Compass, Prismatic.A pocket instrument for measuring horizontal angles by means of the magnetic meridian. It is much employed in the military service for sketching the general features of a country, and in reconnoissances. It consists of a small glass-covered box containing a magnetized needle attached to a graduated card. A sight-vane with a fine wire stretched longitudinally in the slot is hinged to one side of the box. On the opposite side is a prism. To use it the sight-vane is turned up to the perpendicular. The eye is applied to the prism, and the wire directed on the object. The division in the card coinciding with the reflection of the wire gives the angle with the meridian.
Compassionate Allowances.In the British service, are grants of allowances which are made to the legitimate children of deceased officers of the land forces in all cases in which the widow of the officer would be entitled to be placed on the pension-list, provided it be shown that they are deserving objects of the sovereign’s bounty, and are in distressed circumstances.
Compiègne.A town of France, department of Oise. It was besieged by the English in 1430, who failed to capture it owing to the brave defense made by its governor, Flavia. Joan of Arc, who came to the assistance of this town, was taken prisoner by the English besiegers. The emperor Napoleon III. and the king of Prussia met here on October 6, 1861.
Complement of the Curtain.That part in the interior side of a fortification which makes the demi-gorge.
Complement of the Line of Defense.The remainder of the line of defense after the angle of the flank is taken away.
Compliment.The military mark of respectshown by a body of troops to official personages, to an officer, or to another body of troops.
Compositions, Pyrotechnic.SeePyrotechny.
Compound Armor.SeeArmor Plates.
Compression Strain.SeeOrdnance, Strains upon.
Compulsion, orInevitable Necessity. Is a constraint upon the will whereby an officer is urged to that which his judgment disapproves, and which, it is to be presumed, his will (if left to itself) would reject. As punishments are, therefore, only inflicted for the abuse of that free will which God has given to man, it is highly just and equitable that an officer should be excused for those acts which are done through unavoidable force and compulsion.
Comrade.A soldier who acts as the friend of another soldier, rendering him friendly services, etc. Each soldier generally has one special friend who is recognized as his comrade. The term comrade is also extended so as to include all the members of a particular corps, branch of the service, or the army generally.
Concarneau.A maritime town of France, department of Finistère; it was taken by Du Guesclin in 1373, and by the Leaguers in 1576. The town is defended by a fort and surrounded by ancient walls.
Concave Order of Battle.SeeOrder of Battle, Concave.
Concepcion.A port of Chili, capital of a province of the same name. In 1554, 1555, and 1603, it was taken and burnt by the Araucanians. A portion of it was again devastated by the Araucanians in 1823.
Concord.A town of Middlesex Co., Mass., 11 miles from Boston. Here, on April 19, 1775, one of the first conflicts took place between the Americans and the British troops. A monument is erected at this place to commemorate the event.
Concrete.A coarse building mortar, containing broken stone, gravel, etc., used much in fortifications.
Condé.A town of France, in the department of the North. It is strongly fortified and has a military arsenal. In 1793 this town was taken by the Austrians.
Condemned Property.In the military service, property must be condemned by an inspector before it can rightfully be destroyed.
Condottieri.A name given in the 14th century to the leaders of certain bands of military adventurers in Italy, who, for booty, offered their services to any party in any contest, and often practiced warfare on their own account purely for the sake of plunder. TheCompagnies Grandesin France at about the same period were somewhat similar to the condottieri, and were so powerful at one time that in 1361 they routed the king’s forces at Brignais, and slew Jacques de Bourbon, constable of France.
Conduct Unbecoming an Officer and a Gentleman.SeeUngentlemanlike or Unofficerlike, andAppendix,Articles of War,60and61.
Confederate Projectiles.SeeProjectile.
Confederate States of America, orSouthern Confederacy. The efforts of the Southern States for the extension of slavery, and the zeal of the Northern States for its abolition, with the consequent political dissensions, led to the great secession of 1860-61. On November 4, 1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candidate, was elected President of the United States. Hitherto, a President in the interest of the South had been elected. On December 20, South Carolina seceded from the Union; and Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina seceded early in 1861. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated President of the Southern Confederacy at Montgomery, Ala., February 18, 1861. For important events of the civil war which ensued, see the different States of America throughout this work, and the names of battles, etc., which were fought during this war. On the 20th day of August, 1866, the President (Andrew Johnson) proclaimed the insurrection at an end, and that peace, order, tranquillity, and civil authority existed throughout the whole of the United States.
Confederation of the Rhine.The league of the German states, formed by Napoleon Bonaparte, July 12, 1806, when he abolished the Holy Roman Empire, and the emperor of Germany became emperor of Austria. In December it consisted of France, Bavaria, Würtemberg, Saxony, and Westphalia; 7 grand duchies, 6 duchies, and 20 principalities. The princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of war, and established a diet at Frankfort. This league terminated with the career of Bonaparte in 1814. It was replaced by theGermanic Confederation, and it, in its turn, was replaced by theNorth German Confederation.
Confiscation.The appropriation to the public use of private property. A right which is conferred under certain circumstances by the laws of war. SeeContraband of War.
Conflans(near Paris),Treaty of. Between Louis XI. of France and the Dukes of Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, October 5, 1465. By its provisions Normandy was ceded to the Duke of Berry, and an end was put to the “War of the Public Good.” It was confirmed by the treaty of Peronne, 1468.
Congreve Rocket.SeeRocket.
Coni, orCuneo. The capital of a province of the same name in Piedmont. It was once a fortified place, and had to undergo several sieges. After being taken and retaken, the victory of Marengo gave it into the hands of the French, who demolishedthe fortifications and turned them into promenades.
Connecticut.One of the original States of the American Confederation, and the most southwestern of the New England States. The country was early explored by the Dutch, but the first permanent settlements were made by English emigrants in 1634. In 1637 the settlers were much annoyed by Indians, who were shortly afterwards subdued, however, in engagements at Mystic and Fairfield, and never after gave any serious trouble. The State took an active part in the cause of American independence, and also in the late war for the Union, and throughout both these eventful contests she sustained eminent distinction as well for the wisdom of her statesmen as for the bravery and patriotism of her soldiers.
Conquer.To gain or acquire by force; to take possession of by violent means; to gain dominion over; to subdue; to reduce, etc. To gain the victory; to overcome.
Conqueror.One who conquers; one who subdues and brings into subjection or possession by force or by influence.
Conquest.The act of conquering or acquiring by force; the act of overcoming or subduing opposition by force; subjugation; victory.
Conquisitores.So were called the recruiting officers of the Romans.
Consarbruck.A village of Rhenish Prussia where the French were defeated by the Duc de Lorraine, August 11, 1675.
Conscription.A system of enrolling men for military service, which is in vogue in France and some other foreign countries. Voluntary enlistments being so very few, the compulsory system of keeping up the armies is deemed indispensable. An account is kept of all the youths who reach the age of 20 in one year, and out of these the number required for the army is drawn by lot.
Consigne(Fr.). Parole or countersign.
Constable.The title in the Middle Ages of the highest military officer in France under the king. The term comes from the low Latin phrasecomes stabuli, count of the stables.
Constable of the Tower.In England, is a general officer who has the chief superintendence of the Tower, and is lord-lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets. He holds his appointment by letters-patent from the sovereign, and is not removable at pleasure.
Constantine, orConstantina. A fortified city of Algeria, capital of a province of its own name. It stands on the site of the ancient Cirta, celebrated as the bulwark of Numidia. It is built upon a high rock, formed into a species of peninsula by the Rummel. It was besieged by the French in 1836, but held out till October, 1837, when it was taken by assault.
Constantinople.A celebrated city of Turkey in Europe, the capital of the Ottoman empire. It was formerly calledByzantium, but having been rebuilt by the emperor Constantine in 328, it received his name. No city in the world has been subjected to as many numerous and celebrated sieges, yet it was only taken twice,—by the Crusaders in 1204 (held by them till 1261), and by the Turks under Mohammed II., May 29, 1453,—an event which completed the extinction of the Roman empire in the East.
Contest.In a military sense, to struggle to defend; as, the troops contested every inch of ground. Earnest struggle for superiority, defense, or the like; strife in arms.
Continental.A term adopted by the Americans in the Revolutionary war in contradistinction to British.
Contingent.This term is applied to the quota of troops furnished to the common army by each member of a confederation of states; the proportion of troops or money furnished by each party to an alliance.
Contingent.In the British service, the sum paid monthly to each captain of a troop, company, or battery, to defray the expense of stationery, the care of arms, and other minor demands. A contingent account is also the account, sent in by a staff-officer, of money expended for miscellaneous purposes.
Contours.Are the lines in which a site or ground surface is cut by horizontal planes, usually taken at equidistances.
Contraband of War.Are such articles as a belligerent has by the law of nations the right of preventing a neutral from furnishing to his enemy. Articles contraband of war are, in general, arms and munitions of war and those out of which munitions of war are made. Contraband articles are subject to confiscation; but very arbitrary interpretations have been affixed to the term by powerful states, when able to enforce them by arms. Thus, provisions are held contraband of war when it is the object to reduce the enemy by famine. But with respect to these and other articles not in their nature contraband, it seems to be the practice that the belligerent should purchase them from the neutral for a reasonable equivalent, instead of confiscating.
Contramure.In fortification, is a wall built before another partition-wall to strengthen it, so that it may receive no damage from the adjacent buildings.
Contravallation.In fortification, is an intrenchment formed in the same manner as the line of circumvallation, to defend the besiegers against the enterprises of the garrison. An army forming a siege lies between the line of circumvallation and contravallation. The trench of this line is towards the town, at the foot of the parapet, and is never made but when the garrison is numerous enough to harass and interrupt the besiegers by sallies. This line is constructed in the rear of the camp, and by the same rule as the line of circumvallation, with this difference, that, as it is only intended to resist a body of troops much inferior to a force which might attack thecircumvallation, its parapet is not made so thick, nor the ditch so wide and deep.
Contre-forts(Fr.). Brick-work which is added to the revetment of a rampart on the side of the terre-plein, and which is equal to its height. Contre forts are used to support the body of earth with which the rampart is formed. They are likewise used in the revetments of counterscarps, in gorges and demi-gorges, etc. Contre-forts likewise form a part of the construction of powder-magazines, which are bomb-proof.
Contreras.A celebrated battle-field of Mexico, about 14 miles south of the capital. Here, on August 19 and 20, 1847, the American forces under Gen. Scott defeated and totally routed, with loss of all his artillery, the Mexican general Valencia.
Contribution.In a military sense, is an imposition or tax levied on the people of a conquered town or country.
Control Department.In the British service, is the department which performs all the administrative duties of the army, in fact, all duties neither combatant, educational, nor scientific. It has a sub-department which performs all work connected with supply and transport, and to which is attached the “Army Service Corps,” a body of men officered by the control department, and employed as butchers, bakers, military train, dispensers, hospital attendants, and those engaged in non-combatant duties generally.
Controller.In the British service, the highest grade in the control department. The officers holding it—three in number—rank with major-generals. Adeputy controllerbelongs to the second grade in the control department. Officers holding it rank with lieutenant-colonels.
Convalescent.A soldier who though discharged from hospital is not sufficiently recovered to do duty.
Convention.In a military sense, is an agreement made between hostile armies for some well-defined purpose, such as the evacuation of a fort, territory, etc. One of the most celebrated conventions of modern times was that of Cintra (1808), between the French and the English generals.
Conversion.A change of front, as of a body of troops attacked in the flank.
Conversion, Bridge by.SeePontons.
Converted Guns.A term applied to cast-iron guns lined with wrought iron or steel tube. SeeOrdnance,PalliserandParsons Guns.
Convex Order of Battle.SeeOrder of Battle, Convex.
Convoy.In the military service, is a train of wagons laden with provisions or warlike stores, or a detachment of troops appointed to guard such a train.
Cooling of Cannon.SeeOrdnance, Construction of.
Coptic Legion.In 1799 the French army in Egypt not receiving any reinforcements, grew weaker every day through loss in combat and disease, when Gen. Kleber, who commanded after the departure of Napoleon, formed a corps of Copts, or native Christians, about 600 strong, which was known by this name. They were armed the same as the French troops.
Cordon.In military operations, is a line of sentries inclosing or guarding any particular space of ground, to prevent the passage of persons other than those belonging to the army. The word also applies in fortifications to a row of stones made round on the outside, and placed between the termination of the slope of the wall, so as not to be offensive to the eye.
Córdova.A city of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, founded about 152B.C.; taken by the Goths in 572, and made the capital of an Arab kingdom in 756. It was rescued from the Arabs by Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1236; was taken by the French under Dupont and disgracefully ravaged, June 8, 1808; surrendered to Joseph Bonaparte, January, 1810, and abandoned by the French in 1813.
Corduroy Road.A roadway formed of logs laid side by side across it, as in marshy places; so called from its rough or ribbed surface, resembling corduroy. SeeCordway.
Cordway.This way or road is made over extensive marsh tracks, and is constructed as follows, from the description of material usually abounding in such places: Trees and poles of almost any description will be found to answer. Cut as many as is thought requisite. Divide them into three classes,—ground-poles,cross-poles, andstringers. The ground-poles should be the largest and heaviest. The cross-poles are comparatively short lengths, and lie across the ground-poles with their ends projecting some distance beyond. They are laid closely together, and then secured and bound down by the stringers which lie on them. A tree-nail driven in here and there serves to keep all in place by nipping the cross-poles tightly. The ends of the ground-poles and stringers may be either scarfed and tree-nailed, or laid side by side and tied with withers or strips of suitable bark. This road is quickly made and found very useful in transporting the supplies of an army over a wet, marshy country.
Core.When cannon are cast hollow, after the plan of Rodman, a core is used to make the bore. It consists of a hollow cast-iron pipe, fluted on the outside, called thecore-barrel. This is wrapped with rope and the molding sand is plastered over the rope. A water-pipe entering the core-barrel and reaching nearly to the bottom, and another leaving it near the top, are used to maintain a circulation of water through it, thus cooling the casting from the interior.
Corea, orKorea. Is an extensive peninsular country in Northeastern Asia, whose limits are not accurately known. It is bounded east by the Sea of Japan, south bythe Strait of Corea, and west by the Whang-hai, or Yellow Sea. Corea was first subjected by the Tartars, but in about 1120B.C.the Chinese appear to have gained possession of the country The Japanese conquered and held it between the years 1692 and 1698, when it again fell under the sway of China, and still pays a small annual tribute to the emperor.
Corfu.The capital and principal town of the Ionian Islands. It was first occupied by the Phæcians, and then by the Liburnians; but the accounts of it are somewhat mythical until its settlement by the Corinthians about 734B.C., and through its commerce it soon after acquired a considerable importance. It soon quarreled with the mother-country, and after many vicissitudes of fortune passed under the dominion of the Romans about 229B.C.The town is defended by two fortresses, and garrisoned by British troops since 1864, though belonging to the kingdom of Greece.
Corinth.An ancient and celebrated city of Greece, the capital of a department of the same name, situated on the Isthmus of Corinth. It was totally destroyed by L. Mummius, the Roman consul, and burnt to the ground, 146B.C.It remained in ruins for a century, and was rebuilt in the year 46 by Julius Cæsar, after which it again arose to be a populous and prosperous city. After the taking of Constantinople it fell into the hands of the Turks, from whom it was retaken in 1687 by its former possessors, the Venetians. In 1715 it was again possessed by the Turks, who held it till 1823, when it was taken by the Greeks.
Corinth.A village in the northeast of Mississippi, about 90 miles east of Memphis. It was evacuated by the Confederates under Beauregard, May 29, 1862, and next day occupied by the Federal forces under Gen. Halleck. The Confederates, under Gens. Van Dorn, Price, and others, attempted to take this place, but they were thoroughly defeated after several desperate struggles by Gen. Rosecrans, October 3-5, 1862. The Confederate loss in prisoners alone was nearly 3000.
Corinthian War.Began 395B.C.; received this name because it was carried on mostly in the neighborhood of Corinth; waged by a confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives against the Lacedæmonians. It was closed by the peace of Antalcidas, 387B.C.
Corium.Leather body-armor, formed of overlapping leaves or scales, worn by Roman soldiers, and those of other nations. Its use was continued in England till the reign of Edward I.
Cork.A city of Ireland, capital of the county of the same name; built in the 6th century, it was garrisoned by Henry II., 1172; taken by Cromwell in 1649. The Earl of Marlborough besieged and took this city from King James’s army, 1690.
Cornet(Ital.cornetta, a “small flag”). Is the lowest grade of commissioned officers in the cavalry, equivalent to ensign in the infantry, his duty being to bear the standard. In the U. S. army there are no cornets.
Cornet.In the military history of the ancients, an instrument much in the nature of a trumpet: when the cornet only sounded, the ensigns were to march alone without the soldiers; whereas, when the trumpet only sounded, the soldiers were to move forward without the ensigns. A troop of horse was so called.
Cornette-blanche(Fr.). An ornament which in ancient times served to distinguish French officers who were high in command. It was worn by them on the top of their helmets. It likewise meant a royal standard, and was substituted in the room of the royal pennon. The cornette-blanche was only unfurled when the king joined the army; and the persons who served under it were princes, noblemen, marshals of France, and old captains, whose orders came direct from the king.
Coroneia.An ancient town of Bœotia. The Athenians were here defeated by the Bœotians, and their leader, Tolmides, slain, 447B.C.The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having entered into a league, offensive and defensive, against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror of his arms from his many victories, even into Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coroneia and achieved a great victory over them, 394B.C.
Corporal.In the military service, is a non-commissioned officer next in rank below a sergeant. He is distinguished by two chevrons worn on the arm.
Corporal, Lance.A private soldier who acts as corporal. He wears one chevron, but has no increase of pay.
Corporal-Major.In the British service, a troop corporal-major is the non-commissioned officer of the highest rank in a troop of the Household Cavalry; his position and authority are the same as those of a color-sergeant of infantry. A regimental corporal-major is the non-commissioned officer of the highest rank in each of the three regiments of Household Cavalry, and corresponds to a sergeant-major of infantry.
Corporal’s Guard.Used to indicate a detachment of several men under arms. May be applied to a squad equal to that usually placed under the charge of a corporal for drill, police, guard duty, etc. Generally made use of in a derisive manner.
Corps.A body of men; especially a body of troops; an organized part or division of an army.
Corps d’Armée.In the military organization of large armies two or more divisions form acorps d’armée, or army corps, which is complete in itself as an army, with everything needed for service. In European states, where large standing armies are kept, this custom of dividing them into corps, each under an officer of very high rank, and quartering them in different provinces, is followed even in times of peace.
Correspondence, Official.Is correspondence carried on officially between military officers and various departments of the service, such as orders, reports, letters, indorsements, etc. All official correspondence between the heads of the different departments of the staff of any command and its commander must pass through the adjutant-general, assistant adjutant-general, or adjutant of the command, as the case may be. Communications to or from a commander and those under his command must pass through the adjutant-general, assistant adjutant-general, or adjutant on duty with it; excepting only such communications between a disbursing officer and the chief of his particular branch of the staff as relate exclusively to the ordinary routine of business in their own department. All communications, whether from an inferior to a superior, orvice versa, are, as a general rule, to be passed through the intermediate commanders. The same rule governs in verbal applications: for example, a lieutenant seeking an indulgence must apply through his captain, the captain through the adjutant, and so on. All correspondence relating to or involving thepersonnelof the army when forwarded to the Secretary of War for his orders, must be forwarded through the adjutant-general for the consideration of the general of the army.
Corridor.The covered way lying round the whole compass of the fortifications of a place.
Corselet.A little cuirass, or piece of armor to cover the front of the body, worn formerly by pikemen.
Corsica.An island in the Mediterranean, held by the French. This island has been successively occupied by the Carthaginians, Romans, Goths, Saracens, Franks, the popes, and Genoese; and lastly by the French, in whose possession it now remains, and to whom it was ceded by the Genoese in 1768. This island was held by the British from June, 1794, to Oct. 22, 1796.
Cortege.The official staff, civil or military.
Corus,Corupedion, orCyropedium. A plain in Phrygia, Asia Minor, where the aged Lysimachus was defeated by Seleucus, and slain, 281B.C.These two were the only survivors of Alexander the Great’s generals.
Corygaum.An insignificant village in the presidency of Bombay; historically interesting in connection with the final subjugation of the Peishwa of the Mahrattas. On Jan. 1, 1818, it was defended for nine hours by a mere handful of men under Capt. Staunton, against a native force numbering at least 3000 infantry and about 20,000 cavalry, the struggle terminating in the repulse of the assailants after terrible slaughter.
Cossacks(Russ.,Kasacks). A military organization of irregulars in the Russian service. They contribute much to the military strength of Russia; but several insurrections, of which the most alarming was that of 1773, have taken place since they became subjects to the Russian government.
Cossova.A plain in Servia. Here Amurath I. totally defeated the Christian army (Servians, Hungarians, etc.), September, 1389; but was himself killed by an expiring soldier. At this place, in 1448, John Huniades was defeated by a Turkish army four times larger than his own.
Costa Rica.The most southern state of Central America; bounded north by Nicaragua, northeast by the Caribbean Sea, south by New Granada, and south and west by the Pacific. The government of Costa Rica was established in 1832, and is accounted as the best and most liberal in Central America.
Coston’s Lights.Colored pyrotechnical compositions used for night signaling. Sometimes used in the form of a pistol cartridge.
Cotice, orCost. In heraldry, one of the diminutives of the bend. It is a fourth part of the bend, and is usually borne in couples, with a head between.
Couchant.In heraldry, a beast lying down, with his head up, iscouchant. If the head is down, he isdormant.
Coulmiers.A village 10 miles west of Orleans, Central France. Here the Bavarians under Gen. Von der Tann were defeated by the French army of the Loire under Gen. d’Aurelle de Paladines, who took about 2000 prisoners, Nov. 9, 1870, and regained Orleans.
Council of War.A conference of officers in military or naval warfare, on some matter in which the commander wishes to fortify his judgment by an appeal to that of others. The commandant of a garrison generally solicits the opinion of a council of war before surrendering to besiegers.
Counter-approach.A trench by which the besieged proceeds to meet the approaches of the besiegers. It is generally zigzag.
Counter-arch.A vertical arch connecting the top of the counter-forts.
Counter-battery.A battery which returns the fire of an opposing battery.
Counter-changed.In heraldry, when several metals and colors are intermixed, one being set against the other, they are said to be counter-changed.
Counter-forts.Interior buttresses constructed for the purpose of strengthening masonry revetments.
Counter-guards.Sometimes called couvre-faces, are works constructed in permanent fortifications to cover a bastion or demi-lune. They consist of two faces forming a salient angle.
Counterhurters.In gunnery, are pieces of iron bolted to the rails on which the gun-carriage moves to check it in front and rear. SeeOrdnance, Carriages for, Sea-coast Carriages.
Countermand.To revoke, as a former command; to direct or order in opposition to an order previously given, thereby annulling it, or prohibiting its execution.
Countermarch.A change of direction of a company or battalion in column from front to rear, by a flank movement, retaining the same ground.
Countermine.A gallery underground so constructed as to facilitate the formation of mines, by means of which those of the enemy may be reached and destroyed.
Countermine.To oppose by means of a countermine; to frustrate the designs of, by sinking a well and gallery in the earth, in search of an enemy’s mine.
Counter-parole.A word given in any time of alarm, as a signal.
Counterpoise Carriage.A gun-carriage which, applied to a gun mounted inbarbette, allows it to recoil behind the parapet or other shelter, and by means of a counterpoise brings it, or assists in bringing it, again intobatteryafter it has been loaded. Among the best known of these carriages areMoncrieff’sandKing’s,—the former invented by Capt. Moncrieff, of the British army, and the latter by Capt. W. R. King, of the U. S. Engineers. In Moncrieff’s carriage the counterpoise is a heavy weight between the cheeks of the top carriage. In King’s the weight is in a well under the pintle-block, and is attached to the carriage by a wire cable.
Counter-round.A body of officers, whose duty it is to visit and inspect the rounds and sentinels.
Counterscarp.In fortification, is the vertical or nearly vertical side of the ditch nearest to the besiegers, and opposite to the scarp or escarp. It is generally faced orrevettedin permanent works, to render the descent into the ditch difficult.
Counterscarp Galleries.Galleries under the counterscarp at the salients, for the purpose of flanking the ditch.
Countersign.In military discipline or manœuvres, is a watch-word given by the commanding officer of an army or garrison daily, in order that a friend may be distinguished from an enemy. The countersign is given to sentinels, and others who are immediately concerned. It is given in garrison to prevent unauthorized persons from passing the guards. The countersign is usually the name of a battle.
Counter-swallowtail.In fortification, is a kind of an outwork very much resembling a single tenaille.
Counter-trenches.Are trenches made against the besiegers, which consequently have their parapets turned against the enemy’s approaches, and are enfiladed from several parts of the place on purpose to render them useless to the enemy, if they should chance to become masters of them; but they should not be enfiladed or commanded by any height in the enemy’s possession.
Counter-vair.A heraldic fur. It differs fromvairby having its cups or bells of the same tinctures placed base against base, and point against point. The tinctures areorandazure.
Coup de Grace.A finishing or decisive stroke.
Coup de Main.A sudden and vigorous attack, for the purpose of instantaneously capturing a position.
Coup d’Œil.The gift of rapidly grasping and turning to the best account the contingencies of war, and the features of the country which is its scene.
Couped(Fr.coupé). A term in heraldry, used to describe the head or any limb of an animal cut off from the trunk, and smooth. When crosses, bends, bars, etc., are cut so as not to touch the sides of the escutcheon, they are also said to be couped.
Coupe-gorge(Fr.). Literally means cut-throat. It is used in a military sense to signify any spot or position which affords an enemy so many advantages that the troops who occupy it must either surrender or be cut to pieces.
Coupures.In fortification, are passages cut through the glacis, of about 12 or 15 feet broad, in the re-entering angle of the covert way, to facilitate the sallies of the besieged. They are sometimes made through the lower curtain, to let boats into a little haven built in there-entrantangle of the counterscarp of the outworks.
Courçon(Fr.). A long piece of iron which is used in the artillery and serves to constrain or tighten cannon.
Courier.In a military sense, means a messenger sent post or express to carry dispatches of battles gained, lost, etc., or any other occurrences that happened in war.
Courland.A duchy of Livonia, subjected to Poland in 1582, conquered by Charles XII. of Sweden in 1701; Ernest Biren, duke, 1737; his son, Peter, 1769; annexed to Russia, March, 1795.
Couronement, orCouronnement. In fortification, implies the most exterior part of a work when besieged.
Courtel.A military implement which served both for a knife and a dagger.
Court-martial.In the army, a tribunal for the examination and punishment of offenders against martial law or against good order and discipline. Under the present construction of law, members of courts-martial become judges and jurors. In ancient feudal times the lords had arbitrary power over vassals who held their lands by tenure of military service, and punished them as they saw fit, and courts of chivalry took cognizance of offenses committed by the nobles. With the decline of feudalism the system of military despotism became obnoxious to the English people, and although the necessity for a standing army was admitted in time of peace, it could only exist with the consent of Parliament. The first military act passed after the accession of William to the throne of England is believed to have laid the foundation of the present system of courts-martial, which has also been adopted to a certain extent in the American service. Parliament having beennotified that a body of English and Scotch troops who were ordered to Holland had mutinied, that body passed, on April 3, 1689, an act for punishing mutiny, desertion, etc., which has been renewed annually by Parliament to the present day. It authorized the king to grant commissions to certain officers to hold courts-martial for the trial of crimes committed by officers and soldiers. Similar acts were at different times passed in relation to offenses committed in the navy. A court-martial is a court of limited and special jurisdiction called into existence by force of express statute for a special purpose, and to perform a particular duty; and when the object of its creation is accomplished it ceases to exist. The law presumes nothing in its favor. He who seeks to enforce its sentences, or to justify its conduct under them, must set forth affirmatively and clearly all the facts which are necessary to show that it was legally constituted, and that the subject was within its jurisdiction. And if in its proceedings or sentence it transcends the limits of its jurisdiction, the members of the court and its officer who executes its sentence are trespassers, and as such are answerable to the party injured in damages in the courts of common law. Courts are classed into general, garrison, summary, regimental, and field-officers’, according as the authority convening, the nature of the offenses to be inquired into, the punishment to be awarded, or other circumstances may determine. SeeAppendix,Articles of War,72to114; alsoTrial.
Court of Honor.Is a military court authorized by the regulations of the Prussian service, convened for the purpose of sustaining the honor of the service and of individuals, and of punishing officers who may be found guilty of conduct deviating even in the least from the principles which actuate military men as men of honor. The court of honor of a regiment consists of all commissioned officers in it, except the prosecutor, the defendant, near relations, officers appearing as witnesses in the case, officers on leave, detached service, under arrest, or awaiting trial before any court; and has for its regular business management a council of honor, consisting of the senior captain, senior first lieutenant, and senior second lieutenant. The court has jurisdiction over all acts or omissions (not provided for by any fixed laws) which are unofficerlike or ungentlemanly in their nature, particularly such as contracting debts, improper choice of society, excessive use of intoxicating liquors, gambling, quarrels, carelessness or neglect of duty, and scandal. With the exception of general officers, all officers of the standing army, the reserve, the landwehr, and those of the retired list are subject to the laws of the court of honor. The court to investigate the conduct of a field-officer is made up of the field-officers of the division to which the officer belongs.
Court of Inquiry.In the military service of the United States, is a legally constituted court which may be ordered by the President or by any commanding officer to examine into the nature of any transaction of, or accusation or imputation against, any officer or soldier upon a demand by the officer or soldier whose conduct is to be inquired into. It may consist of one, two, or three officers, and a judge-advocate or other suitable person as recorder, all of whom are sworn. It has the same powers as a court-martial to summon witnesses and to examine them on oath. Courts of inquiry cannot award punishment, but must report to the officer by whose order they were assembled. (SeeAppendix,Articles of War,115to121; alsoInquiry, Board of.) In the British service courts of inquiry are not regulated by any statute or standing regulation, but depend on the will of the sovereign, or of the superior officer convoking the court, both as to the officers who may compose it, and as to every particular of its constitution. It is not a judicial body, but is rather a council, having no power to compel the attendance of witnesses not of the army or navy, nor to administer oaths.
Courtrai.A fortified town of Belgium, on the river Lys. Here Robert, count of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings in 1297, was defeated and slain by them, July 11, 1302. The conflict was named the “Battle of the Spurs,” from the number of gilt spurs collected.
Coussinet à Mousquetaire(Fr.). A bag formerly worn by a French soldier on his left side beneath the cross-belt. It hung on a hook near the butt of his musket. It likewise signifies a wedge used to support the mortar in its frame.
Coutere.A piece of armor which covered the elbow.
Coutras.In Southwestern France. Here Henry of Navarre totally defeated the Duc de Joyeuse and the Royalists, October 20, 1587.
Cover.Natural or artificial protection from the fire of the enemy, the former being afforded by hills, woods, banks, walls, etc., the latter by fortifications constructed for the purpose. To cover is, in military language, to stand exactly behind another man.
Covering.Standing exactly in front or in rear of another man or an object.
Covering-fascines.Are those made of stout picket stuff, not less than 1 inch thick, without any mixture of small brush-wood. They may be used in place of planks for the superstructure of wooden bridges; and may also be used, if no stout planks or spars are to be had, for the roofs of field powder-magazines. They may be made of the usual diameter of 9 inches. Their length will depend upon the special purpose for which they are intended. The withes should be particularly good.
Covert Way, orCovered Way. Is a road or broad path outside the fosse or moat of a fortified place, between the counterscarpand the glacis. It is usually about 30 feet wide, and sunk so far below the crest of the glacis that soldiers standing upon it cannot be seen by the besiegers; hence the name. The covert way is broad enough to allow troops to form on it, either to act defensively or make sorties; and to increase this accommodation enlarged portions, calledplaces of arms, are made at certain spots.
Covinarii.The soldiers who fought on thecovinuswere so called.
Covinus.A kind of war-chariot used by the ancient Britons and Belgians.
Cowardice.SeeAppendix,Articles of War,42.
Cow-boys.A band of marauders in the time of the American Revolution, consisting mostly of refugees who adhered to the British side, and who infested the so-called “neutral ground” lying between the American and British lines, plundering all those who had taken the oath of allegiance to the Continental Congress. SeeSkinners.
Cowpens.A village in Spartanburg Co., N. C. At this place Gen. Morgan defeated Col. Tarleton, January 17, 1781; it is said that Tarleton lost 300 men in killed and wounded, and about 500 prisoners. The American loss was also considerable.
Cracow.A city in Austrian Poland, on the left bank of the Vistula. It was taken by Charles XII. in 1702; taken and retaken several times by the Russians and other confederates. The Russians were expelled from the city March 24, 1794; but it surrendered to the Prussians June 15, the same year, and in 1795 was awarded to Austria. It was occupied by 10,000 Russians, who followed the defeated Poles, September, 1831. It was finally incorporated with the Austrian empire, November 16, 1846.
Cradle.A narrow frame-work of heavy timbers upon which heavy guns are sometimes placed, to be moved upon rollers.
Crakers.Choice soldiers were so called in the time of Henry VIII.
Crakys.An old term for great guns.
Crampets.The cramp rings of a sword scabbard.
Crampton’s Gap.A pass in the South Mountains, Frederick Co., Md. A stubborn fight of four or five hours took place here September 14, 1862, between part of Gen. McClellan’s army under command of Gen. W. B. Franklin and a portion of the Confederate army under Gen. Cobb, which was defending the pass. The Confederates were forced to retire, having suffered severe loss in killed and wounded.
Cranon.In Thessaly, Northern Greece. The Macedonians under Antipater and Craterus defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by sea, and once by land, near Cranon.
Craonne.A town of France, in the department of Aisne. Here Victor and Ney defeated the Prussians under Blücher, after a severe contest, March 7, 1814.
Crater.The pit left by the explosion of a military mine.
Cravant.SeeCrevant-sur-Yonne.
Crécy, orCressy. A village in France, department of the Somme, famous for a great victory obtained over the French, under Philip of Valois, by Edward III. of England, August 26, 1346. In this battle fell the king of Bohemia, the Count of Flanders, 8 other sovereign princes, 80 bannerets, 1200 knights, 1500 gentlemen, 4000 men-at-arms, with the Duke of Alençon and the flower of the French nobility. The English army was drawn up in three lines; of which the first was commanded by Edward, prince of Wales, assisted by the Earls of Warwick and Oxford; the second led by the Earls of Arundel and Northampton; while the third, or body reserve, was posted along the summit of a hill, under the command of the king in person, attended by the Lords Mowbray, Mortimer, and others. The English loss in this battle was very small.
Crécy-sur-Serre.A town of France, department of Aisne. Its castle was taken and razed by Louis le Gros in 1115. The English took the town in 1339, 1358, and 1373; it was taken by the forces of the League in 1589; and it was burned by the Spaniards in 1662.
Creedmoor.About 10 miles east of New York, noted for its splendid rifle range, which was established in 1871.
Creek Indians.Formerly a numerous and powerful tribe dwelling in Georgia and Alabama. Their number was much reduced by the war of 1814, in which year they waged war against the United States, but were subdued by Gen. Jackson. Of the survivors most removed beyond the Mississippi, and are now settled in Indian Territory, where they are rapidly advancing in the art of civilization. For numbers, etc., seeIndians and their Agencies.
Creil.A town of France, department of the Oise. It was ravaged several times by the Normans; taken by the king of Navarre in 1358; by the English in 1434; by Charles VII. in 1441; pillaged by the Calvinists in 1567, and occupied by forces of the League in 1588.
Cremaille.In field fortification, is when the inside line of the parapet is broken in such a manner as to resemble the teeth of a saw. This advantage is gained by the measure, that a greater fire can be brought to hear upon the defile than if only a simple face was opposed to it; and consequently the passage is rendered more difficult.
Crémaillère(Fr.). An indented or zigzag line of intrenchment.
Cremona.A fortified city of Northern Italy, the capital of the province of the same name. It was besieged by the Gauls in 200B.C.; by Primus, a general of Vespasian, in 69; by Frederick Barbarossa in 1160. Prince Eugène took possession of it in 1702; it was taken by the French in 1796 and 1800.
Crenaux(Fr.). In fortification, small openings or loop-holes, made through thewalls of a fortified town or place. They are extremely narrow towards the enemy, and wide within; so that the balls from the besiegers can scarcely ever enter, whereas two or three soldiers may fire from within.
Crenelle, orCrenel. A term used sometimes to denote a battlement, but more frequently an embrasure in a battlement. The adjective crenellated is employed to signify that a building is supplied with crenelles.
Crépy.A town of France, department of the Oise; it was captured and sacked by the English in 1339; by the Duke of Lancaster in 1373; occupied by the Burgundians in 1418; by Pothon and Xaintrailles in 1419; it was besieged by the Duke of Burgundy in 1420; taken by the English and their allies in 1431; by Charles VII. in 1433; by the Duc de Mayenne in 1588.
Crépy en Laonois.A town of France, department of Aisne. It was sacked by the English in 1339 and 1373, and taken by the Burgundians in 1418 and 1420. A treaty of peace was concluded here between Spain and France, September 18, 1544.
Crescent.The figure or likeness of the new moon borne in the Turkish flag or national standard; also the standard itself.
Crescent.The name of three orders of knighthood; the first instituted by Charles I., king of Naples and Sicily, in 1268; the second by René of Anjou, in 1448; and the third by the sultan Selim, in 1801. Of these the last is still in existence, and is remarkable for the fact that none but Christians are eligible. SeeCrescent, Turkish Order of.
Crescent.In heraldry, is used both as a bearing or charge, and as a difference or mark of cadency. In the latter case it designates the second son, and those that descend from him.
Crescent, Turkish Order of the.In 1799, after the battle of Aboukir, the sultan Selim III. testified his gratitude to Nelson by sending him a crescent richly adorned with diamonds. Selim was flattered by the value which the English admiral seemed to attach to this gift, and it was this circumstance which determined him, in 1801, to found the order of the Crescent, which is only conferred on Christians who have done service to the state. The second person on whom it was conferred was Gen. Sebastiani, for his defense of Constantinople against the English fleet in 1807.
Cressit.A small crease or dagger.
Crest.Signifies the line which marks the top of a parapet. It is sometimes called the interior crest. The exterior, or sub-crest, is the line marking the meeting of the exterior and superior slopes.
Crest.In feudal times was the distinctive ornament of the helmet; hence the term is frequently applied to the helmet itself. In heraldry the crest is shown as an appendage to the shield, placed over it, and usually borne upon a wreath. It is generally either some portion of the coat-armor, or a device commemorative of some incident in the history of a family, and often contains an allusion to the office of the bearer.
Crete.In fortification, implies the earth thrown out of the ditch in a fortification, trench, etc. The most elevated part of a parapet or glacis.
Crete.SeeCandia.
Crevant-sur-Yonne.In Northern France; besieged by John Stuart, earl of Buchan, with a French army, July, 1423, and relieved by the Earl of Salisbury with an army of English and Burgundians; after a severe contest the French were totally defeated.
Creveldt.Near Cleves, Western Prussia. Here, on June 23, 1758, Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated the French under the Count of Clermont.
Crimea.A peninsula of Southern Russia, formed by the Sea of Azof and the Black Sea. It was theTaurica Chersonesusof the ancient Greeks, by whom it was colonized about 550B.C.Here was founded the kingdom ofBosporus, which formed part of the dominions of Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose descendants continued to rule the country under Roman protection until the irruption of the Goths, Huns, etc., 258A.D.It fell into the hands of the Mongols in the 13th century, was subjected to the Ottoman yoke in 1475, and was ceded to Russia in 1783. War having been declared against Russia by England and France, March 28, 1854, an expedition against the Crimea was determined on. Accordingly, the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 men, commanded by Lord Raglan and Marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna September 3, and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th without opposition at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians (40,000 to 50,000 strong), who were intrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. It was the scene of several other engagements during the continuance of the war, until the proclamation of peace in April, 1856. The allies quitted the Crimea July 12, following.
Crimes, Capital.SeeAppendix,Articles of War,21,22,23,39,42,43,44,45,46,47,56,57,105, andSection 1343.
Crimes, Military.SeeAppendix,Articles of War.
Crimisus.A river in Sicily, near which Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians, 339B.C.
Crimping-houses.Houses in which persons were entrapped into the army; hence the name of “crimp sergeant.” In a riot in London some of these receptacles were destroyed by the populace, in consequence of a young man who had been enticed into one being killed in endeavoring to escape, September 16, 1794.
Criques(Fr.). Small ditches which are made in different parts of a ground for the purpose of inundating a country, in order to obstruct the approaches of an enemy.
Croatia.A province of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy. This region was anciently inhabited by the Pannonians, who were conquered by the Romans in the reign of Augustus. It was conquered by Coloman, king of Hungary, in 1102, and was with that country united to Austria in 1526.
Croats.In military history, light irregular troops were so called; generally people of Croatia. They were ordered upon all desperate services, and their method of fighting was the same as the Pandours.
Crochert.A hagbut or hand-cannon, anciently in use.
Cronstadt.A seaport and fortress of Russia, about 20 miles west from St. Petersburg. It was founded by Peter the Great in 1710, the island having been taken from the Swedes by him in 1703. A Swedish fleet was defeated here by the Russians in 1790, and in 1855 an English fleet, commanded by Sir Charles Napier, proceeded to the Baltic, with the view of taking this place or destroying its fortifications; but either from the inadequacy of the means placed at his disposal, or from the great strength of the forts, no attempt was made upon them.
Cropedy Bridge.Near Banbury, Oxfordshire, England. Here the royalists defeated Sir William Waller and the army of Parliament, June 29, 1644.
Cross-belts.Belts worn over both shoulders, and crossing the breast.
Cross-bow.A weapon formerly used in discharging arrows, formed by placing a bow crosswise on a stock.
Crossen.A town of the Prussian province of Brandenburg. In 1758 this place was taken by the Russians.
Cross-fire.The crossing of lines of fire from two or more points or places.
Cross, Victoria.SeeVictoria Cross.
Crotchet.In fortification, an indentation in the glacis of the covered way at a point where a traverse is placed.
Crotchet.The arrangement of a body of troops, either forward or rearward, so as to form a line nearly perpendicular to the general line of battle.
Croton, orCrotona. One of the most celebrated of the Greek colonies in Southern Italy, founded about 710B.C.About 510 a Crotoniat army of 100,000 men, under Milo, defeated a greatly superior force of Sybarites on the banks of the Tracis, took the city of Sybaris, and utterly destroyed it. (SeeSybaris.) In the second Punic war the Bruttians, with the assistance of the Carthaginian general Hanno, succeeded in making themselves masters of the city of Crotona, with the exception of the citadel, which held out until induced to surrender on terms. The ravages of this war completed the decay of the city, and it sunk into the condition of an obscure provincial town.
Crown.The emblem of sovereignty in modern Europe. It was originally an Oriental decoration, and was adopted by Alexander the Great from the kings of Persia. In modern states crowns were of various forms, till heralds devised a regular series of them to mark the various gradations of sovereignty, from that of the emperor down to what are called the coronets of counts and barons. In England, so entirely has the crown been regarded as the symbol of sovereignty, that the word is frequently used as synonymous with the monarchy.
Crown, Civic.SeeCivic Crown.
Crown, Mural.SeeMural Crown.
Crown, Obsidional.SeeObsidional Crown.
Crown, Triumphal.SeeTriumphal Crown.
Crown, Vallary.SeeVallary Crown.
Crowning.A term in fortifications generally applied to the operation, by the besieged, of establishing works on the crest of the glacis or summit of the breach. It is sometimes used when describing the movements of troops, to signify that they have reached the top of a hill or parapet, which they are said to have crowned.
Crown-work.A term used in fortification to signify a work consisting of two or more fronts of fortification, joined by two long branches to the ditch of another work, a river, a village, etc. It is generally used to defend a bridge or suburb.
Crows, orAbsorokas. A tribe of Indians inhabiting the northern part of Wyoming Territory and the southern part of Montana. They are divided into two bands, and belong to the Dakota family. SeeIndians and their Agencies.
Crows-foot.An implement of metal with four points, so formed that, in whatever way it falls, there is one point upward; intended to injure the feet of horses; a caltrop.
Crucible, Steel.Steel melted in crucibles; cast steel. SeeOrdnance, Metals for.