Do’sGrow vegetables for health, recreation and economy.Organize the vegetable garden for a maximum of output, variety of foods and to facilitate its care.Use lime and chemical fertilizer or manure liberally for intensive culture.Combat insects by stimulating plant growth and by using appropriate lethal products.Don’tsDon’t plant a garden in hit-or-miss fashion, if maximum food return is expected.Don’t neglect first appearances of insect damage. Find out the cause of injury and use recommended measures for control.
Do’s
Grow vegetables for health, recreation and economy.
Organize the vegetable garden for a maximum of output, variety of foods and to facilitate its care.
Use lime and chemical fertilizer or manure liberally for intensive culture.
Combat insects by stimulating plant growth and by using appropriate lethal products.
Don’ts
Don’t plant a garden in hit-or-miss fashion, if maximum food return is expected.
Don’t neglect first appearances of insect damage. Find out the cause of injury and use recommended measures for control.
A widevariety of fruits may be grown satisfactorily for home use. Where no fruit trees are growing the best plan is to set out individual trees or bush fruits of the standard types and varieties, adding to the collection later as the needs of the family develop and the adaptability of the area for varieties manifests itself through crop production.
All fruits thrive best on a deep, well-drained soil. It is difficult to secure good results where the area is depressed and air drainage is poor. Elevation of the area planted is desirable therefore from the standpoint of both water and air drainage.
A number of questions confront the prospective grower of fruits. He needs to know, among other things, the kind of fruit to plant, the necessary distance between the trees or plants and the probable yield. The following planting guide will be found helpful in answering these questions.
HOME FRUITS AND BEES
PLANTING GUIDE[4]
The selection of varieties of tree fruits is highly important. Some sorts are preeminently adapted to home use because of their high quality of edibility while others are preferred for commercial production on account of their good shipping qualities and high yields per acre. It is advisable for the grower to inquire of his state agricultural college regarding varieties to plant. Responsible nursery firms will also advise on varieties that will best meet the needs of the purchaser from the standpointof family use and adaptability to soil and climatic conditions.
The following varieties are recommended for general home use in north-central areas of the United States, subject to check by local authorities. The apple and peach varieties are given in the order of ripening.
Apples:WilliamWealthyMcIntoshRomeStaymanPeaches (all freestone):Golden JubileeGeorgia BelleElbertaJ. H. HalePears:BartlettSeckelCherries:Montmorency or Early Richmond (sour)Black Tartarian (sweet)Plums:Damson (blue)Burbank (red)
About fifty strawberry plants will be needed for a row 100 feet long. Because of weed infestations in old beds, it will be more satisfactory to set a new row each year and destroy the old one. The plants during the season of setting should be trained to form a matted row about 2 feet wide. Mulching the plants after a freezein the fall with straw or other similar material will prevent injury caused by “heaving” of the soil.
Currants and gooseberries should be pruned annually and only the one- or two-year-old wood retained for production. Thinning out in this manner will give better size and quality. Where the currant worm is troublesome the foliage should be dusted with arsenate of lead or Paris green as soon as it is well developed and before the fruit is started. About thirty currant or gooseberry plants will be needed for a 100-foot row, and they can be planted along a fence or other boundary line.
Blackberries and raspberries should be set 3 feet apart in the row, 100 feet requiring thirty to thirty-five plants. Old canes should be pruned out after fruiting and the weaker new canes should be removed when dormant, leaving 6 or 8 inches between the standing canes. Lateral branches should be cut back in early spring to about 1 foot in length and the upright canes cut back to uninjured wood, thus removing about two-thirds of the growth.
Grapes need severe pruning to produce satisfactory yields of good quality. This is best done in late winter. It is a good plan to prune so that from 15 to 30 or possibly 40 buds are left on each mature vine, depending upon thevitality of the plant. Two or three clusters of fruit will develop on the shoot that grows from each bud. A 100-foot row of grapes will require twelve plants. There are many fine varieties of grapes and several can be used in a single row.
In ordering stock for planting, care should be exercised in making sure of the reliability of the nursery. As a general rule it is better to order from a nursery in the vicinity, thus eliminating losses due to shipping great distances and also making sure that the varieties or strains were grown for use in the area in question. Upon the arrival of the stock from the nursery, it should be “heeled in” at once. That is, the roots should be covered in a trench so that they will not dry out before they can be planted in the desired location. In the case of a few trees that can be set immediately, this is not necessary.
Nearly all country places have sufficient area for planting small fruits and, as is the case with vegetables, freshness and fine-flavored varieties will compensate for the labor involved in growing them. Strawberries, currants, gooseberries, blackberries, red and black raspberries and grapes are especially desirable for home plantings. Some high-quality varieties are given for the choice of the home owner, subject toconfirmation by authorities acquainted with specific conditions and intended primarily for home use.
Strawberries (in order of ripening):Howard 17FairfaxAberdeenJoeChesapeakeMastodon is recommended for the everbearing type.Currants:FayWilderGooseberries:ChautauquaPoormanBlackberries:RussellWardEldorado for bush typesBlack Diamond for the trailing type requiring a trellis andripening late in the season.Red Raspberries (in order of ripening):RanereVikingLathamBlack Raspberries:CumberlandQuillenGrapes (general list, in order of ripening):Ontario (white)Fredonia (black)Delaware (red)Brighton (red)Golden Muscat (white)Concord (blue)Sheridan (black)For those desiring a succession of blue-black varieties,Fredonia, Concord and Sheridan are recommended.
Controlling Insect and Fungous Pests.—Plant pests of various kinds infest tree fruits and small fruits. In general, the best method of controlling leaf-chewing insects is by applying arsenate of lead on the foliage. Care must be taken to avoid staining the fruit with poisonous spray or thorough washing will be necessary before it is safe to consume. The control of other insect pests and fungous plant diseases has been well worked out by agricultural experiment stations throughout the country, and these methods should be sought before attempting any campaign of suppression. A barrel spray pump, mounted on a hand truck or on a vehicle, equipped with plenty of hose will be found satisfactory for spraying plantings of modest size.
Rejuvenating an Old Orchard.—The purchaser of an old-established farm will usually find he has acquired some apple trees of uncertain age and health. In many instances these trees can be renovated and rejuvenated so that they will again bear fruit. If the trees have several sound limbs and are making some growth each year, they may be considered worth saving. On the other hand, broken tops and limbs accompanied by large rotted cavities will create too great an expense if an attempt is made to restore them to usefulness. The varieties shouldbe determined before serious efforts at renovation are undertaken, so that the strenuous work necessary for restoration may not be wasted on undesirable fruit.
Steps in Renovation.—The first operation in renovation is pruning. Most of this should be done in early spring during the dormant season and supplemented in June or July when the trees are in leaf. Large broken limbs and dead wood should be removed, together with interfering branches, and those reaching too high should be headed back. At about the same time that pruning is started the loose bark should be thoroughly scraped off and burned, thus destroying insects and fungi that attack the fruit. Harboring places for further infestations are also thus removed. If the trees are badly in need of pruning, it is best to do the job over a period of two or three years rather than all at one time, due to the tendency of trees to “sucker” and develop a multiplicity of small non-bearing branches.
Spraying, fertilizing and cultivation, where that is possible, should follow the pruning and scraping jobs. Spray schedules and cultural practices best adapted to the region can be obtained without cost by applying to state or county agricultural agencies. Ordinarily two or three years are required to rejuvenate thesetrees and begin to secure a crop. Production will then increase in quantity and quality during succeeding years.
Bees as Pollinators.—The production of fruits of all kinds is dependent upon pollination of their blossoms by bees and other winged insects. Bees of many species are useful in pollen distribution, but the most important is the honey bee, which is available in larger numbers just at flowering time, seeking nectar from the flowers. In large commercial orchards colonies of honey bees are set at regular intervals to insure adequate pollination, usually one hive per acre.
A practical method of adding to county life enjoyment and adding to income as well is the keeping of bees for honey production.
Securing a Honey Crop.—Bee husbandry can be carried on successfully as a specialized side line where only small areas of land are available. Colonies can be located at one side of the garden or placed under trees where they will not be disturbed either through accident or by cultivation of the plot immediately surrounding them. The activity of the bees during the nectar-gathering season, accompanied by the well-known hum as they dart in and out of the hive, makes a genuine appeal to the country dweller. This appeal is heightened by the fact thatthey are working for him, in part at least, and without his having to pay for their raiding the nectar from the flowers around. He knows that his efforts in providing favorable working conditions for the bees will be repaid by a harvest of salable honey. A colony at full strength just at the right time will invariably gather a surplus.
First Principles in Beekeeping.—The beginner in bee husbandry should purchase established colonies from a reputable business concern or from beekeepers in the neighborhood of his home. He should begin in a small way with a few colonies, learn the business with a small investment and then increase as his liking for the work develops and the market for the product expands. Being able to read the signs at the entrance to the hive is the surest way to success. Too much manipulation is just as harmful as neglect. The novice in beekeeping who is really interested and follows carefully a few details gained from a reliable bee book should harvest at least 30 pounds of honey a year from each colony. Experts get much larger yields and have been known to secure 200 pounds per colony and 200 sections of comb honey from one hive. The deciding factor in producing honey is the skill of the watchful beekeeper, assuming of course that there is a sufficientsupply of nectar-secreting blossoms in the area.
The cost of engaging in bee husbandry is nominal. An established colony of the preferred Italian bees should cost about $8. The equipment should include two fitted supers for each colony in which the bees may store the honey, costing about $3 each; a veil to protect the head and face, linseed-oil-soaked canvas gloves, a bee smoker, a hive tool and a bee escape (needed for removing the bees from filled supers), each item costing less than a dollar. An additional piece of apparatus, a queen “excluder,” is needed for each hive, to keep the queen in the lower chamber and prevent the mixing of stored honey surplus and developing bees.
The principal nectar-secreting plants are the clovers, sumac, buckwheat, cranberry and blueberry blossoms, goldenrod, asters and mallows. Since these plants bloom at varying periods during the growing season, the beekeeper will find it necessary to adjust his operations in accordance with the nectar-producing capacity of his own region. The experience of successful beekeepers will be found helpful as a guide in taking the successive and orderly steps necessary to secure maximum honey crops. In many states there are associations of beekeepers formed formutual advantage and the promotion of the industry. The novice can hardly expect to learn unless he affiliates himself with such groups and attends their meetings. Subscription to a good bee journal is also desirable.
Larger Image
Colonies of honey bees located near the source of nectar supply.
Selling the Product.—Honey can be marketed in the comb or in glass jars in the extracted or crystal form. Many suburban beekeepers dispose of their crop in their own neighborhood or at roadside stands. Many food products are being promoted which contain honey as one ingredient, and this opens an attractive field to the resourceful beekeeper. The healthful qualities of honey for human consumption are being given greater recognition and it appears that the market for locally produced honey of high quality is steadily expanding.
Do’sFruit trees should be included in every country homeowner’s plan.Be sure varieties are such as will yield, plentifully, good quality fruit.Use bush fruits as ornamentals and sources of food to be put in cans.Seek advice on fruit problems from the state agricultural college.Old orchards may be rejuvenated under proper systems of management.Use colonies of bees to pollinate fruit blossoms and to produce honey.Begin bee husbandry in a small way at first and get advice from experienced bee culturists.Sell surplus honey in home markets.Don’tsDon’t plant varieties of fruits that are ill adapted to climatic conditions.Don’t overlook the necessity of preparing for insect attacks in advance of appearance.Don’t establish bee colonies without making sure that proper care of them can be taken.Don’t try to practice horticulture or bee husbandry without frequently obtaining expert advice.
Do’s
Fruit trees should be included in every country homeowner’s plan.
Be sure varieties are such as will yield, plentifully, good quality fruit.
Use bush fruits as ornamentals and sources of food to be put in cans.
Seek advice on fruit problems from the state agricultural college.
Old orchards may be rejuvenated under proper systems of management.
Use colonies of bees to pollinate fruit blossoms and to produce honey.
Begin bee husbandry in a small way at first and get advice from experienced bee culturists.
Sell surplus honey in home markets.
Don’ts
Don’t plant varieties of fruits that are ill adapted to climatic conditions.
Don’t overlook the necessity of preparing for insect attacks in advance of appearance.
Don’t establish bee colonies without making sure that proper care of them can be taken.
Don’t try to practice horticulture or bee husbandry without frequently obtaining expert advice.
The majorityof the owners of small farm properties are interested in the possibilities of poultry keeping as a means of adding to the family income. Efforts in this direction are logical from a number of angles. For example, the keeping of poultry appeals to them as an interesting line of work for the sake of the activity itself. Furthermore, the cost of housing a comparatively large number of laying hens is not expensive, as compared with the investment required in other agricultural enterprises. Again, there is a ready market for the eggs and for the poultry in the neighborhood where the enterprise is carried on. No doubt, too, the more or less fabulous stories of easy profits have stimulated a desire to get into this business and to make it a rather important source of income. Again, there is the thought that the work involved in feeding and caring for the flock can be carried on by another member of the family when the owner or principal bread-winner is engaged in some other activity temporarily.
All these factors have tended to develop in the mind of the settler in the country a pretty definite idea that he can supplement the family income with poultry. Sometimes this idea is erroneous and there is apt to be little definite knowledge on the part of the new owner as to costs, problems and profits that are likely to accrue. It is the thought of the writer to outline some definite recommendations for the prospective poultryman which will enable him to safeguard his investment and prevent the very serious losses that have occurred to many who have not taken into consideration all of the factors involved.
Soil Type.—The prospective poultryman will, if he is wise, make sure that the soil is adapted to the project. The ideal soil for poultry raising is sufficiently porous to furnish good water drainage and yet not so open or sandy as to be incapable of crop production. A porous soil is warmer than a clay soil and is more conducive to good sanitation through permitting moisture and debris to be carried quickly to the subsoil. If the subsoil is of a gravelly nature the natural condition will be improved. Presumably the same type of soil that will bear the poultry plant should be capable of producing garden crops, growing shade or fruit trees satisfactorily and producing grass and short-rooted crops thatcan be used in conjunction with the poultry plant or the beautification of the home surroundings. Consequently, the soil type must be productive and capable of improvement while being well drained and conducive to good sanitation. Heavy clay soils or those with rock strata close to the surface are to be avoided.
Successful poultry farms are operated on both level and rolling lands. Extremely flat topography should be avoided and also precipitous slopes. If the site is on rolling land the poultry plant should be located on a slope with southern exposure to secure warmth, quicker drying conditions and protection from cold north winds.
Breeds of Poultry.—Fowls have been domesticated and bred for ages all over the world. As the result of various crossings a large number of types or breeds of poultry are available for present-day use and propagation. Some of these breeds are maintained for show or novelty purposes only and furnish an interesting field for the fancier.
For the person who is engaging in the commercial poultry business the choice of breed narrows to a very few utility types. For purely egg-producing purposes or for broilers weighing slightly over a pound at killing time, the light Mediterranean breeds are the most efficient.Less feed is needed for maintaining the egg machine itself and less room per bird required. Of these so-called egg breeds, the White Leghorn is in a class by itself. This breed is noted for its large white-shelled eggs which top the markets where this color egg is in demand. In the most intensive egg-producing areas of the country the White Leghorn predominates. On the other hand, this breed is not a good meat producer, the mature birds being light in weight.
For the dual purpose of egg and meat production the American breeds are the most popular. The principal commercial types of this general purpose group are Plymouth Rocks, Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds. In some instances crosses of these breeds are proving good layers and highly efficient meat producers.
The Rocks, Wyandottes and Reds have bright yellow skin, shanks and beak which are desired in market poultry. They are good winter layers, particularly, and some strains have been developed that rival the Leghorn in the number of eggs per bird. Both the White and the Barred Plymouth Rocks are popular among those seeking a dual purpose breed, and being slightly heavier than White Wyandottes and Rhode Island Reds they are preferred by many poultrymen. The latter two breeds are rapidly increasing in popularity and their best qualities are beingbrought out more uniformly by careful selection of breeding stock in each case. All of these American breeds lay brown eggs.
In addition to the egg and the dual purpose types of poultry epitomized by the Leghorn and the Plymouth Rock, respectively, there are breeds which are primarily meat producers. Less attention is paid to the egg-producing ability of these than is the case with the others mentioned. The Brahmas, Cochins and Langshans stand in high regard as economical meat producers. The Jersey Black Giant is a more recent addition to the popular heavy breeds, especially for the capon trade.
These Asiatic types grow slowly and are phlegmatic in movement so that they utilize feed for the economical development of high quality meat and attain great weight. For broilers of more than 1½ pounds each, for roasting chickens and for capons, the dual purpose breeds are becoming more popular than the extremely heavy breeds due to their more rapid growth and more popular weight average at marketing time.
Buying Stock.—The advantages of buying and maintaining definite breeds of poultry are now so well understood that the mixed or mongrel flock is fast disappearing. Having decided which type of fowl is best adapted toone’s market and ideas, there is no difficulty in finding a breed that will fit the need. As has been pointed out, the attributes of high egg production or fine quality of meat are inherent in certain breeds. A single breed means uniformity in color, size and shape of the eggs which increases their marketability. More attractive appearance of the flock and greater efficiency from feeding without additional cost are other advantages pertaining to standardizing the flock as to breed.
Stock may be acquired as day-old chicks, as ten- to twelve-week-old pullets or as adult birds ready to lay. Hatching eggs may also be bought if desired, but it will be found more satisfactory and just as economical for the inexperienced person to buy the hatched chick or the more mature birds. The hatching and brooding processes are fraught with difficulties which may be especially acute for the amateur. The greatest demand at the present time, and properly so, is for day-old chicks. A highly specialized industry has been developed for the purpose of supplying this demand and a reputation for reliability has been established by many concerns catering to this trade.
Poultry House Construction.—Where flocks of poultry are to be kept for egg production,special laying houses must be provided in addition to brooder houses that will be needed in any case.
One of the best types of brooder house is the two-room type developed by Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Such a house should be about 8 by 14 feet, and mounted on skids for convenience in moving. A movable partition divides the house into two rooms. Thus a cold room is provided for exercising and a warm room for sleeping. The marked difference in temperature between the two rooms helps to harden the chicks, while the reduced space about the hover conserves the heat.
A great deal of study has been given to the construction of laying houses for poultry. The purposes in mind have been to obtain maximum sunlight throughout the day, protection from storms and from dampness, and adequate ventilation.
In the construction of a modern laying house, 1 square foot of glass should be provided for every 20 square feet of floor space. The windows should be hinged so that they may be opened in warm weather. One of the commercial glass substitutes that are now on the market may be used instead of ordinary glass to allow violet light rays to reach the birds. The other openings permit free circulation of air through the house. They should be equipped with muslin curtains to be used during storms and in extremely cold weather. Such a house can be used the year round.
Larger Image
(Courtesy of Poultry Tribune)This sketch shows an end view of a practical and inexpensive shed-roof laying house.Detailed blue prints for use in constructing such a house can usually be obtainedfrom county agricultural agents or state agricultural colleges.
Larger Image
A fine flock of layers. The hoppers furnish laying mash andthe fountains supply drinking water. Scratch grain is thrown in the litter.
The floor of the laying house must be dry at all times if vigor and health are to be maintained. During the winter there should be about 10 inches of dry litter in the form of straw, peat moss or shavings mixed with the straw. Small windows in the rear wall will make for better distribution of the litter, since the birds scratch away from the light.
Equipment and Appliances.—A great deal of hand labor and daily drudgery can be eliminated by equipping the house with properly constructed appliances. These will not only save labor but will also supply the birds with their needs at the time the need for certain materials is felt and thus contribute to health and flock efficiency.
The best method of feeding dry mash is from a hopper. This should be so constructed as to hold a reserve supply at all times that will run into the feed trough as it is consumed. Care should be taken in construction to prevent the birds from throwing out the mash with their beaks and thus wasting it.
Water fountains of a standard type that will furnish the birds with a constant amount of fresh water are available at poultry supply houses. Receptacles should also be provided for grit, ground oyster shell and charcoal which can be easily filled. A sloping board should be placed over these receptacles to prevent the birds from roosting on them and soiling the contents.
Bins so constructed as to be vermin-proof and moisture-proof should be available for storing the scratch grain and other concentrated feeds. Provision for storing litter where it can be kept clean and dry will be necessary. If long straw is to be used, a cutter operated by hand or by a motor will prove useful in fining the straw. The scratch grain will be spread through the litter on the floor, compelling the birds to scratch for it and thus obtain needed exercise.
Artificial Lighting.—Modern laying houses are equipped with electric lights that are turned on and off automatically. Artificial lighting prolongs the hen’s working day when the days are short, resulting in greater food consumption and more exercise which will increase egg production and give better health and stamina at seasons when more eggs augment profits. A40-watt bulb should be placed in one receptacle with reflector for each 200 square feet of floor space, located midway between the front wall and the front line of perches.
Investment Needed for the Start.—The prospective poultryman should be familiar with the principal items of cost before engaging in the business. To be thus forewarned is to be forearmed. The scale upon which one takes up commercial poultry production should depend upon experience in coping with the industry’s peculiar problems and upon the amount of capital available. Success depends, of course, both upon skill in handling the poultry and upon the capitalization of the plant. It should be recognized that costs can be only approximate and are usable as guides only. They will vary according to geographical location, general economic conditions, labor costs and the bargaining power of the individual. The figures here given are for a plant comprised of 1,500 laying hens—the minimum number from which a living can be obtained and probably the maximum number that can be cared for by one person.
The houses for the flock will necessarily include a laying house of the multiple unit or other similar type, which should cost about $1,000. In addition, eight brooder houses willbe needed to care for the chicks and growing stock, costing about $100 each, or a total of $800. The growing stock when on range will need shelters for protection against hot sun and rain, and these should be built for about $25 each, or a total of $200, making a total cost for buildings and the necessary interior equipment about $2,000. In addition to this item, there will be needed about $1,500 for the purchase of pullets at $1.00 each, making a grand total of $3,500.
If baby chicks are purchased, it will be necessary to buy not less than 4,000 of these if the operator is to obtain 1,500 desirable laying birds. The cost of these chicks will depend upon the breeding that is behind them, upon whether they are blood-tested to eliminate bacillary white diarrhea (a scourge of young chicks) and the general care that has been taken in the hatchery to produce good, livable chicks. This care, incidentally, must extend to flocks from which the hatching eggs are secured, as well as to the final incubating process. Chicks sold at extremely low prices are rarely bargains. Quality is far more important than low first cost. Assuming a cost of 14 cents per chick as an average for chicks that will produce virile, productive layers, the initial investment for this item will be between $500 and $600.Therefore, if chicks are purchased, it will reduce the item for stock from the amount of $1,500 given above, which would represent the cost of partly grown pullets.
Assuming that the complete poultry plant already stocked will cost $3,500, we must add to the budget of the prospective poultryman a sum for the purchase of a farm of from 5 acres upward, including a residence. In most localities a small tract with a modest house can be purchased for about $4,000. If only the land is purchased, that should be available at $200 an acre as a subdivision of a larger tract. Assuming that a house costing $3,000 will be suitable for the operator and his family, the total outlay will be in the neighborhood of $7,500. Experienced poultrymen estimate that a modest poultry farm of the type above described can be put into operation for an investment of $5 per bird. If it is planned to begin with a smaller flock than 1,500 individual layers, the same figures can be applied in proportion to the number of birds to be kept. In short, the poultry house and equipment should be estimated on the basis of not less than $1.50 per bird and the cost of the farm, residence and stock will be in addition to such a charge. The allowance of $1.50 per bird provides only for simple housing facilities for the flock.
Using these figures, it will be easy to understand the reason for the general recommendation that a total investment of $10,000 is a requisite for a poultry establishment from which a modest living can be obtained. While the investment in housing, land, residence and stock may not exceed $7,500, there will need to be sufficient capital for paying the living expenses of the family until the flock begins laying and to enable the operator to purchase feed and other necessary adjuncts to his establishment before an income is obtained.
For a flock of smaller size than the so-called maximum one-man type above described, the costs per bird for the various items will apply in most cases. It is, in fact, advisable to begin with a smaller flock if the owner is inexperienced.
Do’sPoultry keeping must be efficiently carried on to yield returns to the country home owner.Select well-drained soil that is free of infection.For egg production, use the Leghorn; for both meat and egg purposes, the American breeds are best.Standardize on one breed if possible.Buy the best chicks or mature stock available.Use a brooder house for the young birds.The laying house must be well ventilated, fully lighted and easily cleaned.Use latest mechanical feeding and watering devices to save labor.Employ artificial lighting to lengthen the hen’s working day.Work toward the “one-man plant”—a total of 1,500 laying hens—for mostefficient results.Don’tsDon’t try to raise poultry in buildings that may still carry infection.Don’t economize by buying cheap chicks or breeding stock.Don’t overlook importance of health factors and productive qualities in determining value of stock purchased.Don’t try to operate a poultry plant with ill-adapted buildings and equipment.
Do’s
Poultry keeping must be efficiently carried on to yield returns to the country home owner.
Select well-drained soil that is free of infection.
For egg production, use the Leghorn; for both meat and egg purposes, the American breeds are best.
Standardize on one breed if possible.
Buy the best chicks or mature stock available.
Use a brooder house for the young birds.
The laying house must be well ventilated, fully lighted and easily cleaned.
Use latest mechanical feeding and watering devices to save labor.
Employ artificial lighting to lengthen the hen’s working day.
Work toward the “one-man plant”—a total of 1,500 laying hens—for mostefficient results.
Don’ts
Don’t try to raise poultry in buildings that may still carry infection.
Don’t economize by buying cheap chicks or breeding stock.
Don’t overlook importance of health factors and productive qualities in determining value of stock purchased.
Don’t try to operate a poultry plant with ill-adapted buildings and equipment.
The successfulpoultryman will have set up his establishment with due attention to adequate housing, good stock, facilities for maintaining sanitation and for creating generally favorable conditions for egg production. His next problem will be that of adopting successful methods of management so that he may obtain a satisfactory net income from the investment.
Feeds and Feeding.—There are two groups of materials that are essential in food rations for all ages of poultry. The organic feeds include grains and grain by-products, hays, grasses and vegetables. The inorganic feeds include salt to increase palatability and digestibility of the ration; lime, to aid in building bone and body tissue as well as to furnish the shell material; bone ash, especially for growing chicks, and water in liberal amounts supplied by a fountain as well as from succulent green foods. The fact that a dozen eggs contain approximately one pint of water demonstrates the necessity ofhaving drinking water before the flock at all times.
The feeding of baby chicks, young stock and laying hens has been scientifically worked out by research and practical experience over a period of many years. The poultryman, especially if he is a novice, will do well if he carefully observes the recommendations of competent authorities. The ration for each of the three ages will consist of a grain feed and a dry mash composed of grain by-products reinforced with materials that supply the birds’ daily nutrition requirements.
The following rations and recommendations for management have been prepared by the New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick, New Jersey:
Chick RationBaby Chick Grain200pounds finely cracked yellow corn100pounds cracked wheatFed morning and evening, beginning when chicks are 36 hours old.Baby Chick Mash20pounds ground yellow corn20pounds wheat bran20pounds flour middlings20pounds pinhead oats10pounds meat scrap (50 per cent protein)5pounds dried buttermilk or skim-milk2pounds oyster shell meal or limestone flour or bone meal2pounds cod liver oil (mixed with the pinhead oats)1pound table saltThis mash is fed to the chicks as soon as they are placed under the brooder stove. It may be placed in hoppers. Let the chicks have all they want to eat; some of the mash should be before them at all times.Teach the chicks where to find the warmth by enclosing them for a few days with a ½ inch mesh wire one foot high and set from 10 to 12 inches from the edge of the hover.Put some clean grit on bits of cardboard in several places around the hover when the chicks are first brought from the incubator.A little sour skim-milk or semi-solid buttermilk, diluted 1 to 7 in founts should be available from the beginning.After the chicks are 60 hours old or when you are sure they are hungry, begin to feed, using cardboard in the same manner as before. Follow the feeding chart.Feed little and often. Keep the chicks slightly hungry.Watch for dead chicks and remove them as soon as they are noticed.Attend to heaters early and late; be sure at all times that they are in good working order.Clean out litter, particularly beneath the hover as often as it becomes soiled.Induce exercise and keep the youngsters occupied.Get them out-of-doors as early as possible, even if only for a few minutes in the warmer part of the day.Feed green feed. Feed early and late. Keep the chicks growing.
Chick Ration
Fed morning and evening, beginning when chicks are 36 hours old.
This mash is fed to the chicks as soon as they are placed under the brooder stove. It may be placed in hoppers. Let the chicks have all they want to eat; some of the mash should be before them at all times.
Teach the chicks where to find the warmth by enclosing them for a few days with a ½ inch mesh wire one foot high and set from 10 to 12 inches from the edge of the hover.
Put some clean grit on bits of cardboard in several places around the hover when the chicks are first brought from the incubator.
A little sour skim-milk or semi-solid buttermilk, diluted 1 to 7 in founts should be available from the beginning.
After the chicks are 60 hours old or when you are sure they are hungry, begin to feed, using cardboard in the same manner as before. Follow the feeding chart.
Feed little and often. Keep the chicks slightly hungry.
Watch for dead chicks and remove them as soon as they are noticed.
Attend to heaters early and late; be sure at all times that they are in good working order.
Clean out litter, particularly beneath the hover as often as it becomes soiled.
Induce exercise and keep the youngsters occupied.
Get them out-of-doors as early as possible, even if only for a few minutes in the warmer part of the day.
Feed green feed. Feed early and late. Keep the chicks growing.
Growing Stock Ration.—The baby chick mash can be used for feeding the growing birds, omitting the cod liver oil if they are on range. The baby chick grain ration can be used alsoduring this period but it need not be so finely cracked. Plenty of grain should be available at all times.
Laying Ration.—When the birds are getting ready to lay, the ration should be changed so that during the winter laying season the mash will include equal amounts of yellow corn meal, wheat bran, wheat middlings, ground heavy oats and meat scrap. Twenty-five per cent of dried buttermilk or skim-milk may be substituted for an equal amount of meat scrap.
The grain ration should consist of equal amounts of cracked or whole yellow corn and wheat. This should be fed in the late afternoon, giving sufficient to satisfy the appetites of the birds between the time of going to roost and a light morning meal. It should be fully consumed by eight o’clock in the morning. Adequate consumption of mash is a prime requisite in egg production. The feeding of semi-solid buttermilk at the rate of 3 to 5 pounds to 100 hens daily is recommended. Ten pounds of mangel beets per 100 hens or 1 square inch of well-sprouted oats per bird will supply needed green food during the winter.
In many cases it will be found more satisfactory to purchase ready mixed rations from a local dealer who handles reliable and scientifically compounded feeds for poultry. This is particularlyapplicable where the number of birds is of ordinary proportions. Little, if any, economy will be found in purchasing small quantities of each ingredient and attempting to thoroughly mix them at home. If the flock is very large there may be worth-while economy in home-mixing of the ration. The efficient poultryman will compare the cost of branded feeds with ingredient costs to guard against being overcharged.
In addition to the standard rations the growing stock and laying birds should have access at all times to grit, shell and charcoal, kept in suitable containers. These may be obtained of the local dealer.
Sanitation.—When growing stock and laying hens are kept under modern intensive conditions the observance of the rules of sanitation is essential. Failure to observe them is likely to result in loss of production, serious sickness of the flock and the nullifying of all other constructive factors.
Dropping boards beneath the roosts must be cleaned frequently and regularly to prevent accumulation of filth. If the dropping boards are constructed of matched lumber with the boards running in the direction in which they are to be scraped it will facilitate the cleaning process.
Before the birds are placed in winter quarters the laying house should be thoroughly cleanedof all litter and debris. The interior may then be thoroughly sprayed with a disinfectant composed of some good coal tar preparation, and this repeated in the spring. The surface will need to be painted with a good disinfectant, of which there are a number of commercial preparations on the market. A close watch should be made for vermin in the house and on the birds, and if lice or similar parasites are discovered, immediate action should be taken to destroy both the adults and the eggs, since these parasites will debilitate the flock and prevent their development and may seriously check their ability to lay.
Management of Artificial Lights.—The electric lights mentioned in the previous chapter should be turned on about four-thirty in the morning and kept on until daylight or used for an hour in the late evening. When lights are used there should be plenty of food and water available to enable the birds to take advantage of the additional feeding period. The scratch grain should be increased by 2 pounds daily for each hundred birds when lights are used. Many poultrymen find it advantageous to have a low wattage light burning all night so that hungry individuals may get a meal and return to the perches at all times. Three to five kilowatt hours per month for each hundred birds representsthe average current consumption where lights are used.
Practical Suggestions for Efficient Management.—A number of successful poultrymen were recently asked to state the requisites for success in the poultry industry, with particular reference to what is known as the one-man poultry flock. Such a flock is of adequate size to take practically the full time of one person in its operation. As the result of the development of standardized feeding practices, improved equipment and better methods of management, the maximum number of birds that can be successfully managed by one person has greatly increased in recent years. Likewise, the problems of proper feeding, adequate disease control and successful selling have increased as the size of the unit has grown and as greater intensiveness is practiced.
All of the successful men questioned advised that the keeping of poultry should be begun in a small way in order that experience can be gained without the risk of losing the initial investment, or that the intending operator should gain practical knowledge of the business by working on a poultry farm for a year. Valuable knowledge can also be gained by attending short courses in poultry husbandry that are being offered atmost agricultural colleges with a very moderate expenditure of funds.
One of these successful men writes as follows: “We are working with a man now who was let out of a position recently but who has some savings and who desires to go into the poultry business. He has purchased six acres of ground, has built a bungalow on it and has the foundations in for three laying houses of 500 birds’ capacity each. He will have ample range for a two-yards system for each laying house, and, in addition, will have two ranges to alternate yearly for growing his young stock. His program calls for putting out about 2,400 chicks yearly from which he should have at least 1,000 pullets, which he will house in two of the laying houses. The following year he will carry over about 500 of these birds and can fill up with 1,000 pullets. This is to be a one-man plant with possibly some assistance in the spring.
“I feel that 1,500 birds is the minimum required from which one man can make a living, and five acres devoted to poultry, properly laid out, is sufficient area for this purpose. If more land is available, so much the better. These are minimum requirements, as I see it, and with regular feed deliveries directly to the poultry house, running water and other labor-savingdevices, there is no reason why one man cannot successfully take care of this number of birds, particularly where a man is starting on new ground where there have never been any chickens and therefore less chance of disease. We advise buying baby chicks rather than partly grown or mature stock. If he follows a definite economic and sanitary program right from the start, there is no reason why his plant should not carry on profitably, indefinitely.”
This practical man says further: “It is our experience that the majority of the people going into the poultry business go in ‘blind.’ Their chicken houses are put up irrespective of range facilities and then after two or three years when they begin to run into trouble they find their mistakes. I would suggest that you point out to prospective poultrymen the advisability of first, buying land and developing their own poultry plant rather than trying to make over someone else’s plant; second, buying in a location where buying and selling facilities have been developed; third, getting in touch with a reliable local poultryman for guidance in laying out his plant and following only one advisor. By hooking up with only one poultryman he is presented with one way of doing things which this poultryman has found successful in his own business.”
Another successful man states that the most economical time to start the business is in the spring when day-old chicks can be secured and purchased at a lower cost than is possible in the buying of laying stock at other seasons of the year. He further advises that the greatest mistake made by many starting in the poultry business is the lack of adequate capital. Too many invest all of their money before any income can be secured, according to this man. Should there be a set-back during the first year or two, there is no way of continuing and the whole investment may be lost.
Still another practical man states that “Site is, in my opinion, the most important factor to be considered after the decision is made that a person wishes to go into the poultry business. Successful poultry keeping probably requires more careful selection of a farm than any other agricultural industry. There should be light soil with good air and water drainage and an area of sufficient size to permit shifting the poultry on different areas as a means of preventing disease infection and as a means of securing vigor in the birds.” He, too, points out that old poultry farms should not be considered by prospective poultrymen unless they have been approved by an expert in these lines, for the reason that these farms are frequentlyoffered for sale because of persistent disease infection which it is very difficult to eliminate, or because of some fundamental difficulty, such as poor soil drainage.
“In the construction of buildings,” continues this experienced poultryman, “sufficient housing should be provided to prevent overcrowding and the difficulties that come in the train of that condition. About three square feet of floor space per bird is required for the lighter breeds such as Leghorns, and four to five square feet per bird for the heavier breeds. For the one-man plant, the recommendation is for a maximum of about 1,500 birds. This would require from 4,500 to 5,250 square feet of floor space suitably arranged for the lighter breeds of the Leghorn type. For the young stock to be used as replacements, seven to ten brooder houses, 10 by 12 feet in size, would be required and about the same number of range shelters, usually 6 by 8 feet, for the purpose of sheltering growing young stock from hot sun and heavy rains when they are out on range.”
Probable Net Income.—Many persons who have started in the poultry business have been misled as to the amount of net income they will be likely to receive from a one-man plant. It is pretty well established that in normal times a net income of from $1,500 to $2,500 annuallycan be secured from a plant housing 1,500 birds. A great deal depends, of course, upon the skill of the operator, and a plant of this size requires the full time of one competent person. It should be borne in mind that this net income is in addition to the residence and such food as would be taken in the form of poultry products and from the garden.
Sales Management.—Every prospective poultry keeper should determine the marketing possibilities for the product in the area under consideration before he makes a choice of location. There are at least four methods of marketing eggs and poultry meat, any one of which can be used exclusively or two or more used in combination as a means of disposing of the product to the best advantage. The system that he will adopt will depend largely upon his location, as well as upon his individual preference, and upon the facilities that are available in the area where he operates.
In many sections of the country there are cooperative egg marketing associations where the eggs are received in bulk from the producers, are graded and marketed in large quantities, the producer receiving the full selling value less, of course, the costs of operating the distributing agency. In the northeastern states, egg auctions have been very successfully developed.Under this system the individual producer brings his eggs to the auction market where they are graded and sold on the basis of weight, size and other factors pertaining to quality. In this method of selling the producer receives a definite price for his eggs less a small charge per case made by the selling agency.
A successful type of direct marketing is through roadside stands. This is especially successful in or near large centers of population where eggs can be purchased, together with other farm commodities, at the same stand. Another method is the operation of a retail route in which the producer sells the eggs by the door-to-door method in a near-by city. This method is followed successfully by many poultrymen who deliver eggs as regularly as the milk distributor or the baker deliver their products.
Still another method is the use of mail or express as a means of transporting the eggs to consumers in urban centers. This method, while largely in use some years ago, has not proved so generally successful as have some of the other methods previously given.
A well-organized program of work is essential in successful poultry keeping. The following schedule is followed by many successful poultrymen as a means of distributing their time to the best advantage during the day.
A Poultryman’s Daily Time Table
Based on a One-man 1,500-bird Farm Producing Market Eggs
Ducks, Geese, Turkeys and Other Fowl.—While the raising and keeping of chickens occupy the largest and most important part of the general operation of poultry keeping, there is a growing interest in the production of other types of fowl, including ducks, geese, turkeys, and in some instances, guinea fowl and pheasants. Each of these really constitutes a separate and distinct poultry industry, requiring specific feeding, breeding and management practices. Some of the fundamental factors in the care of these types of poultry are given for the beginner. In the case of these fowl, as in chickens, it is essential to start in a small way and develop as experience dictates.
Ducks.—From a rather obscure and unknown source of poultry meat, the duck and the duckling have become common to restaurants and the home table. This has been accomplished through the operations of large commercial duckfarms which sell hundreds of thousands of birds annually. The selection of breed types, proper feeding and management and skillful marketing have made it possible to attract a wide public interest and an appetite for these fowls on a permanent basis.
The best known varieties of ducks are the Indian Runner, a small type and primarily an egg producer; the Muscovy and the Pekin, both of which are used for meat purposes, the former being best adapted to general farm use and the latter to intensive breeding on large establishments devoted solely to the purpose of duck raising. The old simile, “Like a duck takes to water,” implies the fondness of ducks for the aquatic element. However, ducks will do well without swimming facilities.
Incubation of duck eggs can be carried on in the same manner as chicken eggs, except that more moisture is essential to good hatches. The period of incubation is 28 days for all types, except for the Muscovy, for which it is 33 to 35 days. The growing birds, like mature ducks, are hardy and ordinarily show a much lower mortality percentage than chickens. If only a few ducks are kept, they will follow the habits of a flock of chickens and need be given no special attention. When they are raised without other poultry an open shed is all that is necessary forwinter quarters and some shade arrangement for protection against hot summer sun.
The feed rations that have been given for baby chicks and growing stock can be used for ducks, or any standard commercial feed for the respective ages. It is recommended that the chick and growing mashes be mixed with fine, chopped greens such as cabbage or lawn clippings, and sufficient water added to the mixture to make it moist. One pound of sand or grit may be added to furnish the duck with grinding material. Fresh water in shallow dishes should be available during the feeding periods which ought to be three times a day. For the mature birds, the laying mash, previously given, and moistened, will be found satisfactory with fresh greens added, unless grass is available on range. Hoppers containing sand or grit should be available if a number of ducks are kept.
Geese.—Geese can be raised successfully wherever other types of poultry will grow. That they are not so popular as ducks is shown by the fact that only about one-third as many geese as ducks are raised in this country. The most popular breeds, in order of popularity, are Toulouse, Embden, African and Chinese. The Toulouse is the largest and most favored, the mature gander weighing 26 pounds and the adult goose about 20 pounds.
Geese are usually kept in small numbers in areas where there is an abundance of grass and a supply of water for swimming. They, like ducks, are hardy and are rarely affected with diseases or parasites. A plentiful supply of grass is sufficient feed for the growing goslings. The demand and prices for geese are lower than for most other types of poultry. For housing, only a shed in winter and a sun-shade in summer are required.
The period of incubation varies from 30 to 35 days, depending upon the size of the breed. The young goslings are easily killed by excessive moisture or may become lost and therefore they require considerable attention during the early stages. A good food for the goslings is stale bread soaked in milk or water, fed after they are 48 hours old. Scalded cracked corn may also be given or a mash made of four parts corn meal and one part grain middlings. Plenty of drinking water is essential. Whole grain may be fed after the goslings are well feathered. When the geese near the marketing period they should be kept in confinement and fed a moist mash made of one part grain shorts and two parts corn meal. A bedding of short straw will keep the fattening pens clean and provide roughage. Best prices are obtainable during the late fall and early winter months.
Turkeys.—Because the turkey is such a popular form of meat during the holidays and so much attention is directed to it as an indigenous native bird, it rivals the American eagle as a national emblem. Turkey raising on a commercial scale has had its ups and downs for a great many years. One of the principal scourges has been the so-called black-head disease and this has destroyed the industry in many areas. It is now known that this disease is carried by a small parasitic worm common to chickens, which, however, it apparently does not seriously injure. The black-head germ, carried by this worm, clogs the blood in the head of the turkey and causes quick death. For this reason, it has been found impracticable to raise turkeys where chickens are present, unless they are kept entirely separate by confinement.
The principal varieties of domesticated turkeys are the Bronze, White Holland, Bourbon Red, Black, Narragansett and Slate. All are large, handsome birds, each breed having a following of admirers. The Bronze is the largest and heaviest and most popular, the mature adult male weighing 36 pounds and the mature hen 20 pounds. Under ordinary conditions turkeys do not require much in the way of housing, except in cold weather when covered roosting sheds should be available. The periodof incubation is 28 days and they may be hatched under the same conditions as chickens. The day-old young birds, or poults as they are called, can be shipped in the same manner as day-old chicks.
For feeding the poults, the United States Department of Agriculture recommends fine-chopped hard-boiled eggs, including the shell, mixed with green feed for the first ten days. This may be followed by feeding the chick ration previously mentioned. Milk, especially buttermilk, is excellent for the poults, and grit must be provided if it is not available on range. Cod liver oil will be found helpful if added to the ration. Turkeys are great rangers and travelers if they have the opportunity and will pick up enough insects to keep them going through the day. A grain ration should be fed just before they go to roost. Where they are raised in confinement, or semi-confinement, more food must be given and under these conditions the strictest sanitation must be practiced.
Both old and young turkeys should be protected from dampness, and the growing birds, especially, kept free from lice. The turkey grower who practices the best systems of management and feeding will be successful and will find a ready market for his product at Thanksgiving and during the Christmas holidays. A few birdsmay be successfully kept in confinement and used as a home-raised source of high quality meat during a considerable portion of the year.
Guinea Fowl.—The guinea is known for its watch-dog proclivities, making a characteristic raucous noise when strangers appear; for the rich quality of the eggs which are produced in good quantity; and for the delectability of the breast meat when properly prepared. The young guinea may be fed as has been recommended for young chicks. The older birds are excellent foragers and require little attention. The country home owner, if he does not object to their noise, will find a few of these unusual birds an interesting and valuable asset.
Pheasants.—Many persons with a flair for the new and unusual are successfully raising pheasants, the Ring Neck variety being the most popular. While they are not so hardy as chickens and must be given some added care for that reason, they may be fed in the same manner and kept successfully in confinement. Pheasants may be used as an additional source of income since they are nearly always in demand for meat. The eggs may be hatched in incubators or by hens and the young pheasants brooded like chicks. The period of incubation is 21 days. Shelter is not necessary except in extremely cold weather and not then if trees or shrubs areavailable. Detailed information on game bird production can be obtained from More Game Birds in America, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York City.