Ordnance, Strains Upon.The exterior form of cannon is determined by the variable thickness of the metal which surrounds the bore at different points of its length. In general terms, the thickness is greatest at the seat of the charge, and least at or near the muzzle. This arrangement is made on account of the variable action of the powder and projectile along the bore, and the necessity of disposing the metal in the safest and most economical manner. The pressure at different points may be approximately determined by calculation, or, more accurately, by experiment. In the latter method, the plan generally employed consists in boring a series of small holes through the side of a gun at right angles to its axis at known distances apart. A steel ball is projected from each hole in succession into a target, or ballistic pendulum, by the force of the charge acting through it, and the pressure at the various points is deduced from the velocities communicated to these balls. This method was adopted by Col. Bomford. Instead of the projectile a steel punch may be employed, which is pressed by the force of the charge into a piece of soft copper. (SeePressure-gauge.) The weight necessary to make an equal indentation in the same piece is then ascertained by a testing machine. The strains to which all fire-arms are subjected may be classified as follows: (1) The tangential strain which tends to split the piece open longitudinally, and is similar in its action to the force which bursts the hoops of a barrel. (2) The longitudinal strain which acts to pull the piece apart in the direction ofits length. Its action is greatest at or near the bottom of the bore, and least at the muzzle, where it is nothing; these two strains increase the volume of the metal to which they are applied. (3) A strain of compression which acts from the axis outward to crush the truncated wedges of which a unit of length of the piece may be supposed to consist; this strain compresses the metal and enlarges the bore. (4) A transverse strain which acts to break transversely by bending outward the staves of which the piece may be supposed to consist. This strain compresses the metal on the inner and extends it on the outer surface. It is known that rupture will take place due to the tangential strain alone, when three times the pressure upon a unit of surface of the bore is greater than twice the tensile strength. Due to the longitudinal strain alone, rupture will take place in the direction of the length, when the pressure is greater than twice the tensile strength; and if the transverse strain alone is considered, rupture will take place when twice the pressure is greater than three times the tensile strength. It therefore appears that the tendency to rupture is greater from the action of the tangential force than from any other, and for lengths above two, or perhaps three calibers, the tangential resistance may be said to act alone, as the aid derived from the transverse resistance will be but trifling for greater lengths of bore; but for lengths of bore less than two calibers, this resistance will be aided by both the transverse and the longitudinal resistance. Every piece should therefore have sufficient thickness of breech to prevent splitting through the latter; after this point has been attained, any additional thickness of breech adds nothing to the strength of the piece. It therefore appears that a fire-arm is strongest at or near the bottom of the bore, and that its strength is diminished rapidly as the length of the bore increases to a certain point (probably not more than three calibers from the bottom); after which, for equal thickness of metal, its strength becomes sensibly uniform. The metals of which cannon are made being crystalline in structure, the size and arrangement of the crystals have an important influence on its strength to resist a particular force; and a metal will have the greatest strength with reference to a particular force when its crystals are small, and the principal faces are parallel to the straining force, if it be one of extension, and perpendicular to it, if it be one of compression. The position of the principal crystalline faces of a cooling solid is found to be perpendicular to the cooling surface; the result of this arrangement of crystals is to create planes of weakness where the different systems of crystals intersect. The effect of this law upon cannons, it has been discovered, is to render radial specimens more tenacious than those cut tangentially from the same gun. The manner and rapidity of cooling have also a great effect upon the ability of cannon to resist strains, and as all solid bodies contract their size in the operation of cooling, it follows that if the different parts of a cannon cool unequally, it will change its form, provided it be not restrained by the presence of a superior force. If it be so restrained, the contractile force will diminish the adhesion of the parts by an amount which depends on the rate of cooling of the different parts, and the contractibility of the metal. This is an important consideration in estimating the strength and endurance of cannon, particularly those made of cast iron. All such cannon cooled from the exterior (seeOrdnance, Construction of) are affected by two straining forces; the outer portion of the metal being compressed, and the interior extended, in proportion to their distances from the neutral axis or line composed of particles which are neither extended nor compressed by the cooling process. The effect of this unequal contraction may be so great as to crack the interior metal of cast iron even before it has been subjected to the force of gunpowder. The strain produced by the explosion of gunpowder is not distributed equally over the thickness of metal, but it varies inversely as the square of the distance from the centre; it therefore follows that the sides of a cannon are not rent asunder as by a simple tensile force, but they are torn apart like a piece of cloth, commencing at the surface of the bore. Hence it is that the effect of ordinary cooling is to diminish the strength and hardness of the metal of cannon at or near a point where the greatest strength and hardness are required,i.e., at the surface of the bore. The strains produced by unequal cooling increase with the diameter of the casting and the irregularity of its form. This explains the great difficulty found in making large cast-iron cannon proportionally as strong as small ones, and also how projections like bands, moldings, etc., injure the strength of cannon. It also explains why cannon made of “light” cast iron, or cast iron made more tenacious by partial decarbonization, are not so strong as cannon made of weaker iron; for it is well known that such iron contracts more than the latter in cooling, and therefore produces a greater strain of extension on the surface of the bore. Capt. Rodman of the U. S. Ordnance Department has proposed a plan for cooling cannon from the interior (seeOrdnance, Construction of), thereby reversing the strains produced by external cooling, and making them contribute to the endurance rather than to the injury of the piece. It is likely, however, that the strains produced by unequal cooling are modified by time, which probably allows the particles to accommodate themselves to a certain extent to their constrained position. In confirmation of this, great endurance has been frequently found inoldsolid cast guns, as in the old 42-pounders tested about the beginning of the war, 1861-65.
Ordnance Department.In the United States, was first established May 14, 1812, and was not provided for in the reduction of the army in 1815, but continued in the service. In 1821 the department was merged into the artillery, attaching to each regiment of artillery 1 supernumerary captain, and giving to each company 4 subaltern officers. The corps of ordnance was re-established April 5, 1832. The department consists of 1 brigadier-general, 3 colonels, 4 lieutenant-colonels, 10 majors, 20 captains, 16 first lieutenants, and 350 enlisted men. It is the duty of the senior officer of the ordnance department to direct the inspection and proving of all pieces of ordnance, shot, shells, small-arms, and equipments procured for the use of the armies of the United States; and to direct the construction of all cannon and carriages, and every implement and apparatus for ordnance, and all ammunition-wagons, traveling-forges, and artificers’ wagons; the inspection and proving of powder, and the preparation of all kinds of ammunition and ordnance stores. It is also the duty of the senior officer of the ordnance department to furnish estimates, and, under the direction of the Secretary of War, to make contracts and purchases for procuring the necessary supplies of arms, ordnance, and ordnance stores, etc. In the British service, the ordnance department was a distinct branch of the war department, originally for the supply of all warlike stores used in the naval or military service. The first master of ordnance was created in the time of Henry VIII., and the Tower of London was probably the depot of arms and military stores; Robert, earl of Essex, is said to have been the first master-general, in 1596. It does not appear that the ordnance department of the British service became especially military until the early part of the 18th century, after the organization of the Royal Artillery, in 1743, under the Duke of Montague as master-general. From this time the ordnance department was administered by a master-general and board, the latter being composed of a lieutenant-general of ordnance, surveyor-general, clerk of the ordnance, principal store-keeper, clerk of the deliveries, and treasurer. About 1763 the department became a construction board, with charge of all forts and fortresses, and directed the construction of all the fortifications and military store-houses, and barracks for the ordnance corps. The board was finally abolished as a separate department, the duties carried on by the commander-in-chief, and the various civil branches by separate offices under the secretary of state for war.
Ordnance Office.Before the invention of guns, this office was supplied by officers under the following names: the bowyer, the cross-bowyer, the galeater, or purveyor of helmets, the armorer, and the keeper of the tents. Henry VIII. placed under the management of a master-general, a lieutenant, surveyor, etc. The master-general was chosen from among the first generals in the service of the sovereign. The appointment was formerly for life; but since the restoration, was helddurante bene placito, and not unfrequently by a cabinet minister. The letters patent for this office were revoked May 25, 1855, and its duties vested in the minister of war. The last master-general was Lord Fitzroy Somerset, afterwards Lord Raglan.
Ordnance Projectile.SeeProjectile.
Ordnance Sergeants.In the U. S. service, are staff sergeants who are selected from the sergeants of the line of the army. Their duties consist in receiving and preserving the ordnance, arms, ammunition, and other ordnance stores at posts, under the direction of the commanding officer of the same. They must not be confounded with sergeants of ordnance, who are sergeants in the ordnance detachments at arsenals, etc.
Ordnance Store-keeper.In the British service, is a civil officer in the artillery who has charge of all the stores, for which he is accountable to the office of ordnance.
Ordnance Store-keeper.In the U. S. army, an officer of the ordnance department who holds the rank of captain. The grade has been abolished by act of Congress, and the duties appertaining to the office will be performed by other officers of the ordnance department.
Ordnance Stores.SeeOrdnance.
Oregon.One of the Pacific States of the American Confederacy. Oregon was the name formerly given to the whole territory north of the Rocky Mountains, and was first claimed by the Spanish government, and next by the government of the United States, as far as lat. 54° 40′ N. This latter claim was resisted by the British government, which asserted a right to the entire territory, and in 1818 a treaty was made, and renewed in 1827, giving joint occupation to the disputed territory. In 1846 a treaty was concluded, by which the boundary was settled on the 49th parallel. Previous to this latter treaty (1839) emigration from the United States, for the purpose of settlement, commenced, and it continued steadily until the opening of the gold mines in California, which attracted a great many emigrants. In 1849 it formed a Territorial government, and in 1859 it was admitted into the Union as a State. This State has been troubled greatly by Indians, and has been the scene of several wars in earlier days, notably, in 1853, on Rogue River; in 1855, when a general outbreak took place, of which the following is a brief summary: In 1855 a war broke out between the whites and the Indians of Washington Territory. The head and front of the outbreak on the part of the Indians was Kam-ai-a-kin. He took this stand from a fixed principle: that of resisting all encroachments on the part of the whites. He had seen the fate of the Indian race in the Willamette Valley, andhe determined to anticipate such a result with regard to his own people, and, if possible, to prevent it. When Gov. Stevens made his arbitrary treaties with him, and left him no discretion but to sell his land; and when the miners began to traverse his country, he concluded that the hour had arrived to fight, and he called to his aid as many of the adjoining tribes as he could persuade into it. The manner in which the treaties on Puget Sound were conducted created great dissatisfaction among the Indians, and they were quite ready to join Kam-ai-a-kin. The war commenced by the killing of miners, who were picked off in the Yakama country as they were going to Fort Colville, scarcely a month after the council which was held at Walla Walla. The killing of the agent Bolen set the war in a blaze. The small detachment of troops sent to chastise them was driven back. This success on the part of the Klickatats encouraged the Sound Indians, who also took up arms, and in the absence of troops, fell upon and killed the inhabitants of White River; but the wholesale slaughter of women and children by a party under the command of Major Lupton on October 8, 1855, drove the Indians to desperation and caused them to commence the war in earnest; hostilities continued until the summer of 1856. Also, in later years, the Modoc war (1872), the Nez Pérces (1877), and the Bannock war (1878).
Oreillere(Fr.). Oreillet, ear-piece of an ancient helmet, shaped like an oyster-shell, for protecting the ear and cheek.
Oreillon(Fr.). Ear of a sword, languet, or small slip of metal on the hilt, which, when the sword is sheathed, extends along the scabbard.
Organization.The act of assigning and putting troops into such uniform state of discipline as may fit them to co-operate on any service.Organizationmay be said to be begun by grouping those combatants who have the same mode of action. These groups are known as “arms of service.” An arm of service may be defined to be “a union of combatants having the same mode of action.” There are four of these arms in modern armies, viz.:Infantry,Cavalry,Artillery, andEngineers. These four arms form the principal part of a mobilized army, and as they or their representatives are always formed into a line of battle to resist the attack of an enemy, or to make an attack, they are generally known as the “line of the army” or “troops of the line,” to distinguish them from other bodies of men who form parts of an army. Thesearmsare subdivided into fractions for the purpose of instruction and of supply. The unit for instruction and the unit for supply may be the same or different. The unit of supply, as a general rule, is constant, and is also usually the unit of instruction in discipline. The unit of instruction in tactics will depend upon circumstances, and upon the kind of movements the commander desires to make. The common unit for the four arms, for supplying the men’s wants and for instruction in discipline, is the “company.” This unit receives, at other times, other names, depending upon circumstances. For instance, abatteryof artillery is the same as company; the termsquadronof cavalry frequently means a company, etc.
Acompanyconsists of a given number of men commanded by a commissioned officer who has the rank of captain. Two, sometimes three, and even more commissioned officers of a grade below that of captain are appointed to assist the captain in the discharge of his duties. These officers have the grade of lieutenant. Their number and the number of men forming a company are fixed by law. A certain number are selected from the men and appointed non-commissioned officers, with the rank of sergeant or of corporal. These non-commissioned officers are used to instruct the men in their military duties and in discipline. The whole company should be divided intosquadsof equal numbers, and each squad placed under the charge of a non-commissioned officer, who should be held responsible for the cleanliness of the men of his squad, not only as to their persons, clothing, and arms, but as to their tents or quarters. Thecompany, with its size based on the theory that it must not be larger than one man on foot can thoroughly command in person, is the unit of organization. Two or three or more companies form abattalion. Four, and at the outside, five companies placed in line form, in these times, so extended a line that a single person in immediate and personal command of them will find difficulty in making himself heard and understood throughout the entire line. For this reason the battalion should not, as a rule, contain more than four companies.
Thebattalionis thetacticalunit, both for instruction in tactics and in the execution of its movements. The battalion is sometimes made a unit of administration, and forms a complete organization under the command of a commissioned officer of the grade of major or lieutenant-colonel. The more usual rule is to increase the number of companies so as to have enough to form at least two battalions, and with these companies to form the organization known as aregiment.
Theregimentis always anadministrativeunit, and is commanded by a commissioned officer who has the grade ofcolonel. The colonel is charged with the proper administration of the supplies for the regiment, and with preserving good order and promoting discipline. He takes every opportunity to instruct both the officers and men in the principles and details of all movements that ought in any case to be made by a battalion. Upon the organization of a regiment, the company officers are assigned to companies, and each company is designated by a letter of the alphabet. Upon the recommendation of the captains, the colonel appoints the non-commissioned officers of the companies. He appoints an adjutant from the lieutenants ofthe regiment, and a non-commissioned staff from the enlisted men, to assist him in his duties. He selects from the lieutenants a quartermaster, whose appointment is confirmed by the Secretary of War.
The elements of organization for the other three arms of service are practically the same, being that of a company or similar body of men under the command of a captain, and these units grouped together into a battalion or regimental organization for administrative purposes. This subdivision into companies and into regiments is most essential for instruction in discipline.
Disciplineis an indispensable condition for the existence of a good army. It impartscohesionandflexibilityto the armed mass. Without discipline an army is only an armed mob over which a commander would have no control, and upon which he could not rely in the execution of his plans. When the army is to be mobilized the regiments are brought together and organized intobrigadesanddivisions. Two or more regiments form a brigade; two or more brigades form a division. A general officer of the grade ofbrigadier-generalis assigned to the command of a brigade, and one of the grade ofmajor-generalto the command of a division. These divisions and brigades may be composed entirely of one arm, or they may be composed of troops belonging to all four of the arms.
Thedivisionis the unit of organization and administration of a mobilized army, and is also thetacticalunit of the general in command. When the army is very large, three or four divisions are joined together and form anarmy corps. The officer commanding an army corps should be of a higher grade than he who commands a division. This grade in the U. S. army would be that oflieutenant-general.
Anarmy corpsis most generally composed of all arms of service, and is, to all intents and purposes, an army complete in itself. Two or more army corps or armies would be under the command of thegeneral, or of a “general-in-chief.” There has arisen an organization forming an essential part of every army, known as thegeneral staff, and divided into corps and departments to which are assigned special duties. In some cases, the term “general staff” is limited to include only those officers who are used by the general to communicate his orders, and to inform him of the general and particular conditions of the troops; and the term “staff department” or “supply department” is used to include those officers whose duties are confined to distinct branches of service having for their object the supply of troops. If the army is one of very great size, the general ordinarily attaches to his headquarters a representative of the three arms of artillery, cavalry, and engineers, giving them the position of staff-officers with the name of “chief of artillery,” “chief of cavalry,” etc. They are required to keep the general informed of the state of supplies, and whatever concerns their particular arm, in a similar manner to that required by the other officers of the staff. The general also appoints from the subordinate officers belonging to his command a certain number ofaides-de-camp. These officers areex officioadjutants-general, and receive orders from the general himself. They are confidential officers, who are supposed to be used only in delicate and difficult duties, where they may in a degree represent the general. Hence, they are intrusted to deliver verbal orders which cannot be intrusted with propriety to enlisted men or to the ordinary means of communication.
Proportion of Arms of Service.—The mass of a modern army is composed of infantry. The amount of cavalry will depend upon the topographical features of the country, being in some cases as much as one-fourth of the infantry, and in others as little as one-tenth. The amount of light artillery depends upon the character of the country. There should be at least two guns to every thousand men. The quantity of heavy artillery, or number of siege-batteries, which enter the composition of an army, will depend to a great extent upon the plan of campaign and the probable use for which they may be intended. The circumstances of the case in each campaign will therefore decide as to the proportion to be employed. The number of engineer troops will depend both on the nature of the country and on the probable amount of work which will be required from this class of troops. Each division should contain at least one company of engineer troops. It is usual, if there be none, to detail one or more companies of infantry to act as engineer soldiers; they are designated as “pioneers.” These engineer troops, or troops acting in that capacity, marching in the advance, make the roads practicable for the command by repairing them, removing obstructions, etc. At the crossing of streams, where bridges are to be made, or where existing bridges are to be repaired to an extent requiring more knowledge of bridge construction than that usually possessed by the pioneer, another detachment of troops belonging to the engineer arm is brought forward to do the work. These troops are known aspontoniers, and have special charge of bridge construction for the army. They may be divided into two parts: one to have charge of construction of temporary bridges, especially of floating and trestle bridges, and construction of ferries; the other to have charge of repairs of bridges which have been broken or injured by the enemy, and where quick repair is of importance to an army’s movements. These troops charged with bridge construction usually form a part of the reserve, and are only attached to a division under peculiar circumstances. There should be also in the reserve several companies of sappers and miners; their number, like the heavy artillery, being dependent upon the nature of the campaign.
Thearmy, as a machine, is now ready to be used by the general. The next step is to keep it in a condition so that it can be used; in other words, topreservethe fighting condition of the army. The discipline and drill have been cared for, and with the organization just sketched out, the general can move the whole mass as a unit in accordance with his will. The army can be kept ready for use only by supplying all the actual and necessary wants of the soldier, and by keeping him in comfort and good health. To do this there must be ammunition, clothing, food, shelter, medicines, surgical attendance, hospital comforts, etc., provided for his use. Also a good system of recruiting must be adopted, by means of which the natural losses due to sickness and death may be made good.
Thetransportationof the munitions, equipments, provisions, hospital supplies, tents, engineering tools, bridge equipage and boats, baggage, cooking utensils, etc., necessary for the use of an army moving against an enemy, requires the use of large numbers of wagons and a great number of draught animals, which of course should not exceed the absolute necessity of the service. These accompaniments to the army received from the Romans the name ofimpedimenta, for the reason that they hindered the movement of the army. These supply departments form important parts of the composition of a modern army, and the method of executing the duties assigned them constitutes an important branch of the “science and art of war.”—Prof. J. B. Wheeler.
Organize.To arrange or constitute in parts, each having a special function, act, office, or relation; as, to organize an army, etc.
Orgue(Fr.un orgue). A term used to express that arrangement or disposition of a certain quantity of musket-barrels in a row, which, by means of a priming train of gunpowder, may be subjected to one general explosion. This machine has been found extremely serviceable in the defense of a low flank, a tenaille, or to prevent an enemy from crossing the ditch of a fortified place.
Orgues.Are beams of wood hanging perpendicularly over the entrance of a fortified town, which were formerly used as a portcullis, to be dropped in case of any emergency. They are not now used.
Orient.The east or eastern part of the horizon. In surveying,to orienta plan signifies to make its situation or bearing with respect to the four cardinal points.
Oriflamme, orAuriflamme. A banner which originally belonged to the abbey of St. Denis, and was borne by the counts of Vexin, patrons of that church, but which, after the country of Vexin fell into the hands of the French crown, became the principal banner of the kingdom. It was charged with a saltire wavy or, with rays issuing from the centre crossways. In later times the oriflamme became the insignia of the French infantry. The name seems also to have been given to other flags; the oriflamme borne at Agincourt was an oblong red flag split into five parts.
Orihuela.A town of Spain, in Valencia, on the Segura, 31 miles southwest from Alicante. It was a place of some importance in the Moorish invasion, and was held in 713 successfully by Theodoric against Abd-el-Aziz after the battle of the Guadalete. It was conquered in 1265 by Don Jaime of Aragon for his father-in-law, Don Alonso, king of Castile. The city was sacked in 1520 in the civil war at that time raging, and again in the War of the Succession, 1706. It was held for some time in 1837 by the Carlist general Forcadell.
Orillon.This may be described as a projection at the shoulder of a bastion beyond the ordinary flank of a curved portion of rampart and parapet, the curve being convex to the ditch. The orillon, introduced during the 17th century, was generally used in conjunction with a retired flank, made ordinarily with a curve concave to the ditch. Both orillon and retired flank are now obsolete.
Orissa.An extensive province of Hindostan, in the Deccan. A race of Hindoo princes governed the country till 1592, when they were conquered by the viceroy of Akbar. The French, who had taken possession of a part of the country long known as the Northern Circars, attempted to drive the English (who had formed commercial settlements on the coast) out of India. The result of the contest for supremacy in India between the French and English is well known. The Mahrattas, who had seized a portion of Orissa in 1740, were forced to surrender it to the English in 1803. The soldiers of the East India Company were marched into Orissa at the commencement of the present century, and an engagement was subsequently entered into between the Company and the native chiefs and princes, by which the former bound themselves to perform certain services for the country (as maintaining the river-banks in good repair), while the latter engaged to pay a yearly tribute.
Orizaba.A town of Mexico, in the department of Vera Cruz, 60 miles southwest from Vera Cruz. It was occupied by Gen. Prim, in command of the Spanish troops that formed part of the expedition sent by England, France, and Spain to Mexico in March, 1862. A conference was held here shortly after the occupation of the town between the plenipotentiaries of the three powers, when the English and Spanish commissioners determined to withdraw their contingents from Mexico, in accordance with the terms of the treaty of Soledad, while the French on the other hand resolved to push on to the capital, to establish a settled government in the country in lieu of that of Juarez.
Orkney Islands(anc.Orcades). A clusterof islands in the North Sea, separated from the north coast of Scotland by the Pentland Firth. From an early period the Norsemen resorted to these islands as a convenient spot from which to make a descent on the Scotch and English coasts. In 876 Harald Haarfager conquered both them and the Hebrides; they were conquered by Magnus III. of Norway in 1499, and were ceded to James III. in 1469.
Orle.In heraldry, one of the charges known under the charge of sub-ordinaries, said to be the diminutive of a bordure, but differing from it in being detached from the sides of the shield. Or an orle gules was the coat borne by John Baliol. An orle of heraldic charges of any kind denotes a certain number (generally eight) of these charges placed in orle, as in the coat of the old Scottish family of Gladstanes of that Ilk; argent, a savage’s head couped, distilling drops of blood proper, thereon a bonnet composed of bay and holly leaves all proper, within an orle of eight martlets sable.
Orléans.An important town of France, capital of the department of Loiret, 75 miles south-southwest from Paris by railway. Orléans, originally calledGenabum, afterwardsAureliani(probably from the emperor Aurelian), was besieged by Attila in 451, but relieved by the Romans, who here defeated Attila. It afterwards passed into the hands of the Franks, was taken by the Northmen in 855, and again in 865. In 1428 it was besieged by the English under the Duke of Bedford, but was delivered from the besiegers by the inspiriting exertions of Joan of Arc, who on this account is also named the Maid of Orléans. In the civil wars of the 16th century it was besieged in 1563 by the Duke of Guise, who was assassinated before the walls. During the Franco-Prussian war, 1870-71, Orléans was occupied by the Germans, September 27, and evacuated November 10, 1870.
Ormskirk.A town of England, county of Lancaster, 12 miles north by east from Liverpool. Near this place, in 1644, the royalists were defeated by the Parliamentary troops with great slaughter.
Ormus, orOrmuz. A small island in the strait of the same name, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, and within 10 miles of the Persian coast. It is about 12 miles in circumference, and belongs to the sultan of Muscat. It was occupied by the Portuguese in the 16th century. The town was demolished in 1622 by Shah Abbas, assisted by the English, and its trade was removed to Gombroon.
Ornamental Fireworks.SeePyrotechny.
Ornaments, Military.Are those parts of the dress of a soldier which are more for appearance or distinction than for absolute use, as plates for belts, trimmings, etc.
Orneæ.An ancient town in Argolis, near the frontiers of the territory of Philius, and 120 stadia from Argus. It was originally independent of Argos, but was subdued by the Argives in the Peloponnesian war, 415B.C.
Orteil.SeeBerme.
Ortelsburg.A town of East Prussia, in the government of Königsberg, 80 miles southeast of Königsberg. Several engagements took place here between the French and Russians in 1807.
Orthez, orOrthes. A town of France, in the department of the Lower Pyrenees, situated on the Gave de Pau, 25 miles northwest from Pau. It suffered much during the civil wars in France after the Revolution. Near this town the British and Spanish armies commanded by Wellington defeated the French under Soult, February 27, 1814.
Ortona.An ancient city of Latium, situated on the confines of the Æquian territory. It is twice mentioned during the wars of the Romans with the latter people: first in 481B.C., when it was besieged and taken by the Æquians; and again in 457B.C., when the Æquians by a sudden attack took Corbio, and after putting to the sword the Roman garrison there, made themselves masters of Ortona also; but the consul Horatius engaged and defeated them at Mount Algidus, and after driving them from that position, recovered possession both of Corbio and Ortona. No mention of it is found in later times, and it probably ceased to exist.
Orvieto.Called in the time of the LongobardsUrbs Vetus, of which its present name is a corruption, a city of Italy, province of Perugia; is of Etruscan origin, but of its early history nothing is known. It has been a place of residence and retreat in turbulent times of upwards of thirty popes.
Osage Indians.A tribe of aborigines of Dakota stock who are located, to the number of about 2500, on a reservation in Indian Territory. They are divided into eight bands,—the Beavers, Big Chiefs, Big Hills, Black Dogs, Clammores, Half-Breeds, Little Osages, and White Hairs, and have made but little progress in civilization.
Oschatz.A town of Saxony, circle of Leipsic, 31 miles east-southeast from Leipsic. It was here that the treaty of peace was concluded between Frederick the Great and the empress Maria Theresa which put an end to the Seven Years’ War, in 1763.
Osci, orOpici. One of the most ancient tribes of Italy; they inhabited the centre of the peninsula, from which they had driven out the Siculi. Their principal settlement was in Campania, but we also find them in parts of Latium and Samnium. They were subdued by the Sabines and Tyrrhenians, and disappeared from history at a comparatively early period. They were called in their own languageUskus.
Osnabruck, orOsnaburg. A town in Hanover, 71 miles from Hanover. Here was concluded the peace of Westphalia in 1648.
Ossun.A town of France, in the department of the Upper Pyrenees, 7 miles southwest from Tarbes. A great battle was fought with the Saracens, in the 8th century, in its neighborhood.
Ostend.A fortified seaport town of Belgium, province of West Flanders, situated on the coast of the North Sea, 67 miles northwest from Brussels. During the war of the Dutch against Spain, Ostend sustained a memorable siege for more than three years (1601-4). So tremendous was the bombardment that the noise of the Spanish artillery is said to have been occasionally heard at London. At last, after a loss of 50,000 men on the part of the garrison, and 80,000 on that of the Spaniards, the town surrendered on honorable terms, and the Spanish general Spinola was put in possession of Ostend, now reduced to heaps of ruin. On the death of Charles II. of Spain, the French seized Ostend; but in 1706, after the battle of Ramilies, it was retaken by the allies. It was again taken by the French in 1745, but restored in 1748. In 1756 the French garrisoned this town for the empress queen Maria Theresa. In 1792 the French once more took Ostend, which they evacuated in 1793, but regained in 1794. The English destroyed the works of the Bruges Canal; but the wind shifting before they could re-embark, they surrendered to the French, May 19, 1798.
Ostrolenka.A town of Poland, on the Narew. Near here the French repulsed the Russians under Essen, February 16, 1807, and an indecisive and bloody engagement took place between the Poles under Skrzynecki and the Russians under Diebitsch, May 26, 1831.
Ostrovno.A village of Russia, in the government of Mohilev, 90 miles northwest from Mohilev. The Russians were defeated here in 1812 by the French.
Oswego, Fort.SeeFort Ontario.
Oswestry.A town of England, in Shropshire, 15 miles northwest from Shrewsbury. Oswestry is said to derive its name (originallyOswaldstree) from Oswald, the king of Northumbria, who was slain here in the early part of the 7th century, in a battle fought with the ferocious Penda, king of Mercia.
Otaheite, orTahiti. The largest of a cluster of islands in the South Pacific Ocean, that were frequently visited by Capt. Cook, and named by him the Society Islands. In 1799, King Pomare ceded the district of Matavai to some English missionaries. Queen Pomare was compelled to put herself under the protection of France, September 7, 1843. She retracted, and Otaheite and the neighboring islands were taken possession of by Admiral Dupetit-Thuars in the name of the French king, November, 1843. The French imprisoned Mr. Prichard, the English consul, March 5, 1844, but the act was censured in France.
Otchakow.A small town and seaport of South Russia, in the government of Kherson, 40 miles east-northeast from Odessa. During the Russian wars with Turkey in the 18th century, Otchakow was alternately the property of each, until it was taken by Potemkin in 1788, and definitively annexed to the Russian dominions.
Otoes.A tribe of Indians of Dakota stock who reside with the Missourias on a reservation in Nebraska. They are generally peaceful and industrious, and number with their kindred tribe about 450.
Otomis, orOthomis. An ancient tribe of Indians who are said to have inhabited the Valley of Mexico before the Aztecs. They are now scattered through different parts of the country, and having lost all tribal distinctions are become amalgamated with other Mexican races.
Otricoli.A town of Italy, 37 miles north of Rome. The Neapolitans were defeated by the French in its neighborhood in 1798.
Ottawas.A tribe of Algonkin Indians, who formerly resided on the shores of Lake Erie. They subsequently moved to Kansas, and in 1870 settled in Indian Territory, where they now prosper. They are well advanced in civilization. A number of this tribe settled in Canada, where their descendants may yet be found; some are also settled on Lake Michigan with the Chippewas.
Otterburn(or Chevy Chase),Battle of. Was fought in August, 1388; a fight which Froissart declares to have been the bravest and most chivalrous which was fought in his day. According to the ballad (named Chevy Chase) Percy vowed that he would enter Scotland and take his pleasure for three days in the woods of his rival, and slay the deer therein at will. Douglas, when he heard the vaunt, exclaimed, “Tell him he will find one day more than enough.” Accordingly, at the time of the hay harvest, Percy, with stag-hounds and archers, passed into the domains of his foe, and slew a “hundred fallow deer and harts of grice.” When the English had hastily cooked their game and were about to retire, Earl Douglas, clad in armor and heading his Scottish spears, came on the scene. Haughty challenge and defiance passed between the potentates, and the battle joined. In the centre of the fray the two leaders met. “Yield thee, Percy!” cried Douglas. “I will yield to no Scot that was ever born of a woman!” cried Percy. During this colloquy, an English arrow struck Douglas to the heart. “Fight on, my merry men!” cried he, as he died. Percy, with all the chivalrous feeling of his race, took the dead man by the hand, and vowed that he would have given all his lands to save him, for a braver knight never fell by such a chance. Sir Hugh Montgomery having seen the fall of Douglas, clapped spurs to his horse, dashed on Percy, and struck his spear through his body, a long cloth-yard and more. Although the leaders on both sides had fallen, the battle, which had begun at break of day, continued tillthe ringing of the curfew-bell. Scotsmen and Englishmen claim the victory. When the battle ended, representatives of every noble family on either side of the border lay on the bloody greensward.
Oude, orOudh. A province of British India, separated on the north from Nepaul by the lower ranges of the Himalaya, whence it gradually slopes to the Ganges, which forms its boundary on the south and southwest. The people of this province are of a decidedly warlike disposition; they mainly supply the famous (or infamous) Sepoys of the Bengal army. Oude is believed by Sanscrit scholars to be the ancient Kosala, the oldest seat of civilization in India. The country was conquered by a Mohammedan army in 1195, and made a province of the Mogul empire. In 1753 the vizier of Oude, Saffdar Jung, rebelled against his imperial master, Ahmed Shah, and forced the latter to make the governorship hereditary in his family. When the mutiny of 1857 broke out, Oude became one of the great centres of rebellion. The country was subdued by the British.
Oudenarde(Fr.Audenarde). A town of Belgium, in East Flanders, 14 miles southwest from Ghent. The town was taken by the French, aided by an English force, in 1658; it was again besieged in 1674 by the stadtholder William (III. of England) of Orange; and in 1706 it was taken by Marlborough. An attempt made by the French to retake it brought on the famous battle of Oudenarde, one of Marlborough’s most celebrated victories, which was gained on July 11, 1708, with the aid of Prince Eugène, over a French army under the Duke of Burgundy and Marshal Villars. After this battle the French king made offers of peace, which were not accepted.
Oulart(Southeast Ireland). Here 5000 Irish insurgents attacked the king’s troops in small number, May 27, 1798. The North Cork militia, after great feats of bravery, were cut to pieces, 5 men only escaping.
Ourique.A town of Portugal, province of Alemtijo, 30 miles southwest of Beja. Hero Alfonso, count or duke of Portugal, is said to have encountered and signally defeated five Saracen kings and a prodigious army of Moors, July 25, 1139, and to have been hailed king on the spot. Lisbon, the capital, was taken, and he soon after was here crowned as the first king, the Moorish dominion being overthrown.
Outbar.To shut out by fortification.
Outbrave.To excel in bravery or boldness; to defy.
Outfit.In the British service, is the necessaries, uniform, etc., which an officer provides when he is gazetted to a regiment, or as proceeding to India. No allowance is made for an outfit, excepting in case of officers first promoted from the ranks, when £100 is granted to infantry and £150 to cavalry officers.
Outflank.To go beyond on the flank or side; to get the better of, as by extending one’s lines beyond or around that of one’s enemy.
Outgeneral.To exceed in generalship; to gain advantage over by superior military skill.
Outguard.A guard at a distance from the main body of an army; or a guard at the farthest distance; hence, anything for defense placed at a distance from the thing to be defended.
Outline, orTracing. Is the succession of lines that show the figure of the works, and indicate the direction in which the defensive masses are laid out, in order to obtain a proper defense.
Outlyers.In the British service, formerly this term applied to men who were permitted to work, on condition that the whole of their pay was left in the hands of their captain for the time they were so employed. This sum the officer appropriated to his own use, to enable him to increase his pay and to keep a handsome table when he mounted guard. It was also a common practice to place on the muster-rolls the names of officers’ children, and instances have occurred of girls receiving men’s pay as outlyers.
Outlying.Lying or being at a distance from the main body; as, outlying pickets. Also, being on the exterior or frontier.
Outmanœuvre.To surpass in manœuvring.
Outmarch.To march faster than; to march so as to leave behind; as, the horse outmarched the foot.
Outnumber.To exceed in number; as, the French were outnumbered.
Outpart.At a distance from the main body.
Out-pensioner.A pensioner attached to a hospital, as Greenwich or Chelsea, England, who has liberty to live where he pleases.
Outpost.A post or station without the limits of a camp, or at a distance from the main body of an army. The troops placed at such a station.
Outposts.The term,outposts, is used at the present time to designate the particular detachments of troops and the method of arranging them, by means of which an army when in bivouac, in camp, or in cantonment, is protectedfromsurpriseby an enemy.
Outrank.To take the precedence of, or be superior to, in rank; to rank.
Out-sentry.A sentry who guards the entrance or approach to a place; an outguard.
Outside.In fencing, that part which is to the right of the line of defense.
Outside Guard.A guard used with the broadsword and sabre, to defend the outside of the position.
Outwall.The exterior wall of a building or fortress.
Outward Face.A word of command for troops to face to the right and left from their centre.
Outwing, To.To extend the flanks of an army or line in action, so as to gain an advantageous position against the right or left wing of an enemy.
Outworks.In fortification, are minor defenses constructed beyond the main body of a work, for the purpose of keeping the enemy at a distance, or commanding certain salient points which it is undesirable that he should occupy. Such works are ravelins, lunettes, hornworks, crown-works, demi-lunes, tenailles, etc. They occur in certain necessary order, as a ravelin before the curtain and tenaille, a hornwork before a ravelin, and so on.
Ovation.SeeTriumph.
Ovens.Are always provided in garrisons, so that the troops may bake their own bread. A large saving of flour is thus made, which is the most considerable element of the post fund. A brick oven large enough to bake 500 rations can be constructed in less than twenty-four hours. The cylindrical form is greatly to be preferred, as it is more easily made and requires less material than the ordinary forms. The want of brick for the arch and fireplace of ovens may be supplied in the field by two gabions of semicircular or semi-elliptical form. They are placed one above the other on the flat side, and form a cradle. The interior and exterior is plastered with clay, which must penetrate the interstices of the basket-work. The front and back parts are shut in the same manner, or with sods. The cradle is then covered with earth to retain the heat; and in order that the superincumbent weight may not cause it to give way, withes are attached to the top of the basket-work, passed vertically through the embankment, and then fastened to the longitudinal beam of a wooden horse straddled against the exterior curve. Ovens may also be made of wood or earth. To construct rapidly an earthen oven, dig a slope with a step, and on its prolongation dig the length of the oven in a trench separated from the step by a mass of earth, to be pierced later as the mouth of the oven. Then dig laterally portions of an elliptical arch so as to make the arch a given breadth. This work finished, pierce the mouth, and cover the trench with from three to five sods as arch stones, leaving a chimney-place at the bottom. Ovens for from 100 to 250 rations may be thus made. In some European armies they have very convenient portable ovens.
Over.Above in place, position, or authority; as, he was placed in command over Lord Monkton.
Overcharge.An excessive charge, as of a gun.
Overcharge.To fill with too much powder and ball, as a gun.
Overcharged Mine.A mine whose crater is wider at top than it is deep.
Overlap.Is to overspread any preceding object. In marching by echelon for the purpose of forming upon any given point, but particularly in wheeling from column into line, troops may lose their relative distances by not taking ground enough; when this occurs, the rear division, company, or section, unavoidably crowds upon its preceding one, and is then said to overlap.
Overmarch.To fatigue or wear out by too much marching.
Overmatch.To be too powerful for; to conquer; to subdue; to suppress by superior force. Also, one superior in power; one able to overcome.
Overpower.To vanquish by force; to subdue; to defeat.
Overrun.In a military sense, to ravage, to lay waste. A country which is harassed by incursions is said to be overrun.
Overseer.An officer in the ordnance department, who superintends the artificers in the construction of works, etc. He is also called a superintendent.
Overshoot.To shoot beyond the mark.
Overslaugh.To hinder or stop; as, by an overslaugh or unexpected impediment; as, to overslaugh a military officer, that is, to hinder or stop his promotion or employment by the appointment of another to his rank or duties.
Overthrow.Total defeat; discomfiture; rout.
Overturn.To overthrow; to conquer.
Oviedo.A town of Spain, capital of the province of the same name, 55 miles north-northwest of Leon. This city was twice plundered of its ecclesiastical and other treasures during the war of independence, first by Soult, and subsequently by Bonnet.
Own, King’sorQueen’s. A term which has been attached to some British regiments since the revolution in 1688. Thus the 4th Foot, which landed with William III., was called the 4th King’s Own.
Owyhee, orHawaii. An island in the North Pacific Ocean, the most eastern, and by far the largest of the Sandwich Islands. It was on this island that the celebrated Capt. Cook fell a sacrifice to a misunderstanding, or sudden impulse of revenge on the part of the natives, on Sunday, February 14, 1779.
Ox.SeeBullock.
Oxford.An ancient and famous city in England, the chief town of the county of Oxford, 55 miles west-northwest from London. The townsmen closed their gates against William the Conqueror, who stormed the town in 1067, and gave it to one of his followers, Robert d’Oyley, who built a castle here to overawe the disaffected Saxons. The paction that terminated the strife between Stephen and Henry II. was drawn up at Oxford. During the great civil war of the 17th century, it was for a while the headquarters of the royalist forces, and was conspicuous for its adherence to the cause of Charles I.
Oxford Blues.SeeHorse Guards, Royal.