Cracked bottles are mended by a very ingenious process, described byLehner. The bottle is corked, but not tightly, and then exposed to heat about 100° centigrade. Then the cork is driven in tightly, which causes an expansion of the cracks, which are at once filled by means of a finely pointed brush with the silicate. Removed to a cooler place the glass contracts on the as yet fluid silicate, and the fractures are mended.
A very strong, clean cement for porcelain or glassis made as follows:—
This must be very quickly stirred and applied. This is one of thehardestand best cements, and it resists heat and other influences so well that when very carefully amalgamated it may be applied to the manufacture of many useful articles. The same may be made with the substitution of white pipeclay for fluor spar, or with the addition of the same in somewhat larger proportion. Pipeclay or any good clay can also be combined with glycerine to prevent its drying. With gelatine and alittleglycerine it will harden and not crack.
This requires careful amalgamation and rapid work.
To prepare very fine glass-powder for this cement, heat any glass till red-hot, then drop it into cold water. It may then be reduced in a mortar to an impalpable powder.
Earthenware tubes or pipes which are to be exposed to intense heat may be luted or joined with the following cement:—
“This doesnot melt, save at a very high temperature; and when melted it forms a glassy substance, which holds with extreme tenacity” (Lehner).
To preparecaseinecement for crockery or marble, it may be observed that we should always takefreshwhite cheese and macerate or knead it thoroughly till only pureCASEINEadding to this one-third of powdered quicklime and blending the two ingredients very thoroughly we get a very strongglue. An admixture of 10 parts silicate of soda also forms a powerful cement.
The following for tile-work and common brick-crockery, or terra-cotta or porcelain, is very highly commended byLehner, who says that anything mended with it will sooner break in another place than where it is cemented:—
The cement is mixed with water, and the tile or crockery, &c., heated just before being mended.
I cannot insist too strongly on this—that no one is to expect that by simply taking recipes, as written, compounding and applying them, there will be a successful result at the first trial. We must always have the best material, often fresh, and generally attempt the application more than once.Perseverando vinces—“By perseverance you will conquer.” Not only must thequalityof the ingredients used be of the best, but the composition be made exactly in the order in which they are given. The same substances often give very different results, simply because the order of combination in the two was different.
To repair pavements:—
This hardens slowly. It can, when mixed with small sharp-edged fragments of broken stone, be usedto form pavements, or as a bed for mosaics. For the same purposes, or for cementing marble slabs, a cement known as that ofBöttgermay be used. It is made thus:—
This becomes (Lehner) in a few hours so hard that it can be polished. It is the principal, and almost the only, cement used byM. Ris-Pacquot, or commended in his work on mending crockery. It admits of a great variety of modifications. It is very superior as a bed for mosaics of all kinds. It forms, like the preceding, also a good bed for scagliola and ceresa.1I would here say of the latter, that I could wish to see it more generally used for mural or wall ornament, since any one who can paint a face or decoration boldly and largely in oil or water colours will find it very easy. It admits of rapid execution, and is striking from its brilliancy. Everything in it depends on having a good bed to which it can easily adhere. I may here observe that beds like these which set hard andfineare also adapted to fresco-painting, in which the difficulty is to select colours which, when absorbed and dried, do not fade. Most paints made from mineral substances combine with silicate of soda.
I may here remark that a curious and easy art, very little known, consists of carving or cutting low reliefs on tiles or terra-cotta or brick-like ware, which, whenoutlined or in relief, can be glazed in colour with silicate of soda; also with many other cements.
A common and goodCEMENT FOR PORCELIAN OR GLASSis made as follows:—
This must be quickly mingled and rapidly used, as it sets very rapidly and becomes extremely hard. It makes an admirable bed for mosaics or ceresa.
When plaster of Paris is simply combined with burnt alum in water, the objects mended with it require several weeks to set or adhere. Gypsum combined with gum alone holds firmly, but does not resist water (videGeneral Recipes).
Cements for lutingor closing chemical apparatus:—
This endures heat to boiling-point of quicksilver.
A more resistant fireproof is as follows:—
Of the oil only so much is needed as to combine the mass to a paste.
ALUTINGfor very high temperatures:—
AnotherCEMENT:—
Lehnerhas in his work on Cements many valuable suggestions as to mending porcelain.Firstly, that in such mending, the adhesive be applied with care, in as even and as thin a coat as possible; to which I would add, that the unskilful amateur is apt to daub it on irregularly and carelessly, with the impression that the more cement there is the better it will stick, which is just so far wrong that every superfluous grain is just so much of an impediment to good drying or adhesion. Again, the inexpert daubs it on with a stick or “anything,” when a fine-pointed brush or hair-pencil should be used.
Broken china which is to be mendedshould be carefully covered away so as to protect it from dust, which is hard to clean off. Beware of fitting the pieces together again and again, as is often done.
If the broken china was used to contain milk or soup, &c., it should be laid in lye to dissolve all the fatty substance, and then be washed with clear water. Painted porcelain cannot, however, be laid in lye, which would ruin all the colours; in this case wipe them clean with dilute acid.
The great difficulty in mending is to bring the pieces together and keep them so till the adhesive dries.Lehnerrecommends that when objects are small and costly, a mould of gypsum be constructed round them. In most cases putty or wax is far more manageable. As before remarked, indiarubber bandsare chiefly to be relied on; even if not capable of holding permanently, they aid greatly in tying with cord.
In the Manual ofF. Goupil, rewritten byFrederick Dillaye, the following method of restoring broken vases, &c., is commended:—
“Form a solid mass of clay in the form of the original object. Then place on it, one by one, the fragments in their place, keeping the clay moist. When this is done, paste over the exterior strips of paper, in sufficient quantity to hold the whole firmly together. Then remove the moist clay, and paste strong slips of paper” (or thin parchment) “over the interior so as to hold the whole. Then” (when dry) “carefully moisten and remove the outer coating.”
The author mentions that this is only applicable to vases the mouth of which is wide enough to permit the hand to be introduced. I would here, however, add, that even when it is too small for this purpose, the restoration can be equally well effected as follows:—Make the core of wet clay, or, better, of beeswax, then paste over it thin tough paper. Cover this with gum-arabic solution, and set the pieces on it. When dry, melt out the wax or clay.
Fish-gum,colle de poisson—that is to say, what is generally calledsturgeon’s bladder, which includes the bladder of several kinds of fishes dissolved—is best for glass, marble, porcelain, and all kinds of mending where the cement should not show. This, when combined with oil, issaid, if mixed with cloth-dust and fibre of wool or silk or cotton, to spin up into thread.
“Glück und GlasWie bald bricht dass.”“Good luck, like glass,Soon breaks, alas!Yet skill can bring it so to passAs to mend a fortune or a glass.”—Old German Proverb.
“Glück und GlasWie bald bricht dass.”
“Good luck, like glass,Soon breaks, alas!Yet skill can bring it so to passAs to mend a fortune or a glass.”—Old German Proverb.
Putty is naturally the first cement which suggests itself in connection with the mending of glass, since this latter material is most familiar to the world in the form of windows, although in many places—as, for instance, Florence, where it is calledmasticoandpasta—it is little used or known. The word is from the Frenchpotée, which also means a potful. It is very useful, not only for setting glass-panes, but for filling holes in wood, and forms a part of certain mixtures as a cement for moulding ornaments. It may be weak and brittle, or else strong and very hard, according to the manner in which it is prepared. It is commonly made by combining chalk in paste, with water, with linseed-oil; other powders are also used.In America it is made with pulverised soap-stone and oil. Its excellence depends on the quality of the oil and the care with which it is kneaded. It should be kept in a damp cellar, in wet cloth or under water. Should it dry and become brittle, fresh oil must be added.
“To take hard old putty from glass window-panes, cover it with a mixture of one part of calcined lime, two of soda, and two of water” (Lehner). Oxide of lead combined with oil makes an excellent but yellow putty. It sets very hard.
The white or grey oxide of zinc combined with linseed-oil or linseed-oil varnish makes a cement which is used for making glass adhere to wood or metal.
Thick lacquers, such as copal or amber, may be used instead of common varnish with better effect, and the composition is better when calcined lime or oxide of lead are added. The excellence of the cement depends on the degree to which the ingredients are amalgamated or rubbed in together; and this rule holds good for all similar mixtures.
Varnish, or heavy or “flat” lacquer of copal or amber, forms of itself a strong adhesive, with the only drawback that it takes a long time to dry.
A very good cement for glass(Lehner) is as follows:
This is a glue of general application, and specially good for leather and mending shoes.
The reader who would thoroughly study the subjectof glass may consultDie Glas-Fabrikation, a very admirable work by Raimund Gerner, glass manufacturer; A. Hartleben, Vienna and Leipzig, price 4s. 6d.
Small triangles of sheet tin or iron are often used to fasten panes.
The mending of broken glass is in most cases much the same as that of broken crockery or porcelain. The cement made from mastic, or mastic combined with sturgeon’s bladder, or generally of silicate with whiting, is the proper adhesive. As silicate of soda is simply liquid glass, it can be employed to fill spaces or to make glass; but, owing to its sticky nature, it is hard to manage. This may be often effected by first preparing a layer of soft paper, on which successive coats of silicate are laid. When dry the paper can be washed away.
Silicate of Sodahas become of such importance that a French work on mending fictile ware is almost entirely limited to its use as a binder, when combined with whiting.Water-glasswas long supposed to be a modern invention, till some one found it described in Van Helmont’s works,A.D.1610. But I have found it also in theJoco-seriorum Naturæ, 1545; in theMagia Naturalisof Wolfgang Hildebrand, which is of the same time; and, finally, byParacelsus(Liber de Præparationibus), where he describes it asDestillatio Crystalli. And the author of theJoco-seriorumspeaks of soft glass as a thing which had been treated by several writers.
According toWagnerthere are three kinds of soluble glass—(i.) the soluble potash glass, 45 silex, 3 charcoal, 34 carb. potass.; (ii.) soluble soda glass, 100 pts. quartz, 60 cal. sulp. soda, 15 of charcoal;(iii.) double soluble glass, 100 quartz, 22 cal. soda, 28 carb. potass., 6 wood-coal. Water-glass combines well with any “indifferent” powder, such as powdered glass, to make a strong cement. To powder glass, heat it red-hot, drop it into cold water and pulverise it. It will become as fine as flour, and in this state combines with gum-arabic, or glue, or gums to make a powerful glass-mender. Mixed with powdered glass, oxide of zinc, or whiting, powdered marble, calcined bone, plaster of Paris, wood-ashes, &c., it can be worked like putty. Mixed with colours it is used for stereochrome painting, a kind of fresco.
Missing pieces of glass, such as leaves from a chandelier, can be easily replaced with water-glass, and all cracks or defects glazed over with it.
This mending is allied, however, to certain processes in art which are so interesting that I venture on a description of them.
A great deal of mending and restoring in glass can be effected by means of the blow-pipe and spirit-lamp or gas-flame. Difficult as this may sound, it is not only an easy, but also a very curious and entertaining, occupation. In any city an expert or workman may be found who would give a few lessons. I have very often been impressed with the fact that so little artistic invention or originality is found in glass-work. Even the far-famed Venetian work is extremely limited, and “mannered” or conventional, compared to what it might be.
The following is an old recipe for repairing glass:—Take finest powdered glass, best mastic, with equal parts of white resin and distilled turpentine. Meltall well together. To use, gradually warm it and then apply.
Quicklime and white of egg, intimately rubbed into one another on a flat surface, make a good cement for ordinary glass or pottery.
The cement ofgum-arabicis much stronger when made as follows:—Take gum-arabic and dissolve it in acetic acid (vinegar) instead of water. It must be melted in a hottish place, as it will in that case be much better. The finest quality of sheet-gelatine makes a transparent glue, invaluable where colour is to be avoided.
To mend a cracked Glass Bottle or Decanter.—Heat the bottle, pressing in the cork, till the hot air within expands the cracks, which must be at once filled with the liquid glass. Then, as the water-glass is driven in by the pressure of the outer air, as the bottle cools the cracks are closed.
You cannot well mend a broken looking-glass, but something can be done with the large pieces. Varnish or paste a piece of paper and lay it on the quicksilver. Then with an American glass-cutter, price one shilling, or a diamond-cutter, divide them into squares for small mirrors. Two of these of equal size can easily be converted into a folding kaleidoscope (not described byBrewsterin his work on the Kaleidoscope). Lay the two pieces face to face, and paste over the whole, on the quicksilvered side, a piece of thin leather or muslin. When dry, with a penknife, cut a slit down between the two on three sides. It will then open and shut like a portfolio. This may serve as a travelling, looking or shaving glass, but it is very useful to designers of patterns.Place the glass upright on a table at a right angle, or more or less, and lay between the mirrors any object or a pattern, and you will see it multiplied from three to twelve times, according to the angle. Beautiful variations of designs can thus be made,ad infinitum. They may be used as reflectors, when placed behind a light.
Take such a piece of looking-glass and lay a piece of paper on the back, and then with an agate or ivory point write or draw on it, but not as hard as to break the silvering. Then turn it to the sun or a strong light, and let the reflection fall on a white surface. Though nothing be perceptible on the face of the mirror, the writing will appear in the reflection.
Glass is engraved as metal is etched; with this exception, that, instead of sulphuric or nitric acids, fluoric acid is used. Both glass andchinacan also be directly etched with a steel point, aided by emery powder; which latter art I have never seen described, but which I have successfully practised. It is fully set forth in my forthcoming work on “One Hundred Arts.”
Malleable glass, or at least that which does not break easily when let fall, is prepared by dipping the objects made from it, while quite hot, into oil. I conjecture that panes of window-glass thus prepared would not be broken by hail, as I have observed that plate-glass is not.
It sometimes happens that goblets of thin glass—especially those which have had a peculiar kind of annealing or tempering—ring beautifully when blown on so as to vibrate them. The effect is almost magical on one who hears it for the first time. I mentionit that the reader may, when he finds old Venetian or any other thin glass goblets for sale, see if there be not among them a finely ringing one. An organ could be thus made to play by wind. With regard to music on glass, take any ordinary bottle, and by rubbing on it a cork a little wetted you can, with a little practice, produce a startling imitation of the chirping, and even warbling, of birds. I knew one who could thus imitate to perfection nightingales and call forth responsive songs. The effect depends in a degree on the quality of the cork, and also that of the glass. With a violin-bow very musical sounds may be drawn from the edge of a pane of glass. It seems as if these methods might also be developed into musical instruments. It is well known that tubes of glass suspended when a candle is placed beneath them give forth musical sounds, often of great richness and strength. There are also the musical glasses, which may be played in two ways, either by rubbing the edges with a wetted finger or by filling the glasses more or less with water till an octave is formed, and then tapping them with a stick of wood. All of which has, indeed, nothing to do with mending glass, yet which may not be without interest to those who wish to learn all its qualities.
AmongGlass Cementsin common use which can be recommended are the well-known Polytechnic, also the Imperial Liquid Glue (no heating required), Hayden & Co., Warwick Square, London. There is also a very good glass cement made and sold by Keye, filter-maker, Hill Street, Birmingham.
The Venetians made ordinary glass goblets very beautiful by painting on them in relief with a substancewhich I suspect was in some cases a form of silicate, or else with a kind of paint which was not enamel, yet which seems to have been partly vitreous. It rather resembles oil paint with glass powder, but I doubt if it was this.
Working in glass implies the mending and restoration of stained-glass windows; that is, of painting on glass and a study of designs. Of all this there is almost a literature. Among other works I can commendA Book of Ornamental Glazing Quarries, by A. W. Franks, £1, 1s.;Divers Works of Early Masters in Ecclesiastical Decoration, by Owen Jones, £3, 10s.;Westlake’s History of Stained Glass, vol. i.,Fourteenth Century, 13s. 6d.; vol. iii.,Fifteenth Century, 18s., published by Batsford, 52 High Holborn. At Rimmel’s, in Oxford Street, the reader can generally obtain these, and all works on similar subjects at prices much below the original cost.
A mending cement for glassis made as follows:—
This is found in many books of recipes. It must be observed that the cheese is to be for sometime carefully pounded with the water till quite soft, and the lime then very quickly stirred in. This is not only useful to mend glass, but can be applied to many other purposes. The cheese is best when fresh.
Caseine(or pure cheese) can be combined with ease with liquid silicate of soda (Lehner), and thus forms a very strong cement for porcelain or glass, orany other material. Fill a flask with one-fourth of fresh caseine to three-fourths of silicate, and shake it thoroughly and frequently.
Another formula is as follows:—
This must be used very promptly, and the article mended dried in the air.
ACEMENTwhich may be used in several combinations is made by dissolving fresh acidulated caseine (made by adding vinegar to milk, and carefully washing the deposit) in a very little caustic lye. It must be kept corked in bottles.
Thesecaseineor cheese or curd cements hold well, but do not well resist water, except in powerful combination.
The excellence of cements depends to a great degree on the quality of the materials and the scrupulous observance of care in making. Thus for the following, for glass:—
in which we have one of the commonest and oldest formulas, the value depends on “the make-up” that is, the glue must be left in cold water for two days, then boiled in abalneum mariæ, or a double kettle, in lukewarm water; that is, it must not boil, or the glue will be weakened.
The so-calledDiamondorTurkish Cement, forglass or any other fine work, has been known since early times as incredibly strong. Its formula, according to Lehner, is as follows:—
These are three separate portions, No. I. being prepared by warming and filtering. The gum-ammoniac is reserved from the others, and addedafterthey are mingled.
A strong base for a cement for glass, as well as wood or stone, is made by gradually stirring finely sifted wood-ashes into silicate of soda, or strong acid glue, till a syrup-like substance results. In America the best ashes for this purpose are those of the hickory. Perhaps beech wood yields them equally good.
There is aDiamond Cementwhich is of special value to attach gems to rings or metal, to make coral or pearl or ivory adhere together, and, in short, for all fine work where a very strong adhesive is required. It is as follows:—
The sturgeon’s bladder is cut into small pieces and steeped in the spirits, and the rest, in solution, then added. It must be warmed again when used.
As this cement will bear long exposure to moisture before being at all injured by it, it can be used as a medium for painting on glass, and thereby producing effects very little inferior, either as regards beauty or durability, to glass itself. The experiment can be easily tried, as any chemist can make up the recipe. When finished, the painting can be coated with liquid silicate of soda, which will give it all the property of glass.
A lime cement for glassis made as follows:—
Jewellers’ cement.Extremely strong:—
The fish-glue must first be dissolved in spirits of wine.
To join Glass and Metal, &c.—Stir slacked and powdered lime in hot glue. This sets as a very hard substance. It can be extensively modified and varied for many substances, and used for painting.
Cement for glass:—
The gum, sugar, and water are first carefully combined, and then the turpentine well stirred with the mixture.
Salle’s cement for glass:—
Not commended byLehner, as being too soluble.To close bottles:—
To be thoroughly mixed and left for several hours. Before using, stir well into it eight to nine parts of calcined plaster of Paris. This will in half-an-hour take firm hold or “set,” and is waterproof. A good filler for cracks.
The reader who desires to be perfectly informed as to glass in all its relations can obtain, by application toJ. Baer, Rossmarkt, Frankfort on the Main, Germany, a catalogue which is perhaps the most extensive on the subject ever published.
Coloured or stained glass windows may be repaired or made by the following process, which has the advantage of being quite as durable as any in which the colours are burned in:—Take two panes of glass, and paint on one your pattern with fine varnish and transparent colour mixed. When dry, go over the whole, with a broad, soft brush, with a liquid mastic cement, which must be quite transparent and thin. Any transparent strong cement will serve, but it is advisable to use the mastic in all cases as a narrow border and at the edges. If you have an engraving, especially one on very soft spongy paper, take a pane ofglass, cover it with a coat of varnish, and just before it dries press the engraving face down, on it. When quite dry, with a sponge slightly damped and the end of the finger, peel away all the soft paper, leaving the lines of the engraving. These may now be coloured over, with even very little skill and care. A very good effect may be produced, so that a very indifferent artist can in this way produce very tolerable pictures. Then, to better preserve this, double it with the other pane.
By painting and shading also on thissecondpane, as I have discovered, very beautiful and striking effects of light and shade can be developed, so that this forms, as it were, a new art by itself. This will remind the reader of the porcelain lamp-shades, which so much resemble pictures in Indian ink; but the effects of the double panes are more singular and far more varied. There may be even a third pane employed. As the materials for this art are far from expensive, and as it is extremely easy, I have no doubt that it will be extensively practised. Protecting one glass picture by another is not a new art; but I am not aware that the obtaining a series of lights by thus reduplicating the panes has been practised.
A modification of it is as follows:—Cut out several panes, corresponding to the size of the two glass covers, of quite transparent paper or parchment, prepared by rubbing with oil or vaseline, lard, or the like. Paint on these the required modifications of the picture. The advantage of this is, that a great many shades can thus be given in a thinner space, creating an astonishing effect. As this is not at all a mere imitation of stained glass, and as it produceseffects not to be found in the latter, it may rank as an art by itself. The chief of these effects isrelief, especially shown in the human figure. But the most extraordinary are the variations of chiaroscuro which it affords, by availing himself of which the artist may create or obtain striking suggestions for oil oraquarellepictures; for these transparencies can be so infinitely and ingeniously varied that no one can fail to derive from them many ideas.
This may be tested by simply preparing any picture, say of a statue, a castle on a rock, or a face. Cut out from sheets of the same size in very transparent paper a series of shadows adapted to it, and adjust them. They may be all in monochrome or one colour, or in many hues. They may range, with proper care, from almost imperceptible shadow to opaque black. By beginning with only two stencils or shaded pictures—for as regards these the artist must be guided by his own skill—and gradually increasing the number, the proper adjustment will soon be found. I advise the beginner in copying to proceed from monochrome to two colours before attempting many. Teachers inaquarellewill find that such copies are—after a certain degree of proficiency shall have been obtained—much superior to those commonly used, as they come nearer to nature.
The most perfect form of this curious art is an improvement which, I believe, is my own invention. This consists of introducing leaves of paintedmicabetween the two glasses. In this way four grades or tones of colour and light and shade can be made in a picture. Mica-leaves can be made into one by usingmastic cement. Rub the edges with emery-paper to roughen them.
As I have already intimated, the materials for this work are so cheap and the process so easy, that all which I here assert may be at once verified by the outlay of a few shillings, with a few hours of time. It is, in another form, the same thing as arranging lights around a statue in a dark room, but adapted to all kinds of pictures.
As a Latin poet has declared, “It is an easy thing to add to arts,” when a beginning has once been made (“Inventis facile semper aliquid addere”), so I will add to this a curious discovery in glass made by me in Venice a few years ago. I was being taken by SirAustin Layardover his celebrated glass-factory. It was he who, with the aid of SirWilliam Drake,firstrevived the almost forgotten manufacture of glass in Murano. While standing with him by a furnace watching a workman skilfully forming ornaments in glass, it suddenly occurred to me that the Chinese were said to have possessed in remote times an art, now lost, of making vases or bottles which appeared externally to be quite plain, but on the surface of which, when red wine was poured in, patterns or inscriptions appeared of the same colour. It at once occurred to me that this could be perfectly effected by making a bottle, on the interior of which the ground should be of considerable thickness, say half-an-inch, while the inscription or pattern would be no thicker than ordinary window-glass. Then if the whole exterior were to be lightly ground on a wheel or sandpapered, the difference between ground and pattern would not be perceptible until red wine or somehighly coloured fluid were poured in, when the pattern would at once show itself.
SirAustin Layardwas so much struck by the suggestion that he sent at once for his foreman, Signore Castellani, who said that he had heard of such bottles, but always supposed it was a fable. He, however, at once admitted that they could be made as I proposed, but added that the expense would be so great as to render the invention practically useless.
It has, however, since occurred to me that such bottles could be made, and cheaply, as follows:—Take a Florence flask, and divide it into two parts with a diamond, using a saw for the bottom. Then on the sides within place the ground. It could be made of silicate of soda and powdered glass or flint, or even of white wax, hardened with powdered glass. Close the bottle with silicate, and grind the whole.
When any glass has been broken and mended, the fracture still discernible may be thus concealed by grinding the surface, and in many cases by surrounding it with a ring or tube of metal, also by one of silicate, or with an ornament formed with it.
A glass stopper when too large can be easily filed down to fit. Should the neck of the bottle be too narrow, it can also be enlarged by the same process. When the rim of a goblet is fractured, it can be ground down on a grindstone. I have done it with a file.
A pane of glass can be somewhat rudely cut into shape with a pair of strong scissors, under water. In this, as in other things, practice leads to perfection.
An old method of effectually closing bottles of wine was as follows:—The edge of the opening on the top was ground down on a stone, and a small disc ofglass was exactly fitted to it. Heat was then applied till both were in partial fusion and the cover was welded to the bottle. A little powdered glass would aid the fusion, or it could be effected with silicate without heating. The process is the same as using glass stoppers, rather sunk in, and sealing up with silicate.
A broken champagne bottle is not easily mended, but I have seen one curiously utilised. The bottom only had been broken, and it was cut off round and evenly with a file. Within it there hung from the cork by a cord a very large nail or small bolt of iron. Thus prepared, it made a capital and appropriate dinner-bell. Here in Italy I have often seen bells made of crockery or terra-cotta; their tone is better than would be supposed.
“In human industry, there is on an average a loss of fifty per cent. in labour or material.”—Observations on Art, byCharles G. Leland.
“In human industry, there is on an average a loss of fifty per cent. in labour or material.”—Observations on Art, byCharles G. Leland.
There is no country in the world in which the art of mending is so much required as in the United States of North America. The reason for this is the extraordinary and sudden changes in temperature, causing the expansion and contraction of cells and fibre, especially in wood, which results in cracks. Thus seasoned furniture and carvings, which have remained unchanged for centuries, it may be for a thousand years, in any part of Europe, shrink and split very often within a month after being placed in a drawing or dining room in Boston or Philadelphia, as I know by sad experience. Thus I have known a very beautiful Italian mandoline, three hundred years old, richly inlaid with ivory, to so shrink and warp in America that a professional mender declared that nothing could be done with it. The sounding-board had curled up like a scroll and split, and the mosaic or inlaying had fallen out in bits.
Patterns cut from Wood-Shavings.
Patterns cut from Wood-Shavings.
In such a case, carefully detach the warped piece or pieces, and dampen the concave side carefully with asponge till it resumes its flatness or usual form. When this is attained, take very thin shavings of a firm wood, as thin as they can be shaved, and glue them transversely, orgrain across grain, to the under or plain side of the board. This will probably prevent all warping in future, especially if the best mastic and fish-glue is employed. It may here be noted that where the shavings cannot be obtained, thin parchment or even note-paper may be used, and that good, strong varnish, or not too thin, may be used for a binder. There are many cases in which parchment or paper are preferable to wood in repairing, as being less liable to warp or crack.
Wood-shavings, which are as yet but little utilised in art, have, however, before them “a great future.” Combined with glue, or other binders, they can be made, even under the hand-roller, into boards, which have the advantage that they can be moulded, curved,or turned to suit many emergencies which would require a great deal of saw or carving work.
It is not unusual to employ veneers, or very thin sheets of wood, as a guard across the grain where shrinking is to be apprehended, as in tablets for painting on or panels, and it is a great pity that this very cheap precaution is so little used. But there are very few cases in which shavings are not as applicable, and they have the great advantage of being obtainable wherever there is a plane and wood.
Holes or defects in wood—for example, in American shingle roofs or the clap-boarded sides of houses—can often be more cheaply and readily repaired with shavings and glue (into which oil is infused) than by any other means. And it may be observed that such a coating of shavings and glue, laid on to a new roof, is the cheapest and most effective protector against rain or sun or frost.
In certain work wood-shavings can be advantageously combined with paper to give a solid, smooth surface and firm body. Here the paper-paste, with or without sawdust, is first forced into the cavities, and the shavings superadded.
Shavings and glue are excellent for the temporary repair of boats, and if the mending beproperly executed, it will be as durable as the original wood. It would be an easy matter indeed to make a canoe entirely of shavings and glue. If the hand-roller be well used and thoroughly applied, the result will be a very firm fabric.
Pattern to be cut out of Shavings and applied with Glue to a Panel.
Pattern to be cut out of Shavings and applied with Glue to a Panel.
It may be worth knowing in the wilderness, that where a backwoodsman has aplane(and he can always make one if he has a chisel, which, again, can bemade out of a knife-blade) he can make shavings, and with these and some kind ofbinder—even clay—he can lay a dry, hard floor, when perhaps boards are not to be obtained. The substratum may be of beaten clay or stone. If of sufficient thickness and well rolled, such a floor as this would be impervious to damp.
Any surface can be very wellveneeredwith shavings and glue. Smooth the surface by pressure or rolling, and when dry glass-paper it. Veneersare often not to be had; shavings may be got in every carpenter’s shop.
Not only very strong and elastic canes, but evenbowsof a superior quality, can be made of shavings. The Indians in Pacific America make the latter by pasting and pressing one shaving on another with great care. It may be understood that where the grain, as in a piece of wood, runsaltogetherin one way, it will split with the grain. But where it is not uniform or connected, and is very powerfully incorporated by pressure with a good binder, we may easily have a very elastic and tough fabric, not so likely to split as wood. Thus we can make from hickory shavings a wood less liable to warp or split than the original wood itself.
Wood-shavings and glue are admirably adapted to repair broken boxes or any other articles of wood, especially for smoothing over roughly mended surfaces and covering knot-holes or other defects. In all cases when possible use the roller, and when pasting one piece on the other cross the grains.
Musical instruments, such as guitars, violins, and mandolins, are very easily repaired with shavings and glue; and this is, indeed, in many cases, the very best means of reparation, since, while a piece of wood may or may not injure the tone, the shavings always give a good vibration. And where it is quite beyond the power of any ordinary amateur, say a lady, to set in a piece of wood or apply one, or to get it of a proper thickness, anybody with care can paste on thin shavings—the thinner the better—till the defect is repaired. In many cases parchment or paper will answer just as well, and I have myself thus perfectly mendedviolins which were apparently beyond all bettering, and got to the stage oflasciate ogni speranza, or hopelessness.
There are, however, many cases of badly fractured objects in which the owner gives up hope, because it seemsimpossible to make a beginning. Now, “whatever can be made can be mended” is true of everything except morals, and even in these there is more to be done than men wot of. And in a great number of these cases parchment strips, thin linen tape, or especially wood-shavings, can be used with success. Bring the broken edges together if they warp apart, and attach them with the strip and strongest cement; that is, with small pieces of the “fastener.” Do not attempt to do everything at once. When the edges are united and thebinderdried, fill in all crevices or holes with a suitable paste or “filler”—not too much at once, in certain cases. Then, as will generally be required, cover the surface with thin shavings and binder; as it dries, file or glass-paper it smooth. The shavings will make, with mastic and fish-glue, in many cases, a far better repair than could be effected with a piece of wood or parchment, because they will neversplit, like the former, if they are applied lying transversely or crossways, nor stretch like the latter.
It may depend, in many cases, on whatwoodthe shavings consist of. As I have observed, even in the bush a plane can be made with a chisel or a piece of a table-knife blade, set in a wooden block; but elsewhere any carpenter will easily supply what is wanted,ad libitum.
The paste or filler of wood-powder or paper-pulp will be found described in other chapters.
A curious kind of ornamentcan be made by cutting out decorative patterns, human figures, animals, flowers, &c., from shavings with scissors or pen-knives, then glueing them on a smooth soft board. Apply as much pressure as possible, so as to make them sink into the wood, and when dry coat the whole with varnish, till an even surface is established. Rub over the dried surface with finest glass or emery-paper, and then smooth patiently with the palm of the hand. If this be well executed the result will be a perfect imitation of inlaid wood, although it is really an art by itself, which, I believe, is my own invention. Thin veneers may also be used instead of shavings. Ebony or walnut thusappliquéonlarchorhollymake exquisite work.
This kind of ornament has great advantage over inlaid wood or marquetry, for the pieces of which it consist are far less liable to be detached or peel off, while it looks quite as beautiful. And be it observed that, laid with a transverse grain, it prevents warping and strengthens the ground, while inlaying weakens it; for to make the bed for inlaying or mosaic we must excavate the bed till it is extremely thin and liable to warp, whereas in shaving-work we make a light but very strengthening addition.
A single experiment will suffice to convince the reader of the merits of this very useful, elegant, and novel art. It is specially applicable to ornamenting albums and book-covers, where it may be used even on pasteboard.
It is often a very difficult matter to obtain a thin panel or strips and do all the work properly when we wish to put into shape a warped panel, let us say of an old picture, which is on the point of splitting. The inserting screws is very dangerous. I myself have inadvertently thus made a fearful blemish in a Madonna’s face. But if we useshavingsthere is no such danger. Wet the back till the panel is flat, and thengraduallyglue on the shavings across the grain. This is as well done with small bits as large. With a picture it would be well to continue the coating to the thickness of one-third of an inch or more, but a very thin coating will go far to prevent warping or bending. The thinnest panels or veneers may be thus “backed up” into solid boards. In all cases where practicable, use heavy pressure on the roller.
“Among the thousand mad schemes which were proposed by projectors was one for making sawdust into boards.”—History of the South Sea Bubble.
“Among the thousand mad schemes which were proposed by projectors was one for making sawdust into boards.”—History of the South Sea Bubble.
Very few people, even among workmen and artists, are aware of what remarkable and curious restoration the most decayed pieces of wood are capable. We will, however, begin with the simplest repairing, or that of furniture.
When articles of furniture have been strongly and properly made of oak or other hard wood, and as properly used, they will last for centuries; and should some unforeseen accident take away legs or arms, they can be perfectly replaced, especially in the admirable old-fashioned German objects of the kind, which were all put together with wooden pins or by means of mortise and tenon, so that, when need required, they could be packed as boards;—nor were they the less elegant for this. But if furniture be simply sawed from soft, cheap deal or poplar, and merely glued together (as most cheap furniture made in England is), it will soon warp and break up, and all the mending in the world will not make it better than it was when new. Glue is, therefore, the great materialfor most woodwork, and, as I shall show, in two very different forms.
Having a broken chair-leg, which can, however, be fitted together, first prepare your glue in a proper kettle—that is, abalneum mariæ, or one kettle in another. In the outer is only boiling water; in the inner the glue, mixed with water. The reason for this is, that glue, when softened with water, dries up very rapidly under the action of air or fire, while the softer heat of water keeps it, so to speak, “alive.”
But if, while the glue is soft, we pour, say, a teaspoonful of nitric acid into half-a-pint of glue, it will remain soft a much longer time—which is a valuable secret to many, especially where large, broad surfaces of veneers are to be glued on, and where, the process being slow, it is desirable for the adhesive to remain soft for many minutes. And here I would mention that the acid-glue will remain in a liquid state for one year if tightly corked up in a bottle. Its only defect is a disagreeable, pungent smell.
This glue can be improved by being made as follows:—Take of best glue three parts, place them in eight parts of water, and allow the mixture to soak some hours. Take half a part of hydrochloric or muriatic acid and three-quarters of a part of sulphate of zinc; add to these the glue, and keep the whole at a moderately high temperature till fluid—that is to say, boil the glue as usual in abalneum mariæor in hot water, after soaking it all night in water. Then stir in the hydrochloric (or muriatic) acid and sulphate of zinc. This is a first-class glue. Keep it in a bottle with an oiled cork; any other stopper would adhere. But for all ordinary work the glue, withnitric acid, will suffice, as it holds with great tenacity to anything.
This glue, which keeps liquid for a long time, and which holds without scaling off, as common glue often does, may also be made withvery strongvinegar. The latter, in fact, amounts to the same thing in most European countries, but especially in the United States, where, according to the New YorkTribune, there is literally no vinegar sold or made, save from sulphuric acid and water. Perhaps when mankind shall have reached a higher stage of civilisation, all dealers will be compelled by law to place on every article of food sold the list of ingredients of which it is composed. We should then know how much oleomargarine passes for butter, and what proportion of “delicious conserves” are manufactured from apples alone or turnips.
Observe that in glueing ordinary wood together the two pieces to be attached should be gradually but very wellheatedfirst. This renders them more inclined to “take” the glue. This is applicable to other substances.
Also note that when two surfaces have been made to adhere with ordinary water-glue, should they come apart when cold, it is very difficult to make them unite again. But this is not the case with acid-glue. And if you have such surfaces which will not unite, wash them with nitric acid or very strong vinegar, and the glue then applied will “take.” Also observe that the acid-glue is far stronger than the common kind.
Having the broken leg fitted, first with a narrow gimlet or brad-awl make a hole crossing the fracture,then glue the pieces together, and before the glue dries put a screw or two through the hole;i.e.,screwthe pieces together. This will hold perfectly, if you will sink the head of the screw in the wood, smooth it with a file, then putty it over and paint it.
It seems strange that anything can be so mended as to be stronger than before; yet this is literally true as regards the broken leg of a chair, a cane, a beam, the mast or spar of a vessel, or any similar long piece of wood. This is effected as follows:—Cut the two separated pieces into two exactly fitting “steps” or mortises, as shown in this illustration.