The whole question is still far from its final settlement.DACTYLIC RHYTHMS.2555.These are descending rhythms belonging to theEqual Class(see2527). In them the fundamental foot is the dactyl (–́ ⏑ ⏑), for which its metrical equivalent, the spondee (–́ –), is frequently substituted.The Dactylic Hexameter.2556.TheDactylic Hexameteris the verse regularly employed in epic, didactic, and bucolic poetry, and is used by the Latin writers oftener than any other measure. It consists of six feet, the last of which is a spondee (but with the privilege ofsyllaba anceps; see2534). The fifth foot is usually a dactyl; but sometimes a spondee is employed, in which case the verse is calledspondaic. In each of the other four feet either a dactyl or a spondee may be used. The scheme is therefore:–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́[bracketed long over pair of breves]| –́ –2557.A caesura which comes immediately after the thesis of a foot is calledmasculine; one which falls in the middle of the arsis (i.e. after the first short of a dactyl) is termedfeminine. The Roman writers show a strong preference for masculine principal caesuras, and in general their treatment of the caesura is more strict than that of the Greek poets.2558.The principal caesura in the Latin hexameter is most frequently the penthemimeral (2544): as in:Arma virumque canō ‖ Troiae quī prīmus ab ōrīs(V. 1, 1).Next in order of frequency stands the hephthemimeral, which is usually accompanied by a secondary trithemimeral, and in many cases also by a feminine caesura in the third foot: as in the verse,Īnsīgnem ‖ pietāte ‖ virum ‖ tot adīre labōrēs(V. 1, 10).If the secondary trithemimeral caesura is lacking, the penthemimeral is usually accompanied by a feminine caesura in the second foot. Sometimes, though more rarely, the principal break in the line is the feminine caesura in the third foot (often called the “caesura after the third trochee”), as in the verseSpargēns ūmida mella ‖ sopōriferumque papāver(V. 4, 486).2559.The diaeresis (see2542) after the fourth foot (often called “bucolic diaeresis” from its use by pastoral writers) sometimes occurs, but is much less common in Latin hexameters than in Greek. An example is
terga fatīgāmūs hastā, nec tarda senectus,V. 9, 610.tum sīc Mercurium adloquitūr ac tālia mandat,V. 4, 222.caeca timēt aliunde fāta,H. 2, 13, 16.
terga fatīgāmūs hastā, nec tarda senectus,V. 9, 610.
tum sīc Mercurium adloquitūr ac tālia mandat,V. 4, 222.
caeca timēt aliunde fāta,H. 2, 13, 16.
In many such cases this lengthening is not arbitrary, but the “lengthened” syllable is one that was originally long (see132).
2506.The enclitic-queis sometimes lengthened under the ictus when another-queprecedes or follows in the arsis: as,cālōnēs famulīque metallīquḗ caculaeque(Accius).
2507.Systolé(Greekσυστολή,a drawing together). Conversely a syllable which in verse is regularly long is sometimes shortened for metrical convenience: as,dedĕrunt(Hor.),nūllĭus(Hor.), imperat.commodă(Cat.).
In most cases this shortening is not arbitrary, but represents a pronunciation which was in actual use, especially among the common people.
2508.Syncopé(Greekσυγκοπή,a cutting short). A short vowel is often dropped between two consonants: as,surpiteforsurripite(Hor.),repostumforrepositum(Verg.).
This usage doubtless reflects the common pronunciation; see110,111.
2509.Tmesis(Greekτμῆσις,a cutting) is the separation of the parts of a word: as,septem subiecta triōnī=septemtriōnī subiecta(Verg.).
This usually occurs only in compounds; but early poets sometimes divided other words: as,saxō cere comminuit brumforsaxō cerebrum comminuit(Ennius).
2510.Synapheia(Greekσυνάφεια,a joining together) is the linking together of two verses belonging to the same system. Here elision or word division may occur at the end of the first verse: as,
Iōve nōn probante u-xōrius amnis,H. 1, 2, 19.
Iōve nōn probante u-
xōrius amnis,H. 1, 2, 19.
Iam licet veniās marīt(e),uxor in thalamō tibī̆ est,Cat. 61, 191.
Iam licet veniās marīt(e),
uxor in thalamō tibī̆ est,Cat. 61, 191.
By Herman W. Hayley, Ph.D.
2511.Rhythm(Gr.ῥυθμός, fromῥεῖν,to flow) is the effect of regularity produced by the discrimination of a movement or sound into uniform intervals of time. It is often marked by a stress orictusrecurring at fixed intervals.
Rhythm is by no means confined to verse. Music, dancing, and even the regular beat of a trip-hammer, have rhythm. Particular kinds of movement are often called rhythms, as anapaestic rhythms, dactylic rhythms, &c.
2512.Metre(Gr.μέτρον,a measure) is the definite measurement of verse by feet, lines, strophes, systems, &c.
2513.Latin verse is quantitative, the rhythm depending upon the quantity of the syllables (but see2548). The ictus naturally falls upon a long syllable (or its equivalent). English verse, on the other hand, is accentual, its rhythm depending upon the accent of words.
Quantity.
2514.Signs of Quantity.A long syllable is indicated by –, a short one by ⏑. A syllable which varies in quantity, being sometimes long, sometimes short, is indicated by ⏓ or ⏒.
In the following metrical schemes, ⏓ indicates that the long is more usual or more strictly in accordance with the rhythm than the short. The reverse is indicated by ⏒.
2515.TheUnit of Measureis the duration of a short syllable and is called aTime,Tempus, orMora. Themoradid not have an absolute length, but varied with the nature of the rhythm. For greater convenience, however, it is assumed that its length was uniform, and equalled that of an eighth note ♪ A long syllable, being equal to two shorts, has a length of twomorae, which is assumed to be the same as that of our quarter-note ♩ Hence in notation ⏑ = ♪ and – = ♩
2516.Protraction.A long syllable may be prolonged (Protraction) so as to have a length of threemorae, in which case it is called atriseme(marked ⏗), or of fourmorae, when it is termed atetraseme(marked ⏘). See2537and2541.
2517.Correption.A long or short syllable may be shortened so as to occupy less than its normal time. This is calledCorreption(Lat.correptiō,a shortening). See2523and2524.
2518.Resolution and Contraction.In some kinds of verse a long syllable may be, as it were, broken up (Resolution) into the equivalent two shorts; and conversely two short syllables may in some cases be united (Contraction) into the equivalent long.
Feet.
2519.Feet.Latin verse (like English) is measured by groups of syllables calledFeet. Each of these groups has a definite length of so manymorae(2515).
It is theoretically more accurate to make the foot purely a time-division, as some authorities do; but the definition given above is sanctioned by established usage.
2520.ArsisandThesis. Every complete foot consists of two parts, an accented and an unaccented. The part on which the rhythmical accent orictusfalls is called theThesis(Gr.θέσις,a setting down). The unaccented part of the foot is termed theArsis(Gr.ἄρσις,a raising).
The nameThesisoriginally referred to the setting down of the foot in beating time or marching, or to the movement of the leader’s hand in making the downward beat; andArsisin like manner meant the raising of the foot or hand. But the Roman grammarians misunderstood the Greek terms, supposing them to refer to the lowering and raising of the voice, and so interchanged them. Hence many modern writers prefer to useArsisto denote the accented, andThesisthe unaccented, part of the foot.
2521.The feet in common use are the following:—
2522.Other feet mentioned by the ancient grammarians are:—
Antibacchīus orPalimbacchīus
But these are of little practical importance, as most of them never are employed in Latin poetry, and the few which do occur are used only as substitutes for other feet.
Cyclic Feet.
2523.A dactyl occurring in 3/8 time did not have the value of 2morae+ 1 + 1, but was given instead that of 1½ + ¾ + ¾; in other words both arsis and thesis suffered correption (2517), but the ratio between them remained unchanged. Such a dactyl is calledcyclic, and is marked – ⏖, or musicallydotted 8th note, dotted 16th, dotted 16thThere is also acyclic anapaest, marked ⏖ – ordotted 16th note, dotted 16th, dotted 8th
Some scholars, however, hold that the cyclic dactyl had approximately the value 1½ + ½ + 1, ordotted 8th note, dotted 16th, 8th, and mark it –⏑ ⏑. In like manner they mark the cyclic anapaest ⏑ ⏑–. The true nature of these cyclic feet is very uncertain.
Irrational Syllables and Feet.
2524.A long syllable sometimes stands in place of a short. A syllable thus used is calledirrational(marked >) because it destroys the normalratiobetween arsis and thesis. The foot which contains such a syllable is itself called irrational. The most common irrational foot is theirrational spondee(– >when it stands for a trochee; >– when it replaces an iambus), which is found in iambic, trochaic, and logaoedic rhythms.
Probably the irrational long suffered a slight correption (2517), so that its duration was between that of the ordinary long and that of a short syllable.
Rhythms.
2525.The different rhythms or metres are named trochaic, iambic, &c., according to their fundamental feet.
2526.Much of the Latin poetry (though not by any means all) was written to be sung. The Greeks and Romans employed in their music not only common (or 2/4) time and triple (3/8, 3/4) time, but also 5/8 time, which last is very rarely used in modern music.
2527.The Greek and Roman metricians divided the rhythms into three classes, according to the ratio between arsis and thesis in their fundamental feet. These classes were:— (a.) theEqual Class(γένος ἴσον,genus pār) in which thesis and arsis are equal in duration, as in dactylics, anapaestics, &c.; (b.) theDouble Class(γένος διπλάσιον,genus duplex) in which the thesis has twice the duration of the arsis, as in trochaics, iambics, &c.; (c.) theHemiolic Class(γένος ἡμιόλιον,genus sēscuplex) in which the thesis has one and a half times the duration of the arsis, as in bacchiacs, cretics, etc.
2528.Ascending and Descending Rhythms.Rhythms in which the thesis follows the arsis (as in iambics) are calledascending; those in which it precedes the arsis (as in trochaics) are termeddescending.
Anacrusis.
2529.The ancients recognized both ascending and descending rhythms (2528), and regarded the former class as at least equal in importance to the latter; but many modern scholars since the time of Bentley have preferred to treat all rhythms as descending, regarding the first arsis of an ascending rhythm as merely answering to a preliminary upward beat in music. Such an initial arsis was named by Gottfried HermannAnacrūsis(Gr.ἀνάκρουσις,a striking up).
Scholars have been influenced to adopt the anacrustic theory in its widest extent largely by the fact that in most modern music a measure must commence with a downward beat, a rule which did not hold in ancient music. By this theory an iambic verse becomes trochaic with anacrusis, an anapaestic verse dactylic with anacrusis, &c. But in many cases those kinds of verse which begin with an arsis were subject to different rules of construction from those which begin with a thesis. Hence it seems best to restrict anacrusis to logaoedic verse, in which it undoubtedly occurs.
2530.The anacrusis may be a long syllable, a short syllable, or two shorts (but not two longs). It is often irrational (2524). In metrical schemes it is often set off from the rest of the verse by a vertical row of dots: thus, ⁝
Groups of Feet.
2531.A group of two feet is called adipody, one of three atripody, one of four atetrapody, one of five apentapody, and one of six ahexapody. The dipody is the measure of trochaic, iambic, and anapaestic verse. Other kinds of verse are measured by the single foot.
A single foot is sometimes called amonopody. A group of three half feet, i.e. a foot and a half, is sometimes called atrithemimeris, one of two and a half feet apenthemimeris, one of three and a half ahephthemimeris, &c.
2532.ARhythmical Series,Rhythmical Sentence, orColonis a group of two or more feet (but not more than six) which are united into a rhythmic whole by strengthening one of the ictuses, so that it becomes the principal or dominant ictus of the whole group.
2533.The Verse.A rhythmical series, or group of two (or even three) series, which forms a distinct and separate whole is called aVerse. The final syllable of a verse must terminate a word (except in cases of synapheia, see2510), and may be either long or short (whence it is termedsyllaba anceps) without regard to the rhythm. Hiatus (2474) is freely allowed at the end of a verse (though in rare cases elision occurs before a vowel at the beginning of the following verse; see2492and2568).
A verse is generally (but not always) written as one line. Hence, the words “verse” and “line” are often used as synonyms.
Syllaba Anceps.
2534.In the present work, the final syllable of each verse is marked long or short as the rhythm may require, without reference to its quantity in a given example; and in the general schemes it is to be understood that the final syllable issyllaba anceps(2533) unless the contrary is expressly stated.
2535.Dicolic and Asynartetic Verses.A verse which consists of two rhythmical series (or cola) is calleddicolic. If the series of which the verse is made up are quasi-independent of each other, so that hiatus or syllaba anceps occurs in the caesura, the verse is styledasynartetic(Gr.ἀσυνάρτητος,not joined together).
2536.Names of Verses.Verses are calledtrochaic,iambic,dactylic, &c., according to their fundamental (or characteristic) feet. A verse which contains one foot (or one dipody if iambic, trochaic, or anapaestic; see2531) is called amonometer, one of two adimeter, one of three atrimeter, one of four atetrameter, one of five apentameter, and one of six ahexameter.
Trochaic, iambic, and anapaestic verses are often named by Latin adjectives in-ārius(used as nouns) denoting the number of feet. Thus, such a verse of eight feet is called anoctōnārius, one of seven aseptēnārius, one of six asēnārius, &c. A short verse which is employed to close a system (2547), or to mark a metrical or musical transition between longer verses, is called aclausula.
Catalexis, Pause, Syncope.
2537.Catalexis.A verse, the last foot of which is incomplete, is said to sufferCatalexis(Gr.κατάληξις,a stopping short) or to becatalectic; one of which the last foot is complete is calledacatalectic.
It is usually the last part of the foot that is omitted; but (according to the theory now generally accepted) in catalectic iambic verses it is the last arsis that is omitted, the preceding thesis being protracted (2516) to compensate for the loss, thus: ⏑ ⏗́ –́
2538.A verse in which both the last arsis and the next to the last are suppressed, so that a whole foot appears to be wanting, is calledbrachycatalectic.
2539.A verse is said to be catalecticin syllabam,in disyllabum, orin trisyllabum, according to the number of syllables remaining in the last foot. Thus, the dactylic tetrameter– ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ ⏑ | –is catalecticin syllabam, but– ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑ ⏑ | – ⏑is catalecticin disyllabum.
2540.Pauses.Theoretically all the feet (or dipodies; see2531) into which a verse is divided must be equal in duration. Hence, when a final syllable (or two final syllables) is lost by catalexis, compensation is made for the loss by a pause at the end of the verse. Such a pause, which serves to fill out the last measure, answers to arestin music.
A pause of onemorais often indicated by the sign ⌃, and one of twomoraeby ⌅.
2541.Syncopeis the omission of one or more arses in the body of a verse. Compensation is made for the suppression of an arsis by protracting (2516) the preceding thesis.
Caesura.
2542.Caesura and Diaeresis.ACaesūra(literallya cutting, fromcaedo,I cut) is the break in a verse produced by the ending of a word within a foot. When the end of a word coincides with the end of a foot, the break is called aDiaeresis(Gr.διαίρεσις,a separating). A caesura is marked ‖, a diaeresis #.
The wordcaesurais often loosely used to include both caesura proper and diaeresis.
2543.Strictly speaking, there is a caesura (or diaeresis, as the case may be) wherever a word ends within a verse; but the main incision in the verse is so much more important than the rest that it is often called theprincipal caesura, or simplythe caesura.
2544.Caesuras are named according to their position in the verse; thus a caesura after the third half-foot (i.e. in the second foot) is calledtrithemimeral(from Gr.τριθημιμερής,containing three halves), one after the fifth half-foot (i.e. in the third foot)penthemimeral(Gr.πενθημιμερής,consisting of five halves), one after the seventh half-foot (i.e. in the fourth foot)hephthemimeral(Gr.ἑφθημιμερής), &c.
The Latin namescaesūra sēmiternāria(= the trithemimeral caesura),sēmiquīnāria(= the penthemimeral),sēmiseptēnāria(= the hepthemimeral), &c., are sometimes used. For themasculineandfemininecaesuras, see2557.
Strophe. System.
2545.The Strophe.A fixed number of verses recurring in a regular order is called aStrophe. A strophe commonly contains verses of different kinds, but some strophes are composed of verses which are all alike. The most common strophes in Latin poetry are eitherdistichs(i.e. groups of two lines each),tristichs(of three lines each), ortetrastichs(of four).
Strophes and verses are frequently named after some poet who made use of them. So the Alcaic strophe (named after Alcaeus), the Sapphic strophe (named after Sappho), the Glyconic verse (named after Glycon), the Asclepiadean (after Asclepiades), the Phalaecean (after Phalaecus), the Pherecratean (after Pherecrates), &c.
2546.AStichic Seriesis a series of verses of the same kind not combined into strophes.
2547.The System.A group of rhythmical series (see2532) which is of greater extent than a verse is called aSystem. Long systems, such as are common in Greek poetry, are comparatively rare in Latin verse.
Few verses have more than two rhythmical series; none more than three.
2548.Although in all probability the Latin accent was mainly one of stress rather than of pitch, it seems to have been comparatively weak. Hence, when it conflicted with the metrical ictus, it could be the more easily disregarded. But accentual or semi-accentual poetry seems to have existed among the common people even in the Augustan age, and even in classical Latin verse in certain cases (as in the last part of the dactylic hexameter) conflict between ictus and accent was carefully avoided. After the third centuryA.D.the accent exerted a stronger and stronger influence upon versification, until in the Middle Ages the quantitative Latin verse was quite supplanted by the accentual.
2549.Some of the earliest remains of Latin literature are believed to show a rhythmical structure. These are chiefly prayers, imprecations, sacred songs and the like, couched in a set form of words. Of the rules according to which thesecarminawere composed, almost nothing is known. According to one theory, they are wholly accentual, and are composed of rhythmical series, each series containing four theses. Frequently an arsis is suppressed, and compensation for the omission is made by dwelling longer upon the thesis. As an example is given the prayer in Cato,Dē Rē Rūsticā, 141:
Mā́rs páter tḗ précor | quaésṓque útī síēs | vólēns própítiúsmíhī́ dómṓ | fámiliaéque nóstraé, &c.
Mā́rs páter tḗ précor | quaésṓque útī síēs | vólēns própítiús
míhī́ dómṓ | fámiliaéque nóstraé, &c.
2550.The Saturnianis the best known and most important of the old Italian rhythms; but its nature long has been, and still is, matter of high dispute. There are two principal theories as to its character, the quantitative and the accentual, each of which is advocated by many distinguished scholars.
2551.(1.)The Quantitative Theory.According to this theory, the Saturnian is a verse of six feet, with an anacrusis (2529). There is a break after the fourth arsis, or more rarely after the third thesis. Each thesis may be either a long syllable or two shorts; each arsis may be a short syllable, a long, or two shorts, but an arsis is not resolved before the principal break or at the end of the verse. Hiatus is common, especially at the principal break in the verse. A short final syllable may be lengthened by the influence of the verse-ictus. An arsis is frequently suppressed, especially the penultimate arsis. Two arses are never suppressed in the same half-verse, and rarely two in the same verse. Examples of the Saturnian, measured quantitatively, are:
Dabúnt malúm Metéllī # Naéviṓ poḗtae.Novém Iovís concórdēs # fī́liaé sorṓrēs.(Naevius.)
Dabúnt malúm Metéllī # Naéviṓ poḗtae.
Novém Iovís concórdēs # fī́liaé sorṓrēs.(Naevius.)
Virúm mihī́, Camḗna, # ī́nsecḗ versū́tum.(Livius Andronicus.)
Virúm mihī́, Camḗna, # ī́nsecḗ versū́tum.(Livius Andronicus.)
E͡ōrúm sectám sequóntur # múltī mórtā́lēs.(Naevius.)
E͡ōrúm sectám sequóntur # múltī mórtā́lēs.
(Naevius.)
Compare in English: “The queén was ín the párlour, éating bréad and hóney.”
2552.Most of the Roman grammarians who discussed the nature of the Saturnian seem to have regarded it as quantitative. In modern times the quantitative theory has been advocated by Ritschl, Buecheler, Havet, Christ, Lucian Mueller, W. Meyer, Reichardt and many others.
2553.(2.)The Accentual Theory.According to this theory, the Saturnian is an accentual verse, constructed without regard to quantity. It is divided by the principal break into two halves, the first of which has three theses. The second half usually has three, but may have only two, in which case it is usually preceded by an anacrusis (2529). Two accented syllables are regularly separated by an unaccented syllable, but in strictly constructed Saturnians the second and third unaccented syllables are regularly separated by two unaccented ones. Hiatus was at first freely admitted, but in the Saturnians of the second centuryB.C.occurs only at the principal break. Examples of the Saturnian, measured according to this theory, are:
Dábunt málum Metéllī # Naéviṓ poḗtae.Nóvem Ióvis concórdēs # fī́liaé sorṓrēs.(Naevius.)
Dábunt málum Metéllī # Naéviṓ poḗtae.
Nóvem Ióvis concórdēs # fī́liaé sorṓrēs.(Naevius.)
Vírum míhi, Camḗna, # ī́nsecḗ versū́tum.(Livius Andronicus.)
Vírum míhi, Camḗna, # ī́nsecḗ versū́tum.(Livius Andronicus.)
E͡ōrum séctam sequóntur # múltī mórtā́lēs.(Naevius.)
E͡ōrum séctam sequóntur # múltī mórtā́lēs.(Naevius.)
2554.The accentual theory was held by the scholiast on V.G.2, 385, and in modern times has been upheld (in one form or another) by O. Keller, Thurneysen, Westphal, Gleditsch, Lindsay and others. The brief statement given above agrees essentially with that of O. Keller. Gleditsch holds that each half-verse has four accents, as:Dábunt málum Métellī́ ‖ Naéviṓ poḗtaé; Lindsay that the first hemistich has three accents and the second two, as:Dábunt málum Metéllī ‖ Naéviō poḗtae. The whole question is still far from its final settlement.
2555.These are descending rhythms belonging to theEqual Class(see2527). In them the fundamental foot is the dactyl (–́ ⏑ ⏑), for which its metrical equivalent, the spondee (–́ –), is frequently substituted.
The Dactylic Hexameter.
2556.TheDactylic Hexameteris the verse regularly employed in epic, didactic, and bucolic poetry, and is used by the Latin writers oftener than any other measure. It consists of six feet, the last of which is a spondee (but with the privilege ofsyllaba anceps; see2534). The fifth foot is usually a dactyl; but sometimes a spondee is employed, in which case the verse is calledspondaic. In each of the other four feet either a dactyl or a spondee may be used. The scheme is therefore:
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́[bracketed long over pair of breves]| –́ –
–́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́ ⏔ | –́[bracketed long over pair of breves]| –́ –
2557.A caesura which comes immediately after the thesis of a foot is calledmasculine; one which falls in the middle of the arsis (i.e. after the first short of a dactyl) is termedfeminine. The Roman writers show a strong preference for masculine principal caesuras, and in general their treatment of the caesura is more strict than that of the Greek poets.
2558.The principal caesura in the Latin hexameter is most frequently the penthemimeral (2544): as in:
Arma virumque canō ‖ Troiae quī prīmus ab ōrīs(V. 1, 1).
Arma virumque canō ‖ Troiae quī prīmus ab ōrīs(V. 1, 1).
Next in order of frequency stands the hephthemimeral, which is usually accompanied by a secondary trithemimeral, and in many cases also by a feminine caesura in the third foot: as in the verse,
Īnsīgnem ‖ pietāte ‖ virum ‖ tot adīre labōrēs(V. 1, 10).
Īnsīgnem ‖ pietāte ‖ virum ‖ tot adīre labōrēs(V. 1, 10).
If the secondary trithemimeral caesura is lacking, the penthemimeral is usually accompanied by a feminine caesura in the second foot. Sometimes, though more rarely, the principal break in the line is the feminine caesura in the third foot (often called the “caesura after the third trochee”), as in the verse
Spargēns ūmida mella ‖ sopōriferumque papāver(V. 4, 486).
Spargēns ūmida mella ‖ sopōriferumque papāver(V. 4, 486).
2559.The diaeresis (see2542) after the fourth foot (often called “bucolic diaeresis” from its use by pastoral writers) sometimes occurs, but is much less common in Latin hexameters than in Greek. An example is