Olympic Games.Were instituted by HerculesA.M.2856, in honor of Jupiter Olympus, at Olympia, a city of Elis, in Peloponnesus. They were celebrated about every four years, about the summer solstice. The design of them was to accustom the young military men to running, leaping, and every other military exercise.
Olynthus.A town of Chalcidice, stood at the head of the Toronaic Gulf, between the headlands of Sithonia and Pallene, about 60 stadia from Potidæa. During the second Persian invasion of Greece, Artabazus, the general of Xerxes, captured the town, slaughtered its Bottiæan inhabitants, and gave it to the Chalcidians. It was subdued in war by Sparta in 382-379B.C.It resisted Philip of Macedon 350B.C., by whom it was destroyed in 347.
Omagh(Irish,Oigh magh, “seat of the chiefs”). An ancient town, capital of the county of Tyrone, in Ireland, 34 miles south from Londonderry. Omagh grew up around an abbey founded in the year 792, but is first heard of as a fortress of Art O’Nial in the end of the 15th century, about which time it was forced to surrender to the English, although its possession long continued to alternate between Irish and English hands. It formed part of James I.’s “Plantation grants,” and was strongly garrisoned by Mountjoy. On its being evacuated by the troops of James II. in 1689, it was partially burned.
Omaha Indians.A tribe of aborigines, of Dakota stock, who, to the number of 1000, inhabit a reservation in Nebraska. They are generally peaceful and industrious.
Omer, St.A fortified town of France, in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 24 miles southeast from Calais. This place was taken by Louis XIV. in 1677. It suffered severely during the revolution of 1830.
Omra, orOmhra(plural ofameer, a “lord”) Ind. They were persons of considerable consequence in the dominions of the Great Mogul. Some of them had command of 1000 horse, others of 2000, and so on to 20,000; their pay being regulated according to their commands. The governors and great officers of state were generally chosen out of this body.
On.A preposition frequently used in military exercise. It precedes the word of command which directs the change or formation of bodies of men upon points that are fixed; as, form on the centre company.
On the Alert.In a state of vigilance or activity.
Onagre(Fr.). A warlike machine, which was used by the ancients to throw stones of different sizes. It is mentioned by Vegetius.
Oneidas.A tribe of Indians forming one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy, who resided in the county and near the lake which bears their name. They were continually at war with the early French settlers in Canada, and took sides with the colonists against the British in the war of the Revolution. For this they suffered severely. Their castle, church, and villages were destroyed by the Tories in 1780, and they were compelled to flee to the white settlements for protection. In 1788 they ceded most of their lands to the State and moved to Canada; subsequently some of the tribe settled in Wisconsin, where they are still comfortably located on a reservation; and a remnant still resides near Rome, Oneida Co., N. Y. They are well advanced in the arts of civilization, and, contrary to the usual fate of Indian tribes, have increased in numbers.
Onein.An offensive weapon of mediæval times, consisting of a staff with a hooked iron head.
Onondagas.One of the confederate tribes of Indians known as the Five Nations. They resided in the State of New York, in the county which bears their name. They were long the enemies of the Canadian French, with whom, and with the Hurons, they were continually at war. They were allies of the English in the French war, 1756-63, fought against the colonists in the Revolutionary war, and suffered severely in the contest. In 1788 they ceded their lands to the State and moved to Ontario, Canada, where about 400 of them now reside.
Onset.A rushing or setting upon; a violent attack; assault; a storming; especially the assault of an army or body of troops upon an enemy or a fort.
Onsetting.A rushing upon or assaulting.
Onslaught.Attack; onset; aggression; assault. “By storm and onslaught to proceed.”
Onward.Toward the point before or in front; forward; as, to move onward.
Oodeypoor, orMewar. A Rajpoot state in India. It became tributary to the British government by the treaty of 1818. A corps of Bheels was raised in 1841 at the joint expense of the British and Oodeypoor governments, in order to reduce to subjection the Bheel districts of the country.
Oojein, orOojain. A city of India, in the territory of Gwalior, 152 miles southwest from Goonah. It fell into the power of the Mohammedans in 1310. At this time it was the capital of Malwa; and along with this country it afterwards came under the power of the Patans, but was recovered by Akbar in 1561. In the middle of the 18th century it was conquered by the Mahrattas.
Opatas, orYakis. An Indian people who reside in the state of Sonora, Mexico. They number about 25,000, and are generally peaceable and industrious.
Open.In military movements and dispositions, this term is frequently used in contradistinction toclose; as, open column, open distance, open order, etc. It also constitutes part of a word of command; as, rear rank take open order. Byopen distance in columnis meant that the intervals are always equal in depth to the extent in front of the different component parts of the column.
Open Flank.In fortification, is that part of the flank which is covered by the orillon.
Opening of Trenches.Is the first breaking of ground by the besiegers, in order to carry on their approaches towards the place.
Operations, Lines of.SeeLines of Operations.
Operations, Military.Consist in the resolute application of preconcerted measures in secrecy, dispatch, regular movements, occasional encampments, and desultory combats or pitched battles.
Opinion.In military proceedings that regard the interior government of an army, this word signifies decision, determination, judgment formed upon matters that have been laid before a court-martial or court of inquiry.
Opinion.Officers on courts-martial give their opinion by seniority, beginning with the youngest in rank.
Oporto.A city of Portugal, in the province of Entre-Douro-e-Minho, about 2 miles from the mouth of the Douro, and 175 miles north from Lisbon. It was attacked by the Moors under Abderrahman in 820. In 1092 certain knights of Gascony, commanded by Don Alfonso Fredrico, captured it from the Moors. It was famous for the strength of its fortifications during the Middle Ages, its walls being 3000 paces in circumference, 30 feet in height, and flanked with towers. From the 17th to the present century, Oporto has been the scene of an unusual number of popular insurrections. In 1808 it was taken by the French. The French, under Marshal Soult, were surprised here by Lord Wellington, and defeated in an action fought May 11, 1809. It was besieged in 1832 and 1833 by Dom Miguel, and successfully defended by Dom Pedro with 7500 men. In this siege, the city suffered severely, and more than 16,000 of the inhabitants were killed. It has since been the scene of civil war. The insurgents entered Oporto January 7, 1847; a Spanish force entered Oporto, and the Junto capitulated, June 26, 1847.
Oppenheim.A town of the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, on the left bank of the Rhine, 10 miles southeast of Mayence. It occupies the site of the Roman castle ofBauconia, and was made a royal palatinate under the Carlovingians. It afterwards became one of the most important free towns of the empire. It was taken in 1218 by Adalbert, archbishop of Mayence, in 1620 by the Spaniards, in 1631 by the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus, and in 1634 by the Imperialists, suffering much upon all these occasions. In 1689 the French under Melac almost entirely destroyed it.
Opponent.One who oppones, or opposes; an adversary; an antagonist; a foe.
Oppose.To act as an adversary against another; to resist, etc. It likewise signifies to place as an obstacle.
Oppugn.To fight against, whether in attack, resistance, or simple opposition; to attack; to oppose; to resist.
Oppugnant.Tending to awaken hostility; hostile; opposing.
Or.In heraldry the metal gold, represented in heraldic engravings by an unlimited number of dots.
Oran.A seaport town of Algeria, about 220 miles west-southwest of Algiers; it is defended by strongly armed forts. The town of Oran was built by the Moors. It was taken by the Spaniards in 1509, by the Turks in 1708, and again by the Spaniards in 1732. It was taken by the French in 1831, and has since remained in their hands.
Orb.In tactics, is the disposing of a number of soldiers in circular form of defense. The orb has been thought of consequence enough to employ the attention of the famous Marshal de Puysegur, in his “Art of War,” who prefers this position to throw a body of infantry in an open country to resist cavalry, or even a superior force of infantry; because it is regular, and equally strong, and gives an enemy no reason to expect better success by attacking one place than another. Cæsar drew up his whole army in this form when he fought against Labienus. The whole army of the Gauls was formed into an orb, under the command of Sabinus and Cotta, when fighting against the Romans. The orb was generally formed six deep.
Orchomenus.A city of Bœotia, and the capital of the powerful tribe of the Minyæ, was situated near the western shore of Lake Copaic, on a hill which overlooked the windings of the Cephissus. Its original inhabitants are said to have been Thessalian emigrants, and its name was derived from Orchomenus, one of the kings of the Minyans. Homer compares its treasures to those of Egyptian Thebes, and tells us that it sent 30 ships to the Trojan war. Some time after this event it became a member of the Bœotian confederacy. During the Persian war, like the other towns of Bœotia, it abandoned the national cause. Its government was thoroughly aristocratic, and after the Peloponnesian war, when Thebes became a democracy, Orchomenus took part with Sparta, and shared in its first triumph over Thebes; but the victory of Epaminondas at Leuctra (371B.C.) placed it at the mercy of the Thebans, who soon after destroyed it by fire, and sold its inhabitants as slaves. It was again rebuilt during the Phocian war, but was a second time destroyed in the reign of Philip of Macedon, who, however, once more rebuilt it; but it never again became prominent in history. The site is now occupied by the modern village of Skripú.
Orchomenus.An ancient city of Arcadia, stood in a plain surrounded by hills, which separated its territory from that of Mantinea on the south and those of Pheneus and Stymphalus on the north. Its founder is said to have been Orchumenus, the son of Lycaon, and several of its kings are said to have spread their rule over all Arcadia. During the Peloponnesian war, when its acropolis had fallen into ruins, and its last king, Pisistratus, had been murdered by an oligarchical faction, Orchomenus began to decline. About 367B.C.three of its tributary towns were depopulated to furnish inhabitants to the newly-founded city of Megalopolis; in 313B.C.it was taken by the Macedonian general Cassander; and ever afterwards it continued to be bandied about between different belligerent powers. At the time of Pausanias it was still inhabited, and at the present day its ruins are seen near the village of Kalpáki.
Order.This term, considered in its relation to the army, embraces divers subjects. It gives an idea of harmony in the accomplishment of duties; a classification of corps or men; injunctions emanating from authority; measures which regulate service, and many tactical details. In tactics, the natural order is when troops coming upon ordinary ground are ranged in line of battle by the prescribed tactical means, and when they are formed in column, right in front. Theoblique orderis contradistinguished from the parallel, and in general means every tactical combination, the aim of which is to produce an effect upon two points of an enemy’s line by bringing a superior force to bear down on these two points. Such combinations constitute theoblique order, whatever manœuvres may be used to accomplish the object. Theparallel orderoperates, on the contrary, against the whole front of an enemy. Turenne and Condé fought habitually in parallel order, although they sometimes made a skillful use of oblique attacks. Guibert well says that a contiguous and regular parallel order can be of no use in war.
Order Arms.A word of command directing that the musket be brought down to the right side of the soldier, the butt resting on the ground.
Order, Beating.In the British service, is an authority given to an individual empowering him to raise men by beat of drum for any particular regiment, or for general service. It consists of a warrant which is signed by the secretary at war, or issued in his name by the adjutant-general.
Order Book.Every company in the service has such a book, in which orders are written for the information of officers and men. Order books are also kept at all military headquarters.
Order, Close.In tactics, comprehends space of about one-half pace between ranks.
Order, Entire.When applied to rank, means a straight line composed of half-files.
Order, Extended.Is preparatory to rankentire, and is frequently practiced in light infantry manœuvres. It comprehends the opening of files of a battalion or company standing two deep, so as to have just space enough for one man between each two. The battalion or company, after it has obtained all its relative distances and been halted, is fronted, and each rear rank man springs into the vacancy when the word of command is given.
Order of Alcantara.A Spanish military order. It was established by Ferdinand II., king of Leon and Castile, in 1170. The knights wore a green cross upon their garments. SeeAlcantara.
Order of Amaranth.An order of military knighthood, instituted in Sweden by Queen Christina in 1645, at the close of an annual feast celebrated in that country, and calledwirtschaft. Their device was the cipher ofamarante, composed of two A’s, the one erect, the other inverted, and interwoven together; the whole inclosed by a laurel crown, with the motto,Dolce nella memoria.
Order of Argonauts of St. Nicholas.Was the name of a military order instituted by Charles III., king of Naples, in 1382, for the advancement of navigation, or, as some authors say, merely for preserving amity among the nobles. They wore a collar of shells inclosed in a silver crescent, from which hung a ship with the device,Non credo tempori.
Order of Battle.The arrangement or disposition of the different component parts of an army in one or more lines, according to the nature of the ground, for the purpose of engaging an enemy by giving or receiving an attack, or in order to be reviewed, etc.
Order of Battle, Concave.If the attack is made simultaneously on both wings, and the centre is refused, it is plain that the attacking army will assume a line of battle which will be concave towards the enemy’s line.
Order of Battle, Convex.If the attack is made in the centre of the enemy’s line, refusing both wings, the general direction of the line of battle of the attacking army will be convex towards the enemy’s line, and the term “convex order of battle” is applied to it. Other orders of battle are named by military writers. Their names will generally describe the direction of the hostile lines of battle and the particular formation adopted by the attacking army.
Order of Battle, Oblique.An arrangement of an army for battle with one wing advanced beyond the other, or a movement which brings the line in contact with an enemy’s flank; in general, any combination which brings a preponderating force upon any point of the enemy’s line. SeeOrder.
Order of Calatrava.SeeCalatrava, Order of.
Order of Knights of St. Stephen.Instituted in 1561, by Cosmo, duke of Florence. They wear a red cross with a border of gold.
Order of Knights of the Band.Instituted by Alphonso, king of Spain, in 1268. Their name proceeded from the knights wearing a red scarf, or lace of silk, the breadth of 3 inches, which hung on their left shoulder.
Order of Knights of the Bath.A military order in Great Britain, deriving its name from the ceremony of bathing, which was performed at the initiation of the knights. The earliest authentic instance of this ceremony was at the coronation of Henry IV. (1399). The last occasion on which this ceremony was used was the coronation of Charles II., in 1660, after which the order fell into oblivion until it was revived by George I., in 1725. It is now the second in rank among the orders of England, the order of the Garter being the highest. The order of the Bath comprises three classes: first class, Knights Grand Cross (K.G.C.), the number of whom is limited to 50 military men and 25 civilians, besides the royal family; second class, Knights Commanders (K.C.B.), = 102 military and 50 civil; these and the first have the title of Sir; third class, Companions (C.B.), = 525 military and 200 civil.
Order of Knights of the Redemption.Instituted in the kingdom of Aragon by King James, who conquered the island of Majorca, in 1212. Their garments are white, with a black cross thereon.
Order of Knights Templar.SeeTemplar, Knights.
Order of Maria Theresa.This order was instituted in June, 1757, by the empress queen of Hungary. In 1765 an intermediate class, styled knights commanders, was added to the two classes that originally composed the order.
Order of Merit.Instituted by Frederick III., king of Prussia, as a reward to those officers whose behavior deserved some marks of distinction. The ensign of this order is a golden star of eight rays, enameled with blue, which is worn appendant to a black ribbon edged with silver. The motto isPour le merite.
Order of Mount Carmel.Instituted by Henry IV. in 1608.
Order of St. Alexander Newski.Or the Red Ribbon, which was instituted by Peter I., emperor of Russia; but the czarina Catherine I. conferred it in 1725.
Order of St. Hubert.SeeHubert, St., Order of.
Order of St. James.SeeJames of the Sword, St.
Order of St. Lazarus.SeeLazarus.
Order of St. Louis.SeeLouis.
Order of St. Mark.SeeMark, St., Knights of.
Order of St. Michael.Instituted in 1469 by Louis XII. in honor of the important services done to France by that archangel at the siege of Orleans, where he is supposed to have appeared at the head of the French troops, disputing the passage of a bridge,and to have repulsed the attack of the English, whose affairs ever after declined in that kingdom. The order is a rich collar, with the image of that saint pendent thereto; with the inscription,Immensi tremor oceani.
Order of St. Michael and St. George.This order of knighthood, founded for the Ionian Isles and Malta, April 27, 1818, was reorganized in March, 1869, in order to admit servants of the crown of England connected with the colonies.
Order of St. Patrick.SeePatrick, St., Order of.
Order of Teutonic Knights.Established towards the close of the 12th century, and thus called, as chiefly consisting of Germans, anciently called Teutons.
Order of the Annunciation.SeeAnnunciada.
Order of the Bear.SeeBear, Order of.
Order of the Black Eagle.SeeEagle, Black.
Order of the Crescent.SeeCrescent.
Order of the Golden Fleece.SeeGolden Fleece, Order of the.
Order of the Golden Stole.A Venetian military order, so called from a golden stole, which those knights wore over their shoulder, reaching to the knee both before and behind, a palm and a half broad. None are raised to this order but patricians, or noble Venetians. It is uncertain when this order was instituted.
Order of the Holy Ghost.SeeHoly Ghost, Order of the.
Order of the Knights of the Garter.SeeGarter, Order of the.
Order of the Knights of Malta.SeeSt. John of Jerusalem.
Order of the Knights of St. Jago.Instituted by the king Ramico of Spain, in commemoration of a victory obtained against the Moors, 1030. Their ensign is a red cross in the form of a sword.
Order of the Seraphim.SeeSeraphim, Order of the.
Order of the Sword.SeeSword, Order of the.
Order of the White Eagle.SeeWhite Eagle, Order of the.
Order, Open.In tactics, comprehends an interval of about 3 yards between each rank.
Order, Parade.When a regiment of horse or foot, a troop, or company, is drawn up with the ranks open and the officers in front, it is said to be inparade order.
Orderlies.Non-commissioned officers and soldiers appointed to wait upon generals and other officers, to communicate orders and carry messages.
Orderlies, Standing.Are soldiers who permanently perform orderly duty.
Orderly Book.A book for the sergeants to insert the orders which are issued from time to time.
Orderly Drum.The drummer that beats the orders, and gives notice of the hour for messing, etc., is so called.
Orderly Officer.The officer of the day; especially the officer of the day about an army headquarters in the field.
Orderly Room.A room in the barracks, used as the office of a company.
Orderly Sergeant.The first sergeant of a company is so called in the U. S. army.
Orders.Are the instructions, injunctions, or commands issued by superior officers. The orders of commanders of armies, divisions, brigades, regiments, are denominated orders of such army, division, etc., and are either general or special. They are numbered, general and special in separate series, each beginning with the year. In Great Britain and other European countries, and in the United States, orders generally take the designation of the headquarters from which they are issued.
Orders, General.Are orders that are issued to announce the hours for roll-calls and duties; the number and kind of orderlies, and the time when they shall be relieved; police regulations, and the prohibitions required by circumstances and localities; returns to be made and their forms; laws and regulations for the army; promotions and appointments; eulogies or censures to corps or individuals, and generally, whatever may be important to make known to the whole command.
Orders, Military.Companies of knights, instituted by kings and princes either for defense of the faith, or to confer marks of honor on their military subjects. SeeKnights, and names of orders under appropriate headings.
Orders, Regimental.Are such orders and instructions as grow out of general or special orders from superior authority, or proceed immediately from the commanding officer of a regiment.
Orders, Special.Are such as do not concern the troops generally, and need not be published to the whole command; such as those that relate to the march of some particular corps, the detaching of individuals, the granting requests, etc.
Orders, Standing.Are certain general rules and instructions, which are to be invariably followed, and are not subject to the temporary intervention of rank. Of this description are those orders which the permanent commander may judge fit to have inserted in the order books, and which are not to be altered by the temporary commander.
Ordinaire(Fr.). The soldiers’ mess is so called among the French.
Ordinary of Arms.In heraldry, an index or dictionary of armorial coats, arranged, not according to names, like an armory, but according to the leading charges in the respective shields, so as to enable any one conversant with heraldic language, on seeing a shield of arms, to tell to whom it belonged.
Ordinary Time.In the U. S. army is quick time, which is 110 steps, or 86 yards in one minute, or 2 miles 1613 yards in an hour.
Ordnance.A general name for all kinds of weapons employed in war, and the appliances necessary for their use. Under the general term ordnance and ordnance stores are included all guns, howitzers, mortars, rockets, and projectiles of every description, the explosives used in warfare, all gun-carriages, limbers, caissons, mortar-beds, battery-wagons, and traveling-forges with their equipments, and all other apparatus and machines required for the service and manœuvres of artillery at sieges or in the field; together with the materials for their construction, preservation, and repair. Also all small-arms, side-arms, and accoutrements for artillery, cavalry, and infantry, all ammunition for cannon and small-arms; and all stores of expenditures for the service of the various arms, materials for the construction and repair of ordnance buildings, utensils and stores for laboratories, including standing weights, gauges, and measures, and all other tools and utensils required for the performance of ordnance duty. Harness and horse equipments are also furnished by the ordnance department. This general application of the word is not the purport of the present article; it is its special signification as used by the artillery with which we have to do. Technically speaking, ordnance is a term applied to all heavy fire-arms which are discharged from carriages.
History.—Although the battering-rams and the engines for projecting missiles employed by the ancients and during the Middle Ages are regarded as artillery, yet the military weapons in use before the invention of fire-arms cannot fairly come under this designation. At what exact date cannon were first used is not known, but guns called “Crakys of War” were employed by Edward III. against the Scots in 1327, by the French at the siege of Puy Guillaume in 1338, and by Edward III. at Crécy, and at Calais in 1346. The first cannon, orbombards, were clumsy, wider at the mouth than at the chamber, and made of iron bars hooped together with iron rings. Ancient cannon were also made of wood wound with rope or wire, and in some instances were even occasionally constructed of leather. The balls fired from these bombards were first made of stone, which was afterwards superseded by iron. In the 15th century various kinds were known by the names of cannon, bombards, culverins, serpentines, etc. Bombards of great length and power were employed by Louis XI. during his Flemish campaign in 1477, some with stone balls and some with iron. About this time cannon began to be made of cast iron instead of hooped bars; and bronze or brass as material began to be used as well as iron, and projectiles were also made of cast iron instead of stone. The introduction of cast-iron projectiles led to the invention ofculverins, which corresponded very nearly in construction and appearance to the guns of the present day; these were in some instances made of enormous lengths from the erroneous idea that the range increased with the length of the piece. A remarkable gun of this description still exists at Dover, England, familiarly known as “Queen Anne’s pocket-piece;” while it carries a ball weighing only 18 pounds, it is more than 28 feet in length. From the earliest days of artillery there existed short-chambered pieces, which projected stone balls under great angles of elevation; and in 1478 hollow projectiles filled with powder began to be employed; but it is probable that the accidents which accompanied their use caused them to be abandoned for the time. In 1634, however, this difficulty was overcome, and these pieces were introduced into the French service, forming the class of cannon now known as mortars. Early attempts were also made to throw hollow projectiles from culverins and other long guns, but great difficulties were experienced in loading them, and the accidents to which they were liable caused them to be abandoned. Subsequently, however, the Dutch artillerists reduced their length so that the projectile could be inserted in its place by hand, and thus improved these cannon rapidly came into use under the name of howitzers, from the GermanHaubitz. A short cannon of large caliber for naval service was invented by Mr. Gascoigne in 1799, and called acarronade, after the Carron Iron-Works, Scotland, where it was first made. It was not for many years after hollow projectiles had been used that it was accidentally discovered that the firing of the gun-charge could be relied upon to light the fuze. Prior to this a long fuze lighted from the outside had been used. The difficulties and danger incurred in loading long guns with hollow projectiles delayed their application to shell-firing, and it was not until 1812 that they were used for firing both solid shot and shell at low angles. In this year a gun of this class, which was invented by Col. Bomford, Chief of Ordnance, U.S.A., was adopted by the United States, and a number of these guns were used in the war with England, 1812-15. About 1814 this invention of Col. Bomford’s was improved upon by himself, and the gun thus improved was called acolumbiad. The columbiad gave way about 1859 to the gun invented by Gen. Rodman. (SeeRodman Gun.) The dimensions of the columbiads were first taken to Europe by a young French officer, and thus fell into the hands of Gen. Paixhans, who introduced them, with certain modifications, into the French service about 1822. They were by this means first made known to the rest of Europe by the name ofPaixhan gun, and small calibers were afterwards used in the U. S. service under that name. Cannon up to this time were constructed on the smooth-bore principle; the rifle principle, although employed by the Russians in 1615, by the Prussians in 1661, and by the Germans in 1696, had not been brought into general use on account of its imperfectness. From 1696to 1833 many attempts were made to rifle cannon with more or less success; but although the firing of smooth-bore guns was as aberrant as that of smooth-bore muskets, and from greater range even more so, yet, since the gunners were safe from musketry fire at 200 yards, and the cannon could be directed against masses of men with tolerable certainty up to three times that distance, there was no special inducement to improve their powers. But the introduction of rifled small-arms changed the relative advantages; for a rifled small-arm might pick off the gunners of a smooth-bore cannon before their weapon could come into effective play. The Crimean war set inventors vigorously to work, and many admirable guns have resulted from their attempts, the great difficulty of the day being to decide which is most effective. Rifled guns have nearly superseded smooth-bored cannon, except in the United States, which still gives the preference to the latter.
Ordnance, Modern, History of.Heavy modern ordnance dates properly from the casting of the great Rodman smooth-bores in the United States. To the impetus thus given may be ascribed the origin of the powerful guns of the present day. In Rodman’s study of gunpowder and the improvements introduced by him lay the germ of all subsequent progress in ordnance. His most important invention,perforated cake powder, was transplanted bodily to the continent of Europe, where, under the name ofprismatic powder, it has been used ever since. So perfect is the theory of this powder that invention and science toiling over the subject for twenty years has produced nothing better. Since the first half of the decade—1860-70—the United States has fallen behind the nations of Europe in the power of her armament. Having been committed by her two great inventors, Rodman and Dahlgren, to cast-iron smooth-bores, which were fabricated in great numbers, her attitude has been that of Micawber,—waiting for something to turn up. England occupies the other extreme,—of all the powers she has ventured the greatest sums upon the theories of her gun-makers. Her private manufacturers have received such encouragement at home or abroad that they are now able to supply the whole world. Their only great rival on the continent is Krupp, who finds his market principally in Germany, Russia, and Turkey.
The early adoption of the rifle principle by all European powers placed them at once on a plane of advancement. The vexed questions of breech- and muzzle-loading and of gun construction have been decided by each nation in the manner most satisfactory to itself. Opinions differ widely, and it is probable that many changes may be made in these matters. Still, they all possess powerful guns which have certain features in common, essential to heavy ordnance in the present stage of its development. Large-grained powder, the first of these requisites, is universally used (for varieties, seeGunpowder). Great length of bore, to utilize the whole force of the powder, is another characteristic. Great power is secured by immense charges of powder and weight of shot. A caliber of at least 12 inches, giving an oblong shot of about 700 pounds, seems to be regarded as asine qua nonfor all armaments. (SeeCannon,Ordnance,Great Britain,Russia,France, etc.) England has taken the lead in all these improvements, and though it would appear from recent events that her choice of gun systems is unfortunate, there is no question that all great advances since Rodman’s day have been based upon her expensive experiments. The work of the celebrated “Committee on Explosives,” 1875, of which Col. Younghusband and Capt. Noble (now a member of Sir Wm. Armstrong’s firm) were members, did more to this end than any other investigation since Rodman’s experiments in gunpowder. Acting upon the obvious idea that the peril to the life of the gun is relieved by air-space, the committee recommended the enlargement of the bore at the seat of the charge, or the use of a chamber larger than the bore. This simple expedient led at once to an immense increase in the power of guns while the pressure endangering them was kept at a point lower than before. Every good thing can be pushed too far. The immense charges made possible by the English chamber have been continually added to by the Italians in their 100-ton Armstrong monsters and the vital air-space reduced till a charge of 552 pounds of powder has recently (1880) burst one of these magnificent guns.
Nomenclature of Ordnance.—For component parts of cannon and their description, seeCascabel,Base of the Breech,Base-line,Base-ring,Breech,Chase,Astragal and Fillets,Neck,Swell of the Muzzle,Face,Trunnions,Rimbases,Bore, andReinforce. For recent modifications in the external form of cannon, seeOrdnance, Strains upon.
United States.—Smooth-bored.—The official system for the land service comprises the following smooth-bored cannon: The Napoleon gun for field service (seeNapoleon Gun) and the mountain howitzer for mountain and prairie service. (SeeHowitzer.) For siege purposes, the 8-inch howitzer, 8- and 10-inch and 24-pounder Coehorn mortars,—and for sea-coast defense, 13-, 15-, and 20-inch (Rodman) and 10-, 13- and 15-inch mortars. No 15-inch mortars have been yet cast. The 24-pounder flank defense howitzer, as well as the 8- and 10-inch smooth-bored Rodman and the 10-inch sea-coast mortar, no longer belong to the system, and are no more to be cast. The 13-inch smooth-bore is an experimental gun, not more than two or three of which have been cast. The smooth-bored gun principally used in the naval service is the Dahlgren. (SeeOrdnance, Constructionof.) The carronade is now little employed.
Rifled Cannon.—The rifled cannon adopted for the land service of the United States at the present time (1880) are, for the field service a 3- and 31⁄2-inch rifle, having the exterior shape of Rodman guns, but made of wrought iron,—the former adopted in 1861; the 31⁄2-inch gun has never been made—the model was adopted in 1870,—and three mitrailleurs, viz., 1-inch and1⁄2-inch (Gatling), adopted in 1868, and a .45-inch Gatling, adopted in 1874, intended to replace the1⁄2-inch, and to use the service cartridge of the rifle musket. In the siege service there is but one rifle gun properly belonging to the system of the United States, viz., 41⁄2-inch, of casting, having the Rodman shape, but cast solid. The 30-pounder (4.2-inch) Parrott so extensively used is not a regulation gun. (SeeOrdnance, Construction of.) The weight of the 41⁄2-inch is 3570 pounds. It has an extreme length of 133 inches. The twist is uniform, and the weight of the solid projectile 321⁄2pounds, and of the charge 31⁄4pounds. The piece is loaded at the muzzle. The rifled sea-coast guns belonging to the system are a 10- and 12-inch, made of cast iron, and weighing 40,681 and 52,000 pounds respectively. The extreme length of the 10-inch is 180, and of the 12-inch 192 inches; the weight of the solid shot, 292 and 620 pounds respectively; the twist in each is uniform, and both are muzzle-loaders. Such is the official system of the United States. All the large guns are cast iron and are now useless as an armament to cope with modern armed ironclads. We have, however, a number of experimental guns, the models of which must be our immediate reliance in case of foreign war. In making these experimental rifles it has been held in view to utilize as far as possible the cast-iron ordnance now on hand. They are all made of cast-iron cases fitted with internal tubes of wrought iron (steel has also been used) after the plans ofParsonsandPalliser. (SeeOrdnance, Construction of.) The 121⁄4-inch rifle, muzzle-loader, is an original construction, the case required being larger than the 15-inch smooth-bored. The weight of gun is 40 tons; charge, 110 poundshexagonal powder; shot, 700 pounds. The others are converted guns,—the 10-inch rifle, muzzle-loader, converted from 13-inch smooth-bore by inserting wrought-iron tube; two patterns of 8-inch rifle, breech- and muzzle-loaders, converted from 10-inch smooth-bores by muzzle and breech insertion of tubes. Quite a number of the muzzle-loaders have been made and mounted. A similar gun has been made for the naval service by converting the 11-inch Dahlgren. Parrott 100-pounders have also been converted into 6.4-inch breech-loaders for the navy.
Although the Parrott gun does not belong to the system adopted by the United States, it has been much employed for both siege and sea-coast purposes, almost to the exclusion of other rifled cannon. They are also very generally used in the naval service. There are eight of these guns employed in the service of the United States, viz.: a 300-pounder (10-inch), 200-pounder (8-inch), and 100-pounder (6.4-inch), in use by both land and naval forces; a 60-pounder (5.3-inch) and 30-pounder (4.2-inch), used exclusively by the navy, and a 30-pounder (4.2-inch), 20-pounder (3.67-inch), and 10-pounder (3-inch), employed exclusively by the land forces. The Parrott cannon are all muzzle-loading and made of cast iron, reinforced with a wrought-iron jacket. SeeOrdnance, Construction of.
Great Britain.—The cannon employed in the British service are all rifled, and nearly all muzzle-loaders.
Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.—The guns belonging to the British system, and made at the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, are: for land service, an 11-inch gun, wrought iron, muzzle-loading, weighing 25 tons; two 7-inch, weighing 7 tons, and differing slightly in length and details of construction; a 16-pounder (3.6-inch), weighing 12 cwt.; and a 9-pounder (3-inch), weighing 8 cwt. These guns are all made of wrought iron. There are also an 8-inch howitzer weighing 46 cwt., also of wrought iron, and two converted guns, viz., a 64-pounder (6.29-inch) converted from 32-pounder, and an 80-pounder converted from 68-pounder smooth-bore. Both of these guns are of cast iron, with wrought-iron tubes, and were converted according to the Palliser method. For the Woolwich 38-ton gun, seeArmstrong Cannon. For sea service exclusively, there are made at the Woolwich Arsenal a 12-inch, weighing 35 tons; two 8-inch, weighing 9 tons respectively, of the same length, one having no preponderance, and differing in other details of their construction; two 7-inch, weighing 6.5 tons respectively, differing slightly in length and details; a 7-inch, weighing 4.5 tons; and 9-pounder (3-inch), weighing 6 cwt. These guns are all made of wrought iron, and are muzzle-loading. For both land and sea service, there are made at the Royal Arsenal a 12-inch, weighing 25 tons; a 10-inch, weighing 18 tons; two 9-inch, one of which has no preponderance, the other a preponderance of 5 cwt.; three 64-pounders (6.3-inch), each weighing 64 cwt., but differing in length and construction. These guns are all made of wrought iron; for both services is used a 64-pounder (6.29 inch), converted from 8-inch smooth-bored according to the Palliser method. There are besides two bronze guns, one called the “boat gun,” a 7-pounder (3-inch) weighing 200 pounds; the other a 9-pounder (3-inch), used in the Indian service, and weighing 8 cwt.; also a 7-pounder (3-inch) mountain gun of steel, and weighing 150 pounds; these are all muzzle-loaders. The 9-, 10-, 11-, and 12-inch calibers have all steel tubes; one 7-ton and one 6.5-ton gun have tubes of wrought iron.
Armstrong Cannon.—The guns used in the British service made by Sir William Armstrong are—for the land service—a 12-inch weighing 38 tons (some of these guns are bored to 121⁄2inches), an 11-inch weighing 25 tons, a 7-inch weighing 7 tons, a 40-pounder (4.75-inch) weighing 35 cwt., a 25-pounder (4-inch), and a 16-pounder (3.6 inch) weighing 18 and 12 cwt. respectively, a 9-pounder (3-inch) weighing 6 cwt., a 10-inch weighing 6 tons, having no preponderance. These guns are all of wrought iron and muzzle-loading. There are also used in the land service, and of the same make, a 7-pounder (3-inch) muzzle-loading steel gun weighing 150 pounds, an 8-inch muzzle-loading howitzer made of wrought iron and weighing 46 cwt., a 64-pounder (6.29-inch) converted from 32-pounder, and an 80-pounder (6.29-inch) converted by Palliser method from 68-pounder muzzle-loading, made of cast iron with wrought-iron tubes. The other guns manufactured by Sir William Armstrong, and used in the land service, are all breech-loading, viz.: a 7-inch (screw) weighing 72 cwt., a 20-pounder (3.75-inch screw) weighing 16 cwt., a 64-pounder (6.4-inch wedge) weighing 64 cwt., and a Gatling gun (0.45) weighing 3 cwt. 84 pounds. The guns used in the sea service of this make are a 12-inch weighing 35 tons, an 8-inch weighing 9 tons, two 7-inch weighing 6 tons 10 cwt. and 90 cwt. respectively, and a 9-pounder (3-inch) weighing 6 cwt. These are all muzzle-loading, and made of wrought iron. There is another muzzle loading gun used for sea service, viz., a 64-pounder (6.29-inch) converted from 8-inch, and weighing 71 cwt.; this gun is of cast iron with a wrought iron tube. The breech-loaders used for sea service are two 20-pounders (3.75-inch screw) weighing 15 and 13 cwt. respectively, 40-pounder (4.75-inch) wedge weighing 32 cwt., and a Gatling gun (0.65-inch) weighing 7 cwt. 35 pounds; these guns are all of wrought iron. For land and sea service are constructed a 12-inch weighing 25 tons, a 10- and 9-inch weighing 18 and 12 tons respectively, a 64-pounder (6.3-inch) weighing 64 cwt., a 9-pounder (3-inch) weighing 8 cwt., a 7-pounder (3-inch) weighing 200 pounds, and made of steel; the others are of wrought iron, and all are muzzle-loading. The breech-loading guns of this manufacture used in both land and sea service are a 7-inch (screw) weighing 82 cwt., two 40-pounders (4.75-inch) screw weighing 35 and 32 cwt., respectively, a 12-pounder (3-inch), 9-pounder (3-inch), and 6-pounder (2.5-inch) screw weighing 8, 6, and 3 cwt. respectively. They are all made of wrought iron. SeeArmstrong Gun.
Germany.—In Germany the Krupp gun is almost entirely employed; they are all breech-loading and constructed of steel. (For particular construction, seeOrdnance, Construction of.) Those used in the German land service are a 28-centimetre howitzer weighing 9.82 tons, caliber in inches 11.023, a long 21-centimetre weighing 9.84 tons, caliber 8.241 inches, a short 21-centimetre weighing 8.84, caliber 8.241 inches, a short 15-centimetre weighing 2.9 tons, caliber 5.869 inches, a 12-, 9-, 8-, and 6-centimetre, whose calibers are 4.735, 3.602, 3.090, and 2.362 inches, and whose weights are 1.37 tons, and 935, 649, and 235 pounds respectively. In the sea service are used a 301⁄2-centimetre weighing 35.3 tons, caliber 12.007 inches, a short 26-centimetre weighing 17.67 tons, caliber 10.236 inches, a long 24-centimetre weighing 14.38 tons, caliber 9.267 inches, and a short 24-centimetre. For both land and sea service are employed a long 17-centimetre weighing 5.5 tons, caliber 6.771 inches, a short 17-centimetre, a long 15-centimetre weighing 3.03 tons, caliber 5.869 inches, and a long 15-centimetre weighing 3.09 tons.
France.—The guns adopted in the French service are both breech- and muzzle-loading, and are, for the land service, a siege-gun, 24-pounder rifled breech-loading, weighing 40.55 tons, caliber 6.01 inches, for fortress guns a 24- and 12-pounder rifled muzzle-loading, weighing 5953 and 3307 pounds, and having calibers of 6.01 and 4.77 inches respectively. For siege-guns a 24- and 12-pounder rifled weighing 4409 and 1940 pounds, whose respective calibers are 6.01 and 4.77 inches and muzzle-loading. For field artillery a 12-, 8-, and 4-pounder rifled, weighing respectively 1367, 1234.6, and 727.55 pounds, and whose calibers are 4.77, 4.17, and 3.40 inches respectively, all muzzle-loading. There is also a 4-pounder rifled muzzle-loading mountain piece weighing 220.5 pounds, whose caliber is 3.40 inches. In the sea-coast service there are a 30-pounder (muzzle-loader) not hooped, weighing 61 cwt., caliber 6.48 inches, a 30-pounder (muzzle-loader or breech-loader) hooped, weighing 70.86 cwt., caliber 5.46 inches, a howitzer 22-centimetre rifled and hooped, caliber 8.66 inches. In the French sea-service are a 32-centimetre weighing 34.5 tons, caliber 12.599 inches, and a 27-centimetre weighing 21.7 tons, caliber 10.803 inches. Both of these guns are breech-loading. For both land and sea service are used a 24-centimetre weighing 13.8 tons, caliber 9.499 inches, a 19-centimetre weighing 7.9 tons, caliber 7.638 inches, a 16-centimetre weighing 98.42 cwt., caliber 6.484 inches, a 14-centimetre weighing 52.26 cwt., caliber 5.456 inches. The guns used for sea service only, or for both land and sea service, are all made of cast iron, tubed with steel nearly to the trunnions, and strengthened near the breech by steel rings heated and shrunk on. The fortress guns, most of the siege, and all the field-guns are made of bronze. The large breech-loaders use the solid breech-screwfermeture. The term “pounder” as applied to certain guns has no reference to the weight of the oblong projectile used, but to the weight of the corresponding spherical solid shot.
Russia.—In the Russian service the Krupp gun is rapidly taking the place of all others; there are, however, still used for sea service, a 12-inch and 6-inch breech-loader weighing 40 tons and 3.92 tons respectively; also a 12.2-pounder boat-gun weighing 792 pounds, and for both land and sea service an 8-inch breech-loader weighing 8.754 tons, and an 8-inch breech-loading mortar, weighing 3.21 tons. These guns are all made of steel.
Ordnance, Ammunition for.For convenience in loading and safety in transportation, cannon ammunition is prepared in a peculiar manner and with great care. The ammunition so prepared is classified into field and mountain, siege and sea-coast ammunition.
Ammunition for Field Serviceis composed ofsolid shot,shells,spherical case-shot, andcanister-shot(see headings). In mountain service solid shot are omitted. A stand of ammunition is composed of the projectile, sabot, straps, cartridge-bag, cylinder, and cap. The projectile is secured by two tin straps, fastened at the ends with tacks driven into the sabot. The straps cross each other at right angles; for solid shot, one strap passing through a slit in the other; for hollow projectiles, both straps are fastened to a tin ring which surrounds the fuze-hole. A round of canister for the field service consists of a tin cylinder filled with cast-iron shot, which slips over the end of the sabot, to which it is secured with small nails. The materials of which cartridge-bags are made are flannel, wildbore, or serge; the fabric should be soft and closely woven, to prevent the powder sifting out. Fabrics of cotton and flax are not used, because the powder sifts through them, and they are more apt to leave fire in the gun than woolen stuffs. A cartridge-bag for the field service is made of two pieces,—a rectangular piece for the sides, and a circular piece for the bottom. The charge is determined by measurement. The cylinder and cap are made of stout paper. The cylinder is used to give stiffness to the cartridge at the junction of the sabot and bag; the cap covers the exposed portion of the bag, is drawn off before loading, and placed over the projectile, or thrown away. The cartridge-bag is attached to the projectile by tying it around the grooves of the sabot with twine.
Fixed Ammunition.—Ammunition thus prepared is called fixed ammunition. It is used in the field and mountain service for smooth-bore guns and howitzers. For rifled guns the bag and projectile are carried separately. The termstrapped ammunitionis applied when the projectile is attached to a sabot without grooves; and to give a proper form to the cartridge-bag, the mouth is closed with a cartridge-block, which resembles a sabot; hence the name strapped ammunition. This kind of cartridge is nearly obsolete.
Packing, etc.—As soon as ammunition is finished it should be gauged, to see that it is of the proper caliber; it is afterwards packed in boxes containing 10 rounds each.
Siege and Sea-coast Ammunition.—On account of the great weight of siege and sea-coast ammunition, the cartridge-bag and projectile are carried separately. The cartridge-bags for large charges of powder are made of two pieces of woolen stuff, or of a paper tube with a woolen cloth bottom. The former are preferred for rapid firing. For sea-coast howitzers the bag should fill the chamber; if the piece be fired with a reduced charge, a cartridge-block should be inserted into the bag to give it proper size. For mortars the bag is only used to carry the powder, and when the piece is loaded, the powder is poured into the chamber; bags of any suitable size will answer for this service. For hot-shot cartridges bags are made double, by putting one bag within another. Care should be taken to see that the bags are free from holes. For ricochet firing, or other occasions when very small charges are required, a cartridge-bag of inferior caliber may be used. In the siege and sea-coast services, solid shot are transported and loaded loosely, but hollow projectiles are strapped to sabots, to prevent the fuze from coming in contact with the powder of the charge. The sabots are made from thick plank, and the straps are fastened as in the field service.
Ordnance, Carriages for.The carriages for cannon may be classified from their use intofield,mountain,prairie, andsea-coast carriages, andmortar-beds. (See particular headings.) They may be further divided into those required for the immediate service and transportation of cannon, as gun-carriages and mortar-beds, and those employed for the transportation of ammunition, implements and materials for repairs, as caissons, mortar-wagons, forges, and battery-wagons. The field-, mountain-, prairie-, and siege-carriages being required for the transportation of their pieces are similar in their construction; those for sea-coast purposes differ materially from the others.
Nomenclature of Artillery Carriage.—The principal parts of the field-carriage and of all artillery carriages, other than the sea-coast, are: stock, of squared wood in two pieces, which serves to connect the gun-carriage with the limber, and to direct the piece; it includes the head, to which the sponge-bucket ring is attached; groove, trail, or curved part of the stock, which rest on the ground when the piece is unlimbered; rounding of the trail, trail-plate, a piece of iron fastened to the end of the trail and terminated by a very strong ring, called the lunette, which receives the pintle-hook by which the limber is attached; pointing-rings, large and small, which receive the hand-spike; trail-handles, on each side of the stock for the purpose of raising it; prolonge-hooks, on which the prolonge is coiled; wheel-guard plates, lock-chain, used to keepthe wheel from turning; it is on the side of the carriage, and has an eye-plate and bolt; sponge and rammer stop, sponge-chain and hasp, ear-plate for sponge-chain and hasp; ear-plate to support worm; key-chain and key; elevating-screw; the latter has a handle with four prongs; elevating-screw box, elevating-screw bed, rondelles, which connect cheeks and stock; cheeks, two pieces of wood between which the gun rests; washer-hooks for handspike, washer-hook for lock-chain, under-strap, right sponge-hook, sponge and worm-hook, handspike-rings, trunnion-plates, into the beds or depressions of which the trunnions fit; cap-squares, cap-square chain, key-chain and key. Axle, including axle-body, of wood; axle-tree, of iron, axle-arm, the rounded extremities of the axle-tree on which the wheels revolve; linch-pin, linch-pin washer and hook. Wheels; each includes nave, nave-bands, nave-box, spokes, felloes, tire. In the new model for field service, cannoneers’ seats are on the axle between the cheeks and wheels; each consists of an iron chair supported on a rectangular bar inserted in a vertical iron socket, and resting on a strong steel spring; the socket is supported by two brass braces fastened to the axle by axle-straps; to an iron cross-piece at the top of the socket are attached two iron braces, which help to support the iron foot-rest attached to the brass braces. The chair has arms and faces to the trail. This refers to the carriage proper, considered only in relation to the fire of the piece, or as a two-wheeled carriage. To suit it to the easy and rapid transportation of its load it must be converted into a four-wheeled carriage, which is done by attaching it to another two-wheeled carriage called a limber.
Thelimberconsists of a similar axle-body, axle, and two wheels, and on these rests a frame-work, to receive the tongue. On top of the whole is an ammunition-box, the top of which forms a seat for three cannoneers. In rear of the axle-tree is a pintle-hook to receive the lunette of the trail. Connected with the frame-work in front is a fixed splinter-bar with four hooks, to which are attached the traces of the wheel horses. At the extremity of the tongue are placed two pole-chains, by which the tongue or pole is held up, and a pole-yoke with two movable branches, to prevent, as much as possible, the pole from oscillating and striking the horses. The principal parts of a field-limber are: pole, including pole-pad; pole-straps, by which the pole is guided when the team is hitched; pole-strap iron, pole-yoke, muff and collar, pole-yoke branches, to which are attached sliding-rings; splinter-bar, to which the horses are hitched by four trace-hooks; end-bands, middle-bands, pole-prop, including socket, ferrule, and chain; hounds, pieces of wood upon which the chests rest, connecting the axle-body with the splinter-bar; forks, pieces of wood between the hounds, forming an opening in which the pole is placed; fork-strap, foot-boards, foot-board brackets, chest, chest-handles, cover, of wood; cover-plate, of copper; turnbuckle, hasp, back-stay, front-stay, stay-pins, stay-pin keys, under strap, pintle-hook, on rear part of axle-tree, which attaches the limber to the carriage; pintle-hook key, axle, wheels. The field-carriages employed in the U. S. service are three, one for the 3-inch rifle carriage (which, with slight modifications, is adapted to the 1-inch mitrailleur), one for the 12-pounder, and one for the1⁄2-inch and .45-inch mitrailleur. The corresponding parts of these carriages differ only in their dimensions. All limbers are similar.
Mountain-Carriage.—The mountain-carriage differs in construction from the field-carriage inasmuch as the stocks and cheeks are formed of the same piece by hollowing out the head of the stock, the wheels are smaller and the axle-tree is made of wood, the arms being protected from wear by skeans. It is arranged for draught by attaching a pair of shafts to the trail. The pack-saddle and its harness are constructed to carry severally the howitzer and shafts, the carriage, or two ammunition-chests; or it enables an animal to draw the carriage with the howitzer mounted upon it.
Prairie-Carriage.—The prairie-carriage is designed to carry the mountain howitzer, and is similar to the mountain-carriage in form; but being exclusively for draught, the axle-tree is of iron, and the wheels are made higher and the distance between them greater than in the mountain-carriage. It has a limber and is drawn by two horses abreast, as in field-carriages. The ammunition is packed in mountain ammunition-chests, two of which are carried on the limber.
Siege-Carriages.—There are three different kinds of siege-carriages used in the U. S. service, one for the 41⁄2-inch rifle, another on which the 30-pounder Parrott is mounted, and a third for the 8-inch howitzer, being the old 12-pounder, 18-pounder, and 24-pounder siege-carriages modified; these are all constructed in the same manner, and differ only in their dimensions. Siege-carriages are similar to the field-carriage in construction (seeField-carriage), the principal difference being in the manner in which they are joined to the limbers. Projecting upwards from the limber and in rear of the axle-tree is placed a pintle, which enters a hole made in the trail from the under side, and a lashing chain and hook keep the two parts together when once in position; the weight of the stock bearing on the rear of the limber relieves the horses of the weight of the pole, which is long and heavy. On the upper surface of the cheeks near the rear ends are placed two projecting bolts, which with the curve of the cheeks form resting-places for the trunnions, when the piece is in position for transportation. They are called traveling trunnion-beds. When the piece is in this position the breech rests upon the bolster, which is a curved block of wood bolted to the upper side of the stock.
Sea-Coast Carriagesare divided into barbette front-pintle and barbette centre-pintle carriages, casemate, and flank-defense carriages; depending upon the part of the work in which they are mounted. The casemate-carriage differs from the barbette in being much lower. Sea-coast carriages are now chiefly made of wrought iron. All are composed of two principal parts, viz.: the gun-carriage and chassis. The gun-carriage is composed of two cheeks, held together by two plates of boiler-iron, called the front and rear transoms respectively. Each cheek is formed of two pieces of boiler-iron cut to a triangular shape, separated at the edges by interposing the vertical portion or web of a T-shaped bar. The horizontal branches project over each side to form a double rim, which gives stiffness to the cheeks. Flat bars of iron are also placed between the plates at suitable intervals to stiffen the cheeks in the direction in which the weight and recoil of the piece bear upon them. All these parts are held together by screw-bolts. The motion to and from battery is regulated in the 8- and 10-inch carriages by a pair of eccentric truck-wheels, called manœuvring-wheels, which work on an axle-tree placed underneath and a little in front of the centre of the trunnions. When it becomes necessary to check the recoil of the gun-carriage, the wheels are thrown out of gear by means of a handspike inserted in the socket attached to the end of the axle-tree, and the carriage moved on sliding friction. When the gun is to be moved into battery, the wheels are thrown into gear in a similar manner, and the front of the carriage moves on rolling friction. The manœuvring-wheels mentioned above are fixed on the projecting ends of the axle-tree, the axis of the wheel being eccentric with the axis of the axle-tree. These eccentrics are so arranged that when the centres of the wheels are at their lowest points, the surfaces of the wheels bear on the rails of the chassis, and raise the gun-carriage from it; and when the centres are at their highest points, the surfaces of the wheels do not touch the rails, and the gun-carriage is in contact with them. In case there is no socket connected with the end of the axle-tree, the wheel is thrown into or out of gear, that is, made to bear on the rail of the chassis, or relieved from it, by turning the axle-tree with a wrench placed on the hexagonal end. In the 15-inch carriage there are two pairs of manœuvring-wheels, one pair being placed in front as above described, and the other pair near the rear end of the carriage. In all sea-coast carriages except the flank casemate the elevation and depression are given by a lever, the point of which works in a ratchet cut in the breech of the piece. The fulcrum (ratchet-post) is made of cast iron and rests on the rear transom of the gun-carriage. It has several notches for adjusting the position of the elevating bar. The chassis is a movable railway on which the gun-carriage moves to and from battery. It is composed of two wrought-iron rails inclined 3° to the horizon, and united by transoms as in the gun-carriage. In addition to the transoms, there are several diagonal braces to give stiffness to the chassis. For the 10-inch and smaller carriages, the chassis-rails are single beams of rolled iron, 15 inches deep; for all calibers above, the rails are made of long rectangular pieces of boiler-plate and T-iron, in a manner similar to that of the cheeks of the gun-carriage. In order to move the carriage horizontally in the operation of aiming the piece, the chassis is supported on traverse wheels, which roll on circular plates of iron, fastened to a bed of solid masonry, called the traverse circles. The motion of the gun-carriage is checked front and rear, by pieces of iron bolted to the top of the rails, called hurters and counter-hurters; and it is prevented from slipping off sideways by friction rollers and guides, which are bolted to the cheeks and transoms. In a late modification of the 15-inch carriage, the front eccentric axle is replaced by an ordinary one, dispensing with axle-pawls and friction-bands, the handspike pawls are made double instead of single, with a spring to keep them out of the ratchets, the front set of transoms and diagonal braces are removed from the chassis, and pneumatic or hydraulic buffers to check the recoil are put in with thick braces. When the rear manœuvring-wheels are out of gear, the top carriage touches the rails of the chassis and moves on sliding friction, and when they are in gear the front wheels are also made to touch the rails and the top carriage moves on rolling friction. To prevent the rear manœuvring-wheels from working out of gear while the gun is being run from battery, or jumping in gear when the gun is fired, pawls are provided for locking the rear axle. When no pawls are provided for locking the eccentric axle, it is often necessary for one cannoneer to remain embarred in the axle-socket to prevent the axle from flying out of gear. The 15-inch carriage allows an elevation of about 32° and a depression of about 6°, unless when fitted with pneumatic buffers, when no more than 25° elevation can be given. With the hydraulic buffer which passes along the centre of the chassis and is little used in the U. S. service the elevation is still further diminished. The 10-inch rifle and 13-inch smooth-bore are used with the 13-inch carriage, and the 12-inch rifle and 15-inch smooth-bore on the 15-inch carriage; the 20-inch gun has a separate carriage. The flank-casemate carriage is adapted to the mounting of the 24-pounder iron howitzer in the flanks of casemate batteries. Several modifications have been introduced into the carriages for the experimental rifled guns. For the largest calibers the chassis-rails are deeper in rear than in front. The pintle, set in a heavy flanged block of cast iron, is in front of the chassis, to which it is attached by a strap or heavyplate of iron. The top carriage is manœuvred by chain-gearing worked by a capstan near the rear of the chassis. The elevation is given by a wheel with projecting spokes on the side of the top carriage, which is geared to work a toothed arc attached to the breech of the gun, the reading being given by a pointer on a dial-plate above the wheel. Rubber buffers are placed at the rear transom of the chassis to assist the cylinders to take up the recoil. Friction-plates attached by india-rubber ends to the rear transom take the place of cylinders in certain smaller carriages. In some cases the traverse-wheels are made to relieve the pintle of part of the strain by grooving them to run on heavy traverse-rails and inclining them towards the pintle.