POMPEIAN ORNAMENT.Plate 10.Image unavailable: POMPEIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 10.
Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia, Roman cities, were buried by an eruption of Vesuvius in the yearA.D.79. These cities had already suffered from an earthquake inA.D.63, and were being rapidly rebuilt when they were finally destroyed by the eruption. The younger Pliny, the historian, was a spectator of the event at Pompeii, and wrote two letters to his friend Tacitus, describing the event and his flight from the doomed city, which remained buried for seventeen centuries, with the treasures of gold and silver, bronzes of rare workmanship, mural paintings on a most magnificent scale, and floors of mosaics of marvellous execution and design; everything affording a vivid glimpse of the domestic and public life of the Romans of the 1st centuryA.D.Herculaneum was discovered in 1709, and Pompeii in 1748A.D., and from these cities many valuable remains of art have been taken. In the museum at Naples there are over 1,000 mural paintings, some 13,000 small bronzes, over 150 large bronzes of figures and busts, 70 fine large mosaics, together with a splendid collection of marble statuary.
A plan of a Roman house is given on page 23 showing the arrangement of and use of the rooms. The floors covered with mosaics, those of the vestibule, corridors, and small rooms having simple patterns enclosed with borders of the key pattern, or the Guilloche in black, red, grey, and white tesserie. The triclinium, or dining room floor was often a magnificent mosaic representing some mythological or classic subject. The walls were painted in colour, usually with a dado ⅙th the height of the wall, with pilasters dividing the wall into rectangular panels and a frieze above (plate 10). The general scheme of colour was, the dado and pilasters black, the panels red, and the frieze white; or black dado, red pilasters and frieze, with white or yellow panels. The decorations upon these various coloured grounds was light and fanciful, and painted with great delicacy. Representations of architectural forms, such as columns and entablatures, are often rendered in perspective upon the painted walls. A small panel painted with a classical subject usually occupies the centre of each wall panel.
The painted ornament has somewhat the same characteristics as the Roman relief work, but is usually much more delicate in treatment. The spiral form and the sheath are always prevalent and from these sheaths and cups grow the finer tendrils or delicately painted spray of foliage, upon which birds are placed.
Stucco enrichments, such as ornamental string courses and mouldings, were frequently combined with the painted ornament; they consist of small details, such as the water-leaf, the egg and dart, and the anthemion, and are repeated in a regular series.
BYZANTINE ORNAMENT.Plate 11.Image unavailable: BYZANTINE ORNAMENT. Plate 11.
When the Emperor Constantine, removed the seat of Government from Rome to Byzantium, in the yearA.D.330, he inaugurated a new era in art, viz.: the Byzantine. The traditional Greek and Roman arts were now assimilated with the arts of Persia and Syria, but moulded and influenced by the new religion, giving the strong personal vitality, deep significance and symbolism which was so remarkable throughout the Byzantine period.
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The change of style did not take place immediately, for most of the buildings erected by Constantine were in the traditional Roman style, but the arts were gradually perfected until they culminated in the building of S. Sophia by Anthemius of Tralles, and Isidorus of Miletus, during the reign of Justinian,A.D.538. This building is remarkable for its splendid dome, supported by semi-domes and pendentives on a square plan, its embellishment with mosaics of glorious colours, and the great inventiveness and symbolism of the detail. The traditional sharp acanthus foliage of the Greeks was united with the emblems of Christianity such as the circle, the cross, the vine, and the dove; the peacock also is frequently seen. Figure sculpture was rarely used, but groups of figures were used in great profusion in the gold ground mosaics that covered the upper part of the walls and the vaults and domes of the magnificent Byzantine buildings. The churches of Ravenna in Italy, have somewhat similar characteristics; S. Vitale, the basilica churches of S. Apollinare Nuovo,A.D.493-525, S. Apollinare in Classe,A.D.538-44, together with the Baptisteries are rich in mosaics and sculptured capitals of the 6th and 7th centuries. In the cathedrals of Torcello,A.D.670, and Murano and the beautiful St. Mark’s at Venice, marbles and mosaics were used in great profusion. The two sketch plans here given are typical of Byzantine planning in which the symbolism of the circle and cross are used as constructive features. This symbolism is a marked feature in Byzantine ornament; interlacing circles and crosses mingle with the acanthus or the vine, and are cut with a peculiar V-shaped section. The circular drill is largely used at the sinking of the leaves, and but little of the background is visible in the sculptured ornament of this period.
SCANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT.Plate 12.Image unavailable: SCANDINAVIAN ORNAMENT. Plate 12.
The beautiful bronze and silver jewellery, and implements of war of the early Viking period, found in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, display no trace of plant forms in their ornamentation, the latter consisting wholly of interlacing animal forms, chiefly the dragon. The viking ship found at Sandifiord in 1880, although destitute of ornament, shows traces of the “Bronze Dragon Prow,” referred to in the early Scandinavian Sagas. At the commencement of the 12th century, plant forms are found mingled with the dragons, and figure sculpture became important in treating of the myths of the gods; Frey, Woden, Thor and Fyr, of the pagan period, being influenced by the newer cult in religion. This is shown by the Sigurd Overlap.
Hreiômar had three sons, Otter, Fafni and Regan. Otter was killed one day by Loki, one of the three Scandinavian gods—Loki, Hœni and Woden—these being seized by Hreiômar, who would only release them when the skin of Otter should be covered with gold. Thereupon Loki seized the dwarf Andwan, who was made to give up his treasure of gold, and a ring of magical properties, carrying with it a curse, that the treasure should be the death of those who held it. Loki then returned and covered the skin of Otter with the gold (fig. 3), after which the gods were set at liberty. Then Hreiômar was slain by his sons for the treasure. Fafni, after seizing the latter, took the form of a dragon, and lay guarding the plunder at Gnita Heath. Regan, his brother, in order to obtain the treasure, prompted Sigurd, his foster son, to slay the dragon. Sigurd, in testing his sword, broke it in twain, thereupon Regan made him a magic sword, with which he lay in the trail of the dragon, and pierced it through (figs. 1-4). Then Regan took out the heart of the dragon, which Sigurd cut into slices and toasted while Regan slept. Sigurd, burning his fingers, places them in his mouth, and tasted the blood of Fafni, the dragon (fig. 1), and, lo! he heard the voice of birds saying that Regan was plotting to kill him. Then Sigurd killed Regan, eat the heart of Fafni, placed the treasure on the back of the noble horse Grani, and departed, only to be slain for the gold by Gunnar, who for this crime was cast into the pit of serpents (fig. 1).[A]
This myth explains much of the Scandinavian ornament, for in figs. 1 and 2 the story is told in a series of incidents remarkable for the fertility of invention and dracontine ornamentation. Halton Cross, in Lancashire, and a slab at Kirk Andreas, Isle of Man, illustrate the same subjects, dating from the 11th century. In later times the dragon becomes more pronounced in character, until in the 14th century it fills the whole portal with the beautiful interlacing ornament (fig. 6).
CELTIC ORNAMENT.Plate 13.Image unavailable: CELTIC ORNAMENT. Plate 13.
No period in the history of Art is more remarkable than the Celtic. The carved stone architecture and crosses, the bronzes, enamels and silversmith’s work, the splendid illuminated books and manuscripts with capitals and borders, full of imagery and intricacy of detail, and the clear and accurate writing of the text, are all indications of the culture and love of ornament of the early Irish people. The incised ornament upon the stone tumuli of the 3rd and 4th centuriesB.C.show simple forms such as chequers, chevrons, circles and spirals which are used by almost all primitive people, yet even at this early stage the Celts show a remarkable preference for the spiral and interlacing forms. The bronze shield (fig. 6), with its spirals and bosses of enamel enriched with the northern “Fylfot” is a typical example of the 2nd or 3rd century,A.D.Then comes the trumpet pattern or divergent spiral, which, seen in its infancy on the bronze shield, reached a great degree of elaboration in the 8th and 9th centuries (figs. 2 to 7), being typical of Celtic work up to the middle of the 11th century when all trace of this spiral is lost. The interlacing bird and animal forms used from the 8th to the 14th centuries are doubtless derived from Byzantine and Lombardic sources. The serpent or dragon, which is such a marked feature from the 7th to the 15th century must have been borrowed from the north, as Ireland had no traditions of dragons, and it is to Scandinavia, with its legend of Fafni, that we must look for the origin of the dracontine treatment. It is this Zormorpic character that distinguishes the Celtic from all other styles of ornament except Scandinavian.
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The illustrations given here from the Lismore crosier are typical examples of this Celtic dracontine treatment. The early or Pagan period is noted for its bronze work, cast and wrought, and enriched with Champlevé enamels. The fine chalice of Ardagh (plate 34) and the Tara Brooch (7th century) are splendid examples of the Christian period dating from St. Patrick,A.D.440-460. The beautiful Book of Kells,A.D.650-690, the Book of Armagh,A.D.807, the Book of Durrow,A.D.750 (Trinity College, Dublin), and the Book of Durham,A.D.689-721, written by Eadfrith and illuminated by Ethelwald, are a tribute to the vitality, assimilation of ideas, and the culture and wonderful craftsmanship of the early Irish people.
English Gothic Architecture has been broadly divided into periods for the purpose of classifying the styles, the following being the most generally accepted.
Most of our magnificent cathedrals were foundedA.D.1066-1170 by Norman bishops, some upon the old Saxon foundations, such as Canterbury and York, or near the original Saxon buildings as at Winchester, or upon new sites such as Norwich and Peterborough, and were without exception more magnificent erections than those of the anterior period, portions of the older style still existing in many cathedrals, showing the fusion of Roman and Byzantine architecture with the more personal and vigorous art of the Celtic, Saxon, and Scandinavian peoples.
The plan, given on next page, of Lincoln Cathedral shows no trace of the apsidial arrangement so universal in Norman and French cathedrals, and is therefore considered a typical English cathedral. Each vertical division in the nave, the choir, and transept is termed a bay. Onplate 14is an illustration of four typical bays of English cathedrals, showing the development of style from the 12th to the 15th century. The general characteristic of each bay is given separately, but obviously it can only be approximate, as the building of each cathedral was influenced by local considerations, each period necessarily overlapping its predecessor, thus forming a transitional style. For instance, in the choir of Ripon Cathedral, the aisle and clerestory have semi-circular Norman windows and the nave arcading has pointed arches. In the Triforium and Clerestory arcading, round arches are seen side by side with the pointed arch.
ThePiers(sometimes termed columns) of these bays havedistinctive features which are characteristic of each period of the Gothic development. Sketch plans are here given showing the changes that took place in the shape of the pier from 1066 to 1500. The same general characteristics are observed in the arch mouldings and string courses.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NORMAN PERIOD.
Nave Arcading.The universal use of the round arch, cylindrical or rectangular piers with semi-circular shafts attached to each face. Capitals cubical and cushion shaped. Arch mouldings enriched with concentric rows of Chevron and Billet ornament.
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Triforium.In early work, of one arch. In later work, two or four small arches carried on single shafts under one large semi-circular arch.
Clearstory.One window with an open arcading in front, of three arches, the centre one larger and often stilted. This arcade forms a narrow gallery in the thickness of the Clearstory wall. The roof of the nave, of wood, flat and panelled, roof of the aisles, semi-circular quadra partite vaulting.
An arcading of semi-circular arches was usually placed upon the wall, under the aisle windows.
Early windows are narrow, flush with the external wall, and deeply splayed onthe inside. Later windows are recessed externally, with jamb shafts and capitals supporting an enriched moulded arch. A few semi-circular rose windows still remain, of which a fine example is to be found in Barfrestone Church, Kent.
EARLY ENGLISH OR LANCET PERIOD.
The Lancet or pointed arch universal.
Capitals, of three lobed foliage and circular abacus. The pier arch mouldings, alternate rounds and hollows deeply cut and enriched with the characteristic dog’s tooth ornament. A hood moulding which terminates in bosses of foliage or sculptured heads invariably surrounds the arch mouldings. This moulded hood when used externally is termed a “Dripstone,” and when used horizonally over a square headed window a “Label.”
TheTriforiumhas a single or double arch, which covers the smaller or subordinate arches, the spandrels being enriched with a sunk or pierced trefoil or quatrefoil. The Triforium piers are solid, having delicate shafts attached to them, carrying arch mouldings of three orders, and enriched with theDog’s toothornament or trefoil foliage.
TheClearstorylancet windows are in triplets, with an arcading on the inner face of the wall. The vaulting shaft occasionally springs from the floor, but more usually from a corbel above the nave capitals, and finishes under the clearstory string with an enriched capital, from which springs the simple vaulting usually quadrapartite or hexapartite in form. Early windows in small churches were arranged in couplets and at the east end, usually in triplets, with grisaille stained glass similar to the example given on the next page from Salisbury Cathedral. The annexed example from the east end of Rievaulx Abbey shows a finely proportioned window and its arrangement.
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Figure sculpture, beautiful and refined in treatment, was frequently used upon external walls. The figures of Saints and Bishops were placed singly undertriangular pediments and cusped arches, of which there are fine examples at Wells, Lichfield, Exeter, and Salisbury (fig. 5,plate 14). Splendid examples of circular rose windows are to be seen in the north and south transepts of Lincoln Cathedral, also at York, but they are comparatively rare in England, while France possesses over 100 of the finest and most important examples of this type of ecclesiastical adornment. They are to be seen in the Cathedrals of Notre Dame, Rouen, Chartres, and Rheims.
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DECORATED OR GEOMETRIC PERIOD.
In this, the piers have engaged shafts with capitals having plain mouldings or enriched with finely carved foliage of the oak, maple, or mallow. The pier arches have mouldings of three orders, also enriched, usually with the characteristic ball flower, or foliage similar to that upon the capitals.
TheTriforiumconsists of double arches, with subordinate cusped arches, adorned with Geometric tracery.
The inner arcading of the Clearstory is absent, the one large window being divided by mullions and geometrical tracery, or by equilateral triangles enriched with circular and bar tracery (fig. 3,plate 14). Above the pier capitals an enriched corbel is usually placed from which springs the vaulting shafts, terminating with a richly carved capital under the Clearstory string.
The aisle arcading, as a rule, is very beautiful, having geometric tracery and finely proportioned mouldings, the aisle windows with mullions and bold geometric tracery. The circular rose windows of the transepts are typical of this period.
PERPENDICULAR AND TUDOR.
ThePiersof this style are lofty and enriched with shallow mouldings carried round the pier arch, where capitals are introduced, they frequently resemble a band round the pier at the springing of the arch, or occasionally they are octagonal in form, and decorated with an angular treatment of the vine. In some instances, the upper part of the plain octagonal capital is relieved with an embattlement. The latter is also frequently used as a cresting for the elaborate perpendicular screens, or for relieving the clearstory strings.
TheTriforiumis absent in this period, the bay consisting of two horizontal divisions only. TheClearstory, owing to the suppression of the Triforium becomes of more importance. The windows are large and often in pairs, with vertical mullions extending to the arch mouldings of the window head. The aisle windows are similar, and when lofty have horizontal transoms, on which thebattlement ornament is displayed. The aisle arcading being also suppressed, all plain wall space was covered with perpendicular surface tracery. Enrichment of this type was used in the greatest profusion upon walls, parapets, buttresses, and arches, also upon the jambs and soffits of doorways. This, together with the use of the four-centred arch, forms the characteristic features of the Perpendicular or Tudor period. English cathedrals show a marked contrast in scale to contemporary French buildings. The English nave and choir is less in height and width but greater in length than French cathedrals. For instance, Westminster is the highest of our English cathedrals, with its nave and choir 103 ft. from floor to roof, 30 ft. wide, and 505 feet in length. York is next with 101 ft. from floor to roof, 45 ft. wide, and 486 ft. in length. Salisbury is 84 ft. from floor to roof, 32 ft. wide, and 450 ft. in length, and Canterbury 80 ft. from floor to roof, 39 ft. wide, and 514 ft. in length. Lincoln with 82 ft. and Peterborough with 81 ft. are the only other examples reaching 80 ft. in height; York with 45 ft. being the only one reaching above 40 ft. in width of nave.
The measurements of contemporary French cathedrals on the other hand, being as follows:—Chartres, 106 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide, and 415 ft. in length; Notre Dame, 112 ft. from floor to roof, 46 ft. wide, and 410 ft. in length; Rheims, 123 ft. from floor to roof, 41 ft. wide, and 485 ft. in length, while that at Beauvais reaches the great height of 153 ft. in the nave, 45 ft. in width, and only 263 ft. in length.
The remarkable growth of the Gothic style during the 13th and 14th centuries was contemporary in England, France, Flanders, Germany, and in a less degree in Italy. One of the most beautiful churches in Italy, is, S. Maria della Spina, at Pisa, with its rich crocketed spires and canopies, features which were repeated a little later at the tomb of the famousScaligersat Verona. At Venice, the Gothic is differentiated by the use of the ogee arch with cusps and pierced quatrefoils. It was in France and England where Gothic architecture reached its culmination; the abbeys and cathedrals, with pinnacles, spires, and towers, enriched with the most vigorous and beautiful sculpture; the arcadings and canopies with crockets, finials, and cusps, vibrating with interest and details, and the splendid windows filled with glorious coloured glass, are all tributes to the religious zeal and splendid craftsmanship of the middle ages.
On the opposite page are illustrations showing the modifications that took place in the evolution of church architecture from the 12th to the 15th century. The triforium in the Norman period was fundamental, but in the Perpendicular period this feature was absent. The change of style may also be observed in the windows of each bay, from the simple Norman one (fig. 1) to the vertical mullioned 15th century window, figs. 4 and 8.
THE TRIFORIUM & CLEARSTORY.Plate 14.Image unavailable: THE TRIFORIUM & CLEARSTORY. Plate 14.
NORMAN DETAILS.Plate 15.Image unavailable: NORMAN DETAILS. Plate 15.
Norman architecture was distinguished by the use of the traditional semi-circular arch, superseded by the pointed arch of the early Gothic period. These semi-circular arches in the earlier dates were decorated with rudely executed carvings, cut or worked with the axe. Later Norman work is very rich, the mouldings being well carved with enrichments of the Chevron, the Cable Pallet, Star, Fret or Key Patterns; the lozenge and the beading or pearling. Characteristic features of this period also are the beak-head (fig. 5) and the corbel-table, which was a series of heads of men or animals, from which spring small arches supporting the parapet. Many rich examples of Norman surface ornament are still extant; at Christchurch, Hants, a beautiful intersecting arcading of semi-circular arches occurs, the enrichment above being a scale or imbricated pattern; at St. Peter’s, Northampton, a very rich example of surface ornamentation may be seen (fig 6).
Floral forms are but rarely used in Norman ornament; instances are known of the use of the rose and the fir-apple, but they are the exception and not the rule.
Early doorways usually have a square head recessed under semi-circular arch mouldings, decorated with the Chevron, Key, or Beak-head. The semi-circular Tympanum over the door was plain or enriched with rude sculpture in low relief. Later doors show a great profusion of ornament in the archivolt and arch mouldings, which are often carried down the jamb mouldings. The recessed columns are also enriched with the Chevron, or diagonal lines of pearling (fig. 1), and have sculptured capitals showing a classical tendency in the arrangement of acanthus foliage and the volute. Fine examples of this period may be seen in the west front of Lincoln Cathedral (fig. 1), the Galilee porch at Durham, and the west door of Iffley Church, Oxfordshire.
The Norman capitals are usually cushion-shaped, with a square abacus, enriched with the Chevron, star pattern, or the anthemion (fig. 9). The capital itself was decorated with the anthemion, or with rude volutes or segments of circles.
The architecture of this period in France, differing from contemporary work in England, shows a strong Roman influence, hence its name—Romanesque. St. Trophine at Arles is a fine example of this style, beautiful in its proportions and vigorous in detail. The west front of Angouleme Cathedral, with its profusion of semi-circular arcading, displays more affinity to contemporary work in England. In the two French capitals (figs. 9 and 10) a characteristic treatment of animals and birds may be seen, showing a strong vitality in the ornamental art of that period.
EARLY GOTHIC DETAILS.Plate 16.Image unavailable: EARLY GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 16.
TheNormanstyle was succeeded by the pointed, orGothicstyle, remarkable for its variety, its beauty of proportion, and the singular grace and vigour of its ornament. Showing no traditions, beyond Sicilian and Arabian influence, it grew rapidly, and reached a high degree of perfection in France and England. The massive and barbaric character of the Norman style gave place to the light clustered shafts and well-proportioned mouldings of the early English Gothic, with its capitals characterised by a circular abacus, and the typical three-lobed foliage growing upwards from the necking of the shafts, thence spreading out in beautiful curves and spirals under the abacus. This tendency to the spiral line is peculiar to the early Gothic, and differentiates it from the Decorated and Perpendicular Period. The diagrams of the three crockets here given show the distinctive character of English Gothic ornament.
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Image unavailable: BA.Early Gothic, three lobed leaves arranged in spiral lines.B.Decorated Gothic, with natural types of foliage, such as the oak and maple, with a flowing indulating line.C.Perpendicular Gothic, showing the vine and leaves as elements, and arranged in a square and angular manner. The same features and characteristics are observed in the borders here given.
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Image unavailable.The beautiful carved spandril from the stone church, Kent (fig. 1), is remarkable for the vigour and flexibility of curve, its recurring forms of ornamentation, and admirable spacing, typical of much of our early English foliage.
The type of foliage in early English stained glass is somewhat similar to contemporary carved work, but showing more of the
DECORATED AND PERPENDICULARGOTHIC DETAILS.Plate 17.Image unavailable: DECORATED AND PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC DETAILS. Plate 17.
profile of the leaf, and it has a geometric or radiating arrangement in addition to the spiral forms of foliage.
Early French work (figs. 7 and 8), with its square abacus, differs from the early English, in having less of the spiral arrangement, and a rounder type of leaf, together with the absence of the mid rib, which is so characteristic of contemporary early English Gothic. The plain moulded capitals so prevalent in this country are rarely found in France.
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DECORATED & PERPENDICULAR GOTHIC DETAILS.
Decorated Gothic is remarkable for its geometric tracery, its natural types of foliage, and the undulating character of line and form in its ornamental details. The foliage of the oak, the vine, the maple, the rose, and the ivy were introduced in much luxuriance and profusion, being carved with great delicacy and accuracy. Lacking the dignity and architectonic qualities of the early Gothic foliage, it surpassed it in brilliancy and inventiveness of detail. The Capitals, enriched with adaptations from nature, carved with admirable precision, were simply attached round the bell, giving variety and charm of modelling, but lacking that architectonic unity which was so characteristic of early work.
Diaper work, crockets and finials, introduced in the early English, were now treated with exceeding richness, and used in great profusion. The ball flower so characteristic of the Decorated period replaced the equally characteristic tooth enrichment of the preceeding style.
French Contemporary Work has similar characteristics, but displays more reserve and affinity for architectural forms.
This brilliant Decorated period reached its culminating point within half a century and then rapidly gave place to the Perpendicular Style, with its distinctive vertical bar tracery of windows and surface panelling, and the prevalent use of the four centred arch—of octagonal capitals enriched with the angular treatment of the vine,—of heraldic shields and arms, and of the four-leaved flower; all typical of the period.
RENASCENCE ORNAMENT.Plate 18.Image unavailable: RENASCENCE ORNAMENT. Plate 18.
The arts of Rome and Byzantium lingered in Italy until the 12th century, losing their vitality and vigour, except at Venice, where the Byzantine style reached a culminating point in the glorious buildings at Murano and of St. Mark’s.
Lombardy, in the north, had witnessed a singular blending of the old classic art with the vigorous traditions and myths of the Longobards and the symbolisms of the old Byzantine, thus producing the architecture known as Lombardic, with its multiplicity of small columns and arches, quaint imagery of sculpture, and the frequent use of a lion or dragon as a support for the columns. These are features of the early art at Lucca, and at Bergamo, Padua, Verona, and other towns in Lombardy; a beautiful illustration from Lucca is given in the appendix to Ruskin’s “Stones of Venice,” Vol. 1. Contemporary with this period came the Gothic influence with its clustered columns, pointed arches, its cusps and crockets, and its strong vitality, impressing the arts and architecture with this Gothic personality; hence, during the 12th and 13th centuries in Italy, this intermingling of styles, traditions, religious beliefs and myths, produced an art barbaric and vigorous in character, the imagery full of suggestiveness, and the detail rich and varied in conception. Yet it was but the herald of a style which culminated in the glorious epoch of the Renascence, a style where symmetry was to play an important part, as in classic art, where refinement of line and detail, of culture and craftsmanship, are found; and which, though beautiful in proportion, unity of parts, and perfect adaptability, yet lacked that symbolism, suggestiveness, inventiveness, and rugged personality of the early Byzantine, Lombardic and Gothic styles.
ItalianRenascence is broadly divided into three periods. Tre-cento,A.D.1300 to 1400; Quattro-cento,A.D.1400 to 1500; and Cinque-cento,A.D.1500 to 1600. In the Tre-cento style this intermingling of the classic details with the Lombardic and Gothic constructions produced such remarkable buildings as S. Maria della Spina, and the Campo Santo at Pisa, by Giovanni Pisano 1240-1320; the Palazzo Vecchio, the Church of Santa Croce, and the Cathedral of Florence, by Arnolfo di Cambio (1232-1310), with its alternate courses of black and white marble, and its Gothic arches and tracery; the beautiful Campanile by Giotto (1276-1336) is a noble accessory to Arnolfo’s Cathedral. A charming illustration of this Tre-cento period, from Giotto’s Campanile, is the frontispiece to Ruskin’s “Seven Lamps of Architecture.”
The sculpture and decorative arts of this period are marked by dignity of conception, and a mingling of Gothic and classical traditions. Perhaps the earliest examples known are the hexagonal pulpit in the Baptistery at Pisa, a similar one in the Cathedral at Siena, and the fountain at Perugia, all by Nicolo Pisano (1206-76).He was assisted in much of his work by his son Giovanni, who also executed the pulpit in the Cathedral at Pisa. Andrea Pisano (1273-1344), a pupil of Giovanni executed a beautiful bronze gate or door, cast in 1332, for the Baptistery at Florence.
A fine monumental work of this period is the tomb of St. Peter the Martyr, in the Church of St. Eustorgio at Milan, by Balducco di Pisa, 1308-47.
TheQuattro-centoperiod, of which Lorenzo Ghiberti (1381-1465), was the great master, is remarkable for its vitality and naturalism. Ghiberti’s chief works are the two bronze gates for the Florentine Baptistery; the first gate is dated 1403-24, and the second 1425-50. Both have panels modelled in low relief, the first with incidents from the New, and the second from the Old Testament. The frame-work of these gates has a series of single figures in niches, with circular medallions between them. The bronze architrave round each of the Ghiberti gates, in addition to the one he placed round the earlier gate, by Andrea Pisano, are rich examples of Quattro-cento design. The details are natural fruits, flowers, and foliage, banded-together with ribbons, with the introduction of birds, squirrels, &c. The egg-plant and pomegranate portion (fig. 1) is a familiar example.
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Other masters of this period were Jacopo della Quercia (1371-1438) who executed the beautiful monument here shown, to Ilaria di Carretto, in the cathedral at Lucca. The recumbent figure of Ilaria is sculptured in white marble with perfect simplicity and beauty; another famous work of Jacopo was the fountain at Siena.
Luca della Robbia (1400-82) executed a beautiful organ gallery in marble for the Cathedral at Florence, with admirable singing and dancing figures in relief. But beautiful as this work is, Luca’s reputation rests upon his Enamelled Terra Cotta, which he perfectedto a remarkable degree. Modelled first in clay and coated with tin enamel (see Maiolica), he produced a marvellous series of these reliefs, which were invariably surrounded with the typical quattro-cento border of modelled fruit and flowers, enamelled in bright colours. His nephew, Andrea della Robbia (1445-1525) continued the traditions, methods, and skill, with marked success; and also Andrea’s son Giovanni (1524) who executed a beautiful frieze upon the façade of the hospital at Pistoja. Andrea’s other sons, Girolamo and Luca carried the art into France under Francis I. (1531.) Donatello (1386-1466) was remarkable for the singular grace and sincerity of his portraiture, especially of children; the dancing figures in relief on the panels of the singing gallery of the Cathedral of Florence, are perfect examples of his art. Donatello also carried the art of low flat relief called “Stiacciato” to the greatest perfection. An illustration of Donatello’s work, from the high altar of St. Antonio at Padua, is here given.
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The art of the medallist, which had declined since the Roman period, now took its position among the arts of the quattro-cento period, under Vittore Pisano, called Pisanello (1380-1451). The vigour of his modelling, and the individuality of his medals of the contemporary Princes of Italy, are exceedingly fine. Among other remarkable medallists were Sperandio of Verona (1423-90); Caradosso, of Milan (1480-1545); Vincentine, of Vicenza (1468-1546); Benvenuto Cellini, of Florence (1500-71); Lione Leoni (1498-1560); Pompeoni Leoni (1530-1610); and Pastorino, of Siena (1510-91). The great dome of Arnolfo’s Cathedral at Florence was designed by Brunelleschi (1377-1446), who was a competitor with Ghiberti for the bronze gates of the Baptistery at Florence. Other names of this period were Desiderio da Settignano (1428-64,)Image unavailable.his masterpiece being the tomb of Carlo Marzuppini, in the Church of Santa Croce, Florence; Mino da Fiesole (1430-84); Andrea Verrocchio (1435-88); the author of the fine equestrian statue of Bartolommeo Colleone at Venice (see Bronzes); Matteo Civitali (1435-1501); and the Rossellini, a remarkable family of five brothers, of which the most famous was Antonio Rossellini (1427-79), who executed a charming tomb to Cardinal Jacopo di Portogallo in the Church of the Nunziata, Florence.
TheCinque-Centoperiod was the culmination of the Renascence, when architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts, were underImage unavailable.the magnificent patronage of the Popes and Princes of Italy. Palaces, churches, and public buildings were completed and embellished with beautiful sculptures and decorations; hung with the most sumptuous fabrics of the Venetian, Florentine, and Genoese looms; decorated with altar paintings and mural decorations, by the most renowned of painters; and enriched with the magnificent productions of the gold and silversmiths’ art, and the loveliest of intarsia or inlaid woodwork.
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Michel Angelo Buonarroti (1474-1653), by his great intellect and power, stands above his many contemporaries. The colossal figure ofDavid, and theMadonnaandChildat Bruges, are familiar examples of this great artist’s work. The magnificent tombs of Lorenzo and Giuliano de Medici at Florence, show his noble power and conceptions of art. The splendid decorative work on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican is another example where unity of conceptionand marvellous execution are shown in a remarkable degree. Two illustrations of this ceiling are given—one of the panels, with the expulsion from Eden, and one of the Sibyls or Prophets, both showing beautiful harmony of incident and composition.