T=1⁄4√X
In whichTrepresents the time of flight, andXthe range expressed in feet. These results are found to answer in practice for projectiles which experience slight resistance from the air, or for heavy projectiles moving with low velocities, as is usually the case with those of mortars and howitzers, for which, within certain limits, the above results are sufficiently accurate in practice.
Trajectory in Air.—A body moving in air experiences a resistance which diminishes the velocity with which it is animated. Thus it has been shown that certain cannon-balls do not range one-eighth as far in the air, as they would if they did not meet with this resistance to their motion, and small-arm projectiles which have but little mass are still more affected by it. This resistance is expressed by the formula:
P=ApR2(1 +vr)v2;
in whichPrepresents the resistance in the terms of the unit of weight,vthe velocity, andpR2the area of a cross-section of the projectile,Athe resistance in pounds on a square foot of the cross-section of a projectile moving with a velocity of one foot,ris a linear quantity depending on the velocity of the projectile. For all service spherical projectilesAis .000514, and for all service velocitiesris 1.427 feet; the value ofAfor the rifle-musket bullet is .000358; hence, the resistance of the air is about one-third less on the ogival than on the spherical form of projectile.Abeing a function of the density of air, its value depends on the temperature, pressure, and hygrometric condition. It has been demonstrated that the final velocity of a projectile falling in the air is directly proportional to the product of its diameter and density, and inversely proportional to the density of the air; the retarding effect of the air is less on the larger and denser projectiles, and for the same caliber an oblong projectile will be less retarded by the air than one of spherical form and consequently with an equal, perhaps less, initial velocity, its range will be greater. It has also been shown that great advantage in point of range is obtained by using large projectiles instead of small ones, solid projectiles instead of hollow ones, leaden projectiles instead of iron ones, and oblong projectiles instead of round ones. The ogival form, or the form of the present rifle-musket bullet, experiences less resistance in passing through the air than any other known. In consequence of the variable nature of the resistance of the air, it has been found impossible to find an accurate expression for the trajectory. Capt. Didion, of Metz, has, however, found an approximate solution; he states that all cases of the movement of a projectile may be divided into three classes: 1st. When the angle of projection is slight or does not exceed 3°, as in the ordinary fire of guns, howitzers, and small-arms,—for slight variations of the angle of projection above or below the horizontal, the form of the trajectory may be considered constant, and when the object is but slightly raised above or depressed belowthe horizontal plane, it may be considered as in this plane. 2d. When angles of projection do not exceed 10° or 15°, as in the ricochet fire of guns, howitzers, and mortars. 3d. When the angle of projection exceeds 15°, as is the case in mortar fire. For each of these cases he has deduced formulæ, by means of which the range, time of flight, etc., can be determined. As a projectile rises in the ascending branch of its trajectory, its velocity is diminished by the retarding effect of the air, and the force of gravity, in consequence of the resistance of the air alone, the velocity continues to diminish to a point a little beyond the summit of the trajectory, where it is a minimum, and from this point it increases, as it descends, under the influence of the force of gravity, until it becomes uniform, which event depends on the diameter and weight of the projectile, and the density of the air.
The inclination of the trajectory decreases from the origin to the summit, where it is nothing, it increases in the descending branch from the summit to its termination, and if the ground did not interpose an obstacle, it would become vertical at an infinite distance. An element of the trajectory in the descending branch has a greater inclination than the corresponding element of the ascending branch. Strictly speaking, therefore, the trajectory of a projectile in air is not a parabola, but is an exponential curve with two asymptotes, the first the axis of the piece, which is tangent to the trajectory when the initial velocity is infinite, the second a vertical line toward which the trajectory approaches, as the horizontal component of the velocity diminishes and the effect of the force of gravity increases. The curvature of the trajectory increases in the ascending branch to a point a little beyond the summit. The point of greatest curvature is situated nearer the summit than the point of minimum velocity. In the fire of mortar-shells, under great angles of projection, the trajectory may be considered as an arc, in which the angle of fall is slightly greater than the angle of projection. In the formulæ deduced by Didion, in consequence of considering the inclination of the trajectory as constant, the resistance of the air is slightly underestimated in the more inclined portions of the trajectory or at the beginning and end, and slightly overestimated in the less inclined portions or about the summit. It follows that the calculated trajectory will at first rise above the true one, then pass below it and again pass above it; the calculated ranges are therefore slightly in excess of the true ones.
Trajectory of Oblong Projectiles.—From the law of inertia, a rifle projectile moves through the air with its axis of rotation parallel to the axis of the bore. Hence it follows that an oblong projectile, fired under a low angle of projection, presents a greater surface toward the earth, and less parallel to it, than a round projectile of the same weight, consequently the vertical component of the resistance of the air is greater, and the horizontal component less, in the first case than in the second. The effect of this will be to give an oblong projectile a flatter trajectory and longer range than a round one.
Deviation of Projectiles.—The path described by the centre of inertia of a projectile, moving under the influences of gravity and the tangential resistance of the air, is called thenormal trajectory. In practice, various causes are constantly at work to deflect a projectile from its normal path. All deviating causes may be divided into two classes,—those which act while the projectile is in the bore of the piece, and those which act after the projectile has left it. The first class includes all the causes which affect the initial velocity, and give rotation to the projectile; the second includes the action of the air.
Causes which affect Initial Velocity.—The principal causes which affect initial velocity are variations in the weights of the powder and projectile, the manner of loading, the temperature of the piece, and the balloting of the projectile along the bore.Rotation.The principal cause of the deviation of a projectile is its rotation combined with the resistance of the air.By balloting.If the projectile be spherical and homogeneous, rotation is produced by the bounding or balloting of the ball in the bore, arising from the windage. In this case the axis of rotation is horizontal, and passes through the centre of the ball; the direction of rotation depends on the side of the projectile which strikes the surface of the bore last. The velocity of rotation from this cause depends on the windage, or depth of the indentations in the bore, the charge being the same.By eccentricity.If, from the structure of the ball, or from some defect of manufacture, the centre of gravity does not coincide with the centre of figure, rotation generally takes place around the centre of gravity. This arises from the fact that the resultant of the charge acts at the centre of figure, while inertia, or resistance to motion, acts at the centre of gravity. For the same charge the velocity of rotation passes through the centre of gravity, and is perpendicular to a plane containing the resultant of the charge and the centres of figure and gravity. For the same charge, the velocity of rotation is proportional to the lever arm, or the perpendicular, let fall from the centre of gravity to the resultant of the charge. Knowing the position of the centre of gravity of the ball in the bore, it is easy to foretell the direction and velocity of rotation. In general terms the front surface of the projectile moves toward the side of the bore on which the centre of gravity is situated, and the velocity of rotation is greatest when the line joining the centres of gravity and figure is perpendicular to the axis of the bore.
The Effect of Rotation.—The effect of rotation in producing deviation may be discussed under three heads: 1st. When the projectile is spherical and concentric; 2d. When it is spherical and eccentric; and, 3d. When it is oblong. If a projectile be spherical and concentric, rotation takes place from contact with the surface of the bore around a horizontal axis, and the effect will be to shorten or lengthen the range, as the motion of the front surface is downward or upward. If the projectile be eccentric, the motion of the front surface is generally toward the side on which the centre of gravity is situated, and the deviation takes place in this direction. The extent of the deviation for the same charge depends on the position of the centre of gravity; the horizontal deviation being the greatest when the centres of gravity and figure are in a horizontal plane, and the line which joins them is at right angles to the axis of the piece; the vertical deviation will be the greatest when these centres are in a vertical plane, and the line which joins them is at right angles to the axis of the piece. If the axis of rotation coincide with the tangent to the trajectory throughout the flight, all points of the surface have the same velocity in the direction of the motion of translation, and there will be no deviation. This explains why it is that a rifle projectile moves through the air more accurately than a projectile from a smooth-bored gun. In accurate firing, therefore, it is important to know the true position of the centre of gravity. In ricochet firing over smooth water, the number of grazes may be increased or diminished by placing, in loading, the centre of gravity above or below the centre of figure.
Deviation of Oblong Projectiles.—The cause of the deviation of an oblong rifle projectile is quite different from one of spherical form. An oblong projectile moving in the air is acted upon by two rotary forces, viz.: one which gives it its normal rotary motion around its axis of progression, and another the resistance of the air, which, in consequence of the deflection of the axis of progression from the tangent to the trajectory by the action of gravity, does not pass through the centre of inertia, but above or below it; depending on the shape of the projectile. From a law of mechanics, a body thus circumstanced will not yield fully to either of the forces that thus act upon it, but its apex will move off with a slow uniform motion to the right or left of the vertical plane, depending on the relative direction of the two rotary forces. If the action of these forces be continued sufficiently long, it will be seen that the axis of the projectile before referred to describes a cone around a line passing through the centre of inertia and parallel to the direction of the resistance of the air. Owing to the short duration of the flight of an ordinary projectile, it is only necessary to consider the first part of this conical motion. If the projectile rotates in the direction of the hands of a watch to the eye of the marksman, and the resultant of the resistance of the air pass above the centre of inertia, as it does in the service bullet with a conoidal point, then the point of the projectile will move to the right, which brings the left side of the projectile obliquely in contact with the current of the air. The effect of this position with reference to the air will be to generate a component force that will urge the projectile to the right of the plane of fire. This peculiar deviation was called by the French officers that first observed it, “derivation,” or “drift.”
Summary of Deviating Causes.—The following summary may be considered as embracing nearly all the causes of deviation of cannon and small-arm projectiles: 1st.From the construction of the piece.These causes are, wrong position of the sight; bore not of the true size; windage, etc. 2d.From the charge of powder.Improper weight; form of grain and variable quality of the powder, etc. 3d.From the projectile.Not of the exact size, shape, or weight; disfiguration in loading, or on leaving the bore; eccentricity. 4th.From the atmosphere,etc.The effect of wind; variations in the temperature, moisture, and density of the air; position of the sun as regards the effect on the aim; difference of level between the object and the piece; and rotation of the earth. It is found that a projectile will deviate to the right of the object in the northern hemisphere whatever may be the direction of the line of fire, and at a distance from it, depending on the latitude of the place, and on the time of flight and the range of the projectile.
Projectiles, Effects of.The effects of projectiles, and particularly that of penetration, depend on the nature of the projectile, its initial velocity, and the distance of the object. The effects of the various kinds of projectiles upon iron and steel plates are not yet thoroughly understood, and experiments are still being made, particularly in England, to determine the best combinations of wrought and cast iron, and steel, to resist the penetration of the enormous projectiles of the present day. Their effects upon wood, earth, etc., are, however, better understood.
Effect on Wood.—The effect of a projectile fired against wood varies with the nature of the wood and the direction of the penetration. If the projectile strikes perpendicular to the fibres, and the fibres be tough and elastic, as in the case of oak, a portion of them are crushed, and others are bent under the pressure of the projectile, but regain their form as soon as it has passed by them. In consequence of the softness of white pine, nearly all the fibres struck are broken, and the orifice is nearly the size of the projectile; for the same reason the effects of the projectile do not extend much beyond the orifice; pine is therefore to be preferred to oak for structures that are not intended to resist cannon projectiles, as block-houses, etc.
Effect on Earth.—Earth possesses advantages over all other materials as a covering against projectiles; it is cheap and easily obtained, it offers considerable resistance to penetration, and to a certain extent regains its position after displacement. It is found by experience that a projectile has very little effect on an earthen parapet unless it passes completely through it. Wherever masonry is liable to be breached, it should be masked by earthworks with natural slopes. Gen. Gillmore states that the powers of resistance of pure, compact, quartz sand to the penetration of projectiles very much exceed that of ordinary earth, or mixture of several earths. The size of the openings formed by the passage of a projectile into the earth is about one-third larger than the projectile, increasing, however, towards the outer orifice. Rifle projectiles especially are easily deflected from their course in earth, hence their penetration is variable. Unless a shell be very large in proportion to the mass of earth penetrated, its explosion will produce but little displacement,—generally, a small opening is formed around an exploded shell by the action of the gas in pressing back the earth. Time-fuzes, being liable to be extinguished by the pressure of the earth, are inferior to percussion-fuzes, which produce explosion when the projectile has made about three-fourths of its proper penetration. The penetration in earth of oblong, compared to round projectiles, when fired with service charges, and at a distance of about 400 yards, is at leastone-fourth greater. This difference, however, is less at short and greater at long distances. The penetrations of similar projectiles into a given substance, are proportional to the squares of the velocities of impact and to the diameters and densities of the projectiles.
Penetration in Water.—The penetration of a rifle projectile in water depends much on the direction of its axis with respect to penetration; for instance, penetration rapidly diminishes at long distances, as the axis of the projectile strikes the surface of the water under a diminished angle.
Effect on Masonry.—The effect of a projectile against masonry is to form a truncated conical hole, terminated by another of a cylindrical form. The material in front of and around the projectile is broken and shattered, and the end of the cylindrical hole even reduced to powder. The exterior opening varies from four to five times the diameter of the projectile, and the depth varies with the size and density of the projectile, and its velocity. When a projectile strikes against a surface of oak, as the side of a ship, it will not stick if the angle of incidence be less than 15°, and if it do not penetrate to a depth nearly equal to its diameter. Solid cast-iron shot break against granite, but not against freestone or brick. Shells are broken into small fragments against each of these materials.
Breaching.—Formerly stone projectiles were much used for breaching, but from the want of sufficient hardness in these projectiles, the besiegers were forced to commence battering at the top of the wall where the least resistance was offered, and gradually to lower the shot until the breach reached the wrecks already formed at the base of the wall. Iron projectiles superseded stone, and then more rapid modes of effecting a practicable breach were suggested. The easiest manner of making the cut is to direct the shots upon the same line, and form a series of holes a little greater than a diameter apart, and then to fire a second series of shots, directed at the intervals between the first, and so on, until an opening is made completely through the wall. If the portion of the wall between the vertical cuts should not be overthrown by the pressure of the earth behind, it must be detached by a few volleys of solid shot, fired at its centre.
Breaching with Rifle-cannon.—The foregoing has reference particularly to breaching masonry with smooth-bored guns. The same principle is applicable to rifled guns, the only difference being that, from their superior penetration and accuracy, the latter are effective at much longer distances. The most destructive projectile against masonry is the elongated percussion shell.
Effect of Bullets.—From experiments made in Denmark, the following relations were found between the penetration of a bullet in pine and its effects on the body of a living horse, viz.: 1st. When the force of the bullet is sufficient to penetrate 0.31 inch into pine, it is only sufficient to produce a slight contusion of the skin. 2d. When the force of penetration is equal to 0.63 inch, the wound begins to be dangerous, but does not disable. 3d. When the force of penetration is equal to 1.2 inch, the wound is very dangerous. A plate of wrought iron three-sixteenths of an inch thick, is sufficient to resist a rifle-musket bullet at distances varying from 20 to 200 yards. Iron of thickness, however, will not resist bullets of the present day. That a rope mantlet may give full protection against rifle-musket bullets, it should be composed of five layers (three vertical and two horizontal) of 41⁄2-inch rope.
Projection.In mathematics, the action of giving a projectile its motion. It is also used to signify a scheme, plan, or delineation.
Proking-spit.A large Spanish rapier.
Prolongation.An extension of leave of absence, or a continuation of service.
Prolongation of the Line.Is effected by parallel movements at the right or left of any given number of men on a front division.
Prolonge.SeeImplements.
Prolonge-hooks.SeeOrdnance, Carriages for, Nomenclature of Artillery Carriage.
Promotion.This word signifies, in military matters, the elevation of an individual to some appointment of greater rank and trust to the one he holds.
Promulgation.The act of promulgating; publication; open declaration; as, the promulgation of the sentence of a court-martial.
Proof.A term applied to the testing of powder, and also of ordnance, which are always fired with a regulated charge of powder and shot, to test their strength and soundness.
Proof.Conclusive evidence.
Proof.Capable of withstanding; as, bomb-proof, shot-proof.
Propel.To drive forward; to urge or press onward by force; to move or cause to move; balls arepropelledby the force of gunpowder.
Proper.A term which serves to mark out a thing more especially and formally. Thus, theproper form of a battalionis the usual continuity of line given to the formation of a battalion, and which remains unaltered by the wheelings of its divisions; or if altered, is restored by the same operation.Proper right, is the right of a battalion, company, or subdivision, when it is drawn up according to its natural formation.Proper pivot flank, in column, is that which, when wheeled up to, preserves the division of the line in the natural order, and to their proper front. The other may be called thereverseflank.
Proper.In heraldry, a charge borne of its natural color, is said to beproper. An object whose color varies at different times and in different examples, as a rose which may be white or red cannot be borne proper.
Prosecute.To carry on; to continue; as, to prosecute the war. Also, to accuse of some crime or breach of law, or to pursue for punishment before a legal tribunal; to proceed against judicially.
Prosecutor.In courts-martial the judge-advocate is usually the prosecutor; but if an officer prefers a charge, he sometimes appears to sustain the prosecution. No person can appear as prosecutor not subject to the articles of war, except the judge-advocate.—Hough.
Proveditor.One employed to procure supplies for an army; a purveyor.
Proving-ground.Ground used for testing powder or ordnance.
Provision.Properly to victual; to furnish with provisions.
Provost.The temporary prison in which the military police confine prisoners till they are disposed of.
Provost Cells.Also called regimental or garrison cells, in the British service are those certified cells under a provost or acting provost-sergeant, in which court-martial prisoners may be imprisoned up to forty-two days.
Provost-Marshal.In the army, is an officer appointed to superintend the preservation of order, and to be, as it were, the head of the police of any particular camp, town, or district. He has cognizance of all camp-followers, as well as members of the army. His power is summary, and he can punish an offender, takenflagrante delicto, on the spot, according to the articles of war.
Provost-Sergeant.Is a sergeant who is charged with the military police of a corps. He is generally given one or two non-commissioned officers as assistants. In the British service he also is charged with the custody of all prisoners in the cells.
Prowess.Valor; bravery in the field; military gallantry.
Prowlers.Are persons who steal within the lines of a hostile army for the purpose of robbing, killing; or destroying bridges, roads, mails, or other means of communication. Such persons are not entitled to the privileges usually accorded to prisoners of war.
Prussia.A kingdom of the new German empire. The people of Prussia first appear in history in the 10th century, under the name of Borussi; from these the country derives its name. Some historians, however, derive the name fromPo, signifying near, andRussia. The Prussians were subjected by Boleslaus of Poland in 1018; they made a successful stand against Boleslaus IV. of Poland in 1161, and for a time maintained a rude and savage kind of independence. The Teutonic Knights were engaged in war for half a century with the people,—winning lands and souls by hard fighting,—until at length, in 1283, they found themselves undisputed masters of the country, having almost exterminated the pagan population. During this period the knights founded many cities and repeopled the country with German colonists. In 1454 the municipal and noble classes, with the co-operation of Poland, rose in open rebellion against the knights, who were forced to cede West Prussia and Ermland to Poland. Albert (or Albrecht) of Brandenburg was acknowledged duke of East Prussia in 1525; his son-in-law, John Sigismund, created elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia in 1608. The reign of John Sigismund’s successor, Georg-Wilhelm (1619-1640), was distracted by the miseries of the Thirty Years’ War, and the country was alternately the prey of Swedish and imperial armies. The electorate was raised by the genius of Frederick William, the great elector, to the rank of a great European power. His successor, Frederick III. (1688-1713), was proclaimed king of Prussia by the title of Frederick I. in 1701. During the reign of Frederick William IV., Prussia co-operated powerfully in putting down the insurrections in Poland and Baden. In the war of the Schleswig-Holstein duchies, the Prussians acted in concert with the disaffected against their sovereign, the king of Denmark, occupying the ducal provinces in the name and on behalf of the diet. A treaty of peace was concluded between Prussia and Denmark, on July 2, 1850. In 1863 the allied Prussian and Austrian armies entered the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein and defeatedthe Danes; the duchies were separated from Denmark. Warm disputes with Austria respecting Schleswig-Holstein arose in the beginning of 1866. The vote of the majority of the diet of the Germanic Confederation supported Austria; Prussia announced her withdrawal from the confederation, and its dissolution; the diet declared itself indissoluble, and continued its functions, June 14, 1866. War was declared by Prussia, June 18, 1866, which ended in the total defeat of Austria and her allies. A treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia was signed at Prague on August 23, 1866. By its articles Austria consented to the breaking up of the Germanic Confederation, and to Prussia’s annexing Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort-on-the-Main, and gave up Holstein and her political influence in North Germany. For further history, seeFranco-Prussian War.
Pruth.A river of Europe, which rises in the Carpathian Mountains. It forms a portion of the boundary-line between Russia and Turkey, and by crossing it, in 1853, the Russians gave rise to the war with Turkey and the subsequent Crimean war.
Psiloi.Among the Greeks, were light-armed men who fought with arrows and darts, or stones and slings, but were unfit for close fight. They were in honor and dignity inferior to the heavy-armed soldiers.
Publish.To make known. In a garrison orders are published by being read at parade. Orders are also published by circulating written copies.
Puebla, orLa Puebla de los Angeles. Capital of the department of Puebla, in Mexico, 80 miles southeast from the city of Mexico. It was taken by the French on May 17, 1863, after a siege of several weeks’ duration, the Mexican general Ortega, with 18,000 men, surrendering to Gen. Forey. This event threw open the road to Mexico, and was the immediate precursor of the overthrow of the government of Juarez.
Pueblo Indians(Sp.pueblo, “village”). An interesting class of semi-civilized Indians in New Mexico and Arizona, so called from their remarkable residences, a description of some of which may be found underMoquis Indians. They are divided into several tribes speaking different languages. Their internal administration is patriarchal, each pueblo or village being ruled by its governor and council of three elders.
Pulk.A tribe; a particular body of men. This word is chiefly used in Russia; as, a pulk of Cossacks.
Pultowa.SeePoltava.
Pultusk.A town of Poland in the government of Plock, situated on the Narew, 35 miles north-northeast from Warsaw. Here on December 26, 1806, was fought one of the battles of the campaign of Eylau, between the Russians and the French. The field was most obstinately contested, but the victory, which, however, was claimed by both armies, inclined in favor of the French.
Pummel.The hilt of a sword, the end of a gun, etc.
Puncto.The point in fencing.
Punic Wars.The name of three celebrated contests, in which the Romans and Carthaginians were engaged from the year 264 to 146B.C., and which finally terminated with the destruction of Carthage. It was in the second war, which began in 218, that the Carthaginian commander Hannibal rendered himself so distinguished by his victories over the Romans. The illustrious Scipio was eventually the conqueror of Hannibal and the victor of Carthage.Punic faithis a reproachful term in frequent use, derived fromPunici, or Carthaginians, because they were considered by the Romans a perfidious race.
Punishment, Military.In a military sense, is the execution of a sentence pronounced by a court-martial upon any delinquent. The Romans punished crimes committed by the soldiery with the utmost rigor. On the occurrence of a mutiny, every tenth, twentieth, or hundredth man was sometimes chosen by lot, but generally only the ringleaders were selected for punishment. Deserters and seditious persons were frequently, after being scourged, sold for slaves; and occasionally the offender was made to lose his right hand, or was bled nearly to death. Among the nations of Western Europe, the punishments for military offenses were, till lately, no less severe than they were among the Romans. Besides the infliction of a certain number of lashes with cords, soldiers convicted of theft, marauding, or any other breach of discipline which was not punishable with death, were sentenced to run the gantlope. (SeeGantlope.) In Russia the knout was extensively used. (SeeKnout.) It is often necessary to punish to maintain discipline, and the rules and articles of war provide ample means of punishment, but not sufficient rewards and guards against errors of judgment. In the French army degrading punishments are illegal, but soldiers may be confined to quarters or deprived of the liberty of leaving the garrison; confined in the guard-room, in prison, or in dungeon; required to walk or to perform hard labor; and officers may be subjected to simple or rigorous arrests. Every officer who inflicts a punishment, must account for it to his superior, who approves or disapproves, confirms, augments, or diminishes it. If an inferior is confined to the guard-room, he cannot be liberated except upon application to a superior. Any officer who has been subjected to punishment, must, when relieved, make a visit to him who ordered it. The French code has, in a word, been careful to provide for both the security of its citizens and the strength of authority. The punishments established by law or custom for U. S. soldiers by sentence of court-martial, are embodied in the Articles of War. (SeeAppendix,Articles of War.) It is regarded as inhuman to punish by solitaryconfinement, or confinement on bread and water exceeding fourteen days at a time, or for more than eighty-four days in a year, at intervals of fourteen days.
Punitz.A town of Prussia in the province of Posen. A battle was fought here in 1706, between the Saxons and the Swedes, in which the latter were victorious.
Punjab, orFive Rivers. An extensive river of Hindostan, situated chiefly in the province of Lahore, but including Moultan, and comprising the country traversed by the “five great waters,” or rivers, of which the Indus is the most westerly, and the Sutlej the most easterly. This region was traversed by Alexander the Great in 327B.C.; and again by Tamerlane in 1398. The wars with the Sikhs began here on March 29, 1849, when the Punjab was annexed to the British possessions in India.
Punkah.A swinging fan used in the hot districts of India.
Purchasing.Any person purchasing from any soldier his arms, uniform, clothing, or any part thereof, may be punished by any civil court having cognizance of the same, by fine in any sum not exceeding $300, or by imprisonment not exceeding one year.—Act of March 16, 1802.
Purpure.In heraldry, the color purple, expressed in engravings by lines in bend sinister. It is of unfrequent occurrence in British heraldry.
Pursuit.The act of following or going after; a following with haste, either for sport or hostility; as, the pursuit of an enemy.
Pursuivant.The third and lowest order of heraldic officers. The office was instituted as a novitiate, or state of probation, through which the offices of herald and king-at-arms were ordinarily to be attained, though it has been held that a herald or king-at-arms may be madeper saltum. For the present titles of the several British pursuivants, seeHerald. In ancient times any great nobleman might institute his own pursuivant with his own hands and by his single authority. The dukes of Norfolk had a pursuivant calledBlanch-lyon, from the white lion in their arms; the pursuivant of the dukes of Northumberland was styledEspérancefrom the Percy motto, and Richard Nevil, earl of Salisbury, had a pursuivant calledEgle vert.
Purveyor.A person employed to make purchases, or to provide food, medicines, and necessaries for the sick.
Push.To press against with force; to drive or impel by pressure; as, to push back an enemy.
Push.An assault or attack; a forcible onset; a vigorous effort.
Put to the Sword, To.To kill with the sword; to slay.
Puteoli(the modernPuzzuoli). A celebrated seaport town of Campania, was situated on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Baiæ. A colony from the neighboring Greek city of Cumæ founded it in 521B.C., under the name of Dicæarchia. In the second Punic war the Romans fortified it, and changed its name into that of Puteoli. It was destroyed by Alaric in 410, by Genseric in 455, and also by Totila in 545, but was on each occasion speedily rebuilt. In the 9th century the Lombard dukes of Benevento reduced it.
Putteeala.A town of British India, capital of a dependent native state of the same name, in Sirhind, on the Kosilla, 1023 miles northwest of Calcutta. It was taken possession of by the British in 1809, but the rajah retains the sovereignty, on condition of furnishing a certain number of troops in case of war to the British government.
Puzzuoli, orPozzuoli. SeePuteoli.
Pydna(nowKitron). A town of Macedonia, in the district Pieria, was situated at a small distance west of the Thermaic Gulf, on which it had a harbor. It was originally a Greek colony, but was subdued by the Macedonian kings, from whom, however, it frequently revolted. Toward the end of the Peloponnesian war it was taken after a long siege by Archelaus. It again revolted from the Macedonians, and was subdued by Philip, who enlarged and fortified the place. It was here that Olympias sustained a long siege against Cassander, 317-16B.C.It is especially memorable on account of the victory gained under its walls by Æmilius Paulus over Perseus, the last king of Macedonia, 168B.C.
Pylos, orPilus. In the southwest of Messenia, was situated at the foot of Mount Ægaleos on a promontory at the northern entrance of the basin, now called the Bay of Navarino, the largest and safest harbor of Greece. In the second Messenian war the inhabitants of Pylos offered a long and brave resistance to the Spartans; but after the capture of Ira, they were obliged to quit their native country with the rest of the Messenians. It again became memorable in the Peloponnesian war, when the Athenians under Demosthenes built a fort on the promontory Coryphasium, a little south of the ancient city, and just within the northern entrance of the harbor (425B.C.). The attempts of the Spartans to dislodge the Athenians proved unavailing; and the capture by Cleon of the Spartans, who had landed in the island of Sphacteria, was one of the most important events in the whole war.
Pyramids, Battle of the.So called from having taken place close to the large pyramids in the plain of Mummies, at Waardam, within a few miles of Grand Cairo. A previous engagement had been fought on July 15, 1799, between the Mamelukes under Murad Bey and the French army, commanded by Bonaparte in person. On July 21, 1799, the second battle, called the “battle of the Pyramids,” was fought, when Bonaparte defeated the Mamelukes under Murad Bey and thus subdued Lower Egypt.
Pyrenees, Battle of the.The Pyreneesare a chain of mountains which separate Spain from France, and are nearly 75 miles broad. Towards the close of the Peninsular war, in 1813, these mountains were the scene of many severe conflicts between the British troops under the Duke of Wellington and the French forces under Marshal Soult. After the defeat of Joseph Bonaparte at Vittoria, Soult took the command of the French armies aslieutenant de l’empereur; and after addressing the beaten soldiery in language that proved fatally unprophetic, he hastened to relieve the beleaguered fortresses, and the result was “the battles of the Pyrenees.” Pampeluna, Roncesvalles, Maya, Orthez, etc., were the seats of the principal struggles. For nine days the armies had been in each other’s presence; and in severe operations and desperate fighting these days were unexampled. The allied casualties exceeded 7000 men,—and those of the French might be safely set down at 15,000.
Pyrgi.Movable towers, used by the Greeks in scaling the walls of besieged towns. They were driven forward upon wheels, and were divided into different stories, capable of carrying a great number of soldiers and military engines.
Pyroboli.Fireballs, used both by the Greeks and Romans. They seem to have been the very same as the malleoli.
Pyrometer.An instrument for determining the pressure of fired gunpowder by the registered compression of oil,—invented by Dr. W. E. Woodbridge, and used by him and Maj. Mordecai (U. S. Ordnance Department) in experiments at Washington Arsenal, 1854-55. It consists of a small hollow steel cylinder filled with oil and a piston which is pressed inwards upon the oil by the powder gases. The piston has a small stem projecting inwards, which is guided by a tube in the bottom of the cylinder. A steel point presses against the stem and scratches a line upon it, when the piston is moved. The pyrometer is received by a hollow screw-plug placed in the side of the gun at the point where the pressure is to be taken. This instrument is probably the most accurate and delicate one ever invented for the purpose. In the experiments it recorded certain vibrations in the column of gases, which have been generally neglected by theorists on the subject, but which are of great importance to the life of the gun. It seems unfortunate that an instrument which promised so much should have been allowed to fall into disuse, if not almost oblivion.
Pyrotechny.Is the art of preparing ammunition and fireworks for military and ornamental purposes. (SeeAmmunition.) Military fireworks comprise preparations for the service ofcannon ammunition, and forsignal,light,incendiary, anddefensiveandoffensivepurposes. The term composition is applied to all mechanical mixtures which, by combustion, produce the effects sought to be attained in pyrotechny. The preparations for the service of ammunition areslow-match,quick-match,port-fires,friction-tubes, andfuzes.
Slow-matchis used to preserve fire. It may be made of hemp or cotton rope; if made of hemp, the rope is saturated with acetate of lead, or the lye of wood-ashes; if made of cotton, it is only necessary that the strands be well twisted. Slow-match burns from 4 to 5 inches in an hour.
Quick-matchis made of cotton-yarn (candle-wick) saturated with a composition of mealed powder and gummed spirits; after saturation, the yarn is wound on a reel, sprinkled (dredged) with mealed powder and left to dry. It is used to communicate fire, and burns at the rate of one yard in thirteen seconds. The rate of burning may be much increased by inclosing it in a thin paper tube called aleader.
Port-fireis a paper case containing a composition, the flame of which is capable of quickly igniting primers, quick-match, etc. A port-fire is about 22 inches long, and burns with an intense flame for ten minutes.
Friction-tubeis at present the principal preparation for firing cannon; it has the advantage of portability and certainty of fire. It is composed of two brass tubes soldered at right angles. The upper, or short tube contains a charge of friction-powder, and theroughedextremity of a wire loop, the long tube is filled with rifle-powder, and is inserted in the vent of the piece. When the extremity of the loop is violently pulled by means of a lanyard, through its hole in the long tube, sufficient heat is generated to ignite the friction-powder which surrounds it, and this communicates with the grained powder in the long tube. The charge of grained powder has sufficient force to pass through the longest vent, and penetrate several thicknesses of cartridge-cloth.
Fuzes.—SeeFuze.
Fireworks for Signals.—The preparations for signals arerocketsandblue-lights.
Signal-Rockets.—The principal parts of a signal-rocket are thecase, thecomposition, thepot, thedecorations, and thestick. Thecaseis made by rolling stout paper around a former. The vent is formed by choking one end of the case.
Composition.—A variety of compositions are employed for signal-rockets; a mixture of nitre 12 parts, sulphur 2 parts, charcoal 2 parts, is frequently used. Thepotis formed of a paper cylinder, slipped over and pasted to the top of the case; it is surmounted with a paper cone, filled with tow. The object of the pot is to contain the decorations which are scattered through the air by the explosion which takes place when the rocket reaches the summit of its trajectory; the explosion is produced by a small charge of mealed powder. Thedecorationsof rockets arestars,serpents,marrons,gold rain,rain of fire, etc.
Stars.—The compositions for stars are, forwhite: nitre 7 parts, sulphur 3 parts, mealed powder 2 parts; forred: chlorate of potassa7 parts, sulphur 4 parts, lampblack 1 part, nitrate of strontia 12 parts;blue: chlorate of potassa 3 parts, sulphur 1 part, ammoniacal sulphate of copper 1 part;yellow: chlorate of potassa 4 parts, sulphur 2 parts, sulphate of strontia 1 part, bicarbonate of soda 1 part.
Serpents.—The case of a serpent is similar to that of a rocket; the composition is driven in, and the top is closed with moist plaster of Paris. The composition is nitre 3 parts, sulphur 3 parts, mealed powder 16 parts, charcoal1⁄2part.
Marrons.—Marrons are small paper shells, or cubes, filled with grained powder, and primed with a short piece of quick-match.
Stick.—The stick is a tapering piece of pine, about nine times the length of the case.
Blue Light.—A very brilliant bluish light may be made of the following ingredients, viz.: nitre 14 parts, sulphur 3.7 parts, realgar 1 part, mealed powder 1 part; the brilliancy depends on the purity and thorough incorporation of the ingredients.
Incendiary Fireworks.—Incendiary preparations arefire-stone,carcasses,incendiary-match, andhot shot.
Fire-stoneis a composition that burns slowly, but intensely; it is placed in a shell, along with the bursting charge, for the purpose of setting fire to ships, buildings, etc. It is composed of nitre 10 parts, sulphur 4 parts, antimony 1 part, rosin 3 parts.
Carcass.—A common shell may be loaded as a carcass by placing the bursting charge at the bottom of the cavity, and covering it with carcass composition, driven in until the shell is nearly full, and then inserting four or five strands of quick-match. This projectile, after burning as a carcass, explodes as a shell. SeeCarcass.
Incendiary-match.—Is made by boiling slow-match in a saturated solution of nitre, drying it, cutting it into pieces, and plunging it into melted fire-stone. It is principally used in loaded shells.
Hot Shot.—SeeHot Shot.
Fireworks for Light.—The preparations for producing light arefire-balls,light-balls,tarred-links,pitched-fascines, andtorches.
Fire-ball.—A fire-ball is an oval-shaped canvas sack filled with combustible composition. It is intended to be thrown from a mortar to light up the works of an enemy, and is loaded with a shell to prevent it from being approached and extinguished. The composition for a fire-ball consists of nitre 8 parts, sulphur 2 parts, antimony 1 part. The bottom of the sack is protected from the force of the charge by an iron cup called a culob, and the whole is covered and strengthened with a net-work of spun-yarn or wire, and then overlaid with a composition of pitch, rosin, etc.
Light-ball.—These are made in the same manner as fire-balls, the shell being omitted.
Tarred-links.—Tarred links are used for lighting up a rampart, defile, etc., or for incendiary purposes. They consist of coils of soft rope placed on top of each other, and loosely tied together; they are immersed in a composition of 20 parts of pitch, and one of tallow; when dry, they are plunged into a composition of equal parts of pitch and rosin, and rolled in tow or sawdust.
Pitched-fascines.—Fagots of vine twigs or other very combustible wood, about 20 inches long and 4 inches in diameter, tied in three places with iron wire. They may be treated in the same manner and used for the same purposes as tarred-links.
Torches.—A torch is a ball of rope impregnated with an inflammable composition, and is fastened to the end of a stick, which is carried in the hand.
Offensive and Defensive Fireworks.—The principal preparations of this class, employed in modern warfare, arebags of powderandlight-barrels.
Bags of Powder.—Bags or cases of powder may be used to blow down gates, stockades, or form breaches in thin walls. The petard was formerly employed for these purposes, but it is now generally thrown aside. The effect of the explosion may be much increased by making three sides of the bag of leather, and the fourth of canvas, which should rest against the object.
Light-barrel.—A light barrel is a common powder barrel pierced with numerous holes, and filled with shavings that have been soaked in a composition of pitch and rosin; it serves to light up a breach, or the bottom of a ditch.
Fireworks.—Ornamental fireworks are divided into fixed pieces, movable pieces, decorative pieces, and preparations for communicating fire from one part of a piece to another. The different effects are produced by modifying the proportions of the ingredients of the burning composition, so as to quicken or retard combustion, or by introducing substances that give color and brilliancy to the flame. The fixed pieces arelances,petards,gerbes,flames, etc.
Lances.—These are small paper tubes filled with a composition which emits a brilliant light in burning. SeeLance a Feu.
Petard.—Petards are small paper cartridges filled with powder.
Gerbe.—Gerbes are strong paper tubes or cases filled with a burning composition. The ends are tamped with moist plaster of Paris or clay. The movable pieces aresky-rockets,tourbillions,Saxons,jets,Roman candles,paper shells, etc.
Sky-rocket.—Sky-rockets are the same as the signal-rockets before described, except that the composition is arranged to give out a more brilliant train of fire. Composition: 122 parts mealed powder, 80 parts nitre, 40 parts sulphur, and 40 parts cast-iron filings.
Tourbillion.—The tourbillion is a case filled with sky-rocket composition, and which moves with an upward spiral motion.
Saxon.—The Saxon is similar to the tourbillion; it has the appearance of a revolving sun.
Jets.—Jets are rocket-cases filled with a burning composition; they are attached to the circumference of a wheel, or the end of a movable arm, to set it in motion.
Roman candles.—A Roman candle is a strong paper tube containing stars, which are successively thrown out by a small charge of powder placed under each star. A slow-burning composition is placed over each star to prevent its taking fire at once.
Paper Shell.—This piece is a paper shell filled with decorative pieces, and fired from a common mortar. It contains a small bursting charge of powder, and has a fuze regulated to ignite it when the shell reaches the summit of its trajectory.
Decorative Pieces.—Decorative pieces arestars,serpents,marrons, etc., described under the head ofRockets.
Preparations for communicating firefrom one piece to another arequick-match,leaders, ort-fires, andmortar-fuzes. The leader is a thin paper tube containing a strand of quick-match. SeeQuick-match, etc.
Pyroxyline, orPyroxyle.Gun-cotton(which see).
Pyrrhic Dance.The most famous of all the war-dances of antiquity; is said to have received its name from Pyrrhus, or Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, and was a Doric invention. According to Plato, it aimed to represent the nimble motions of a warrior either avoiding missiles and blows, or assaulting the enemy; and in the Doric states it was as much a piece of military training as an amusement. Elsewhere in Greece, it was purely a mimetic dance, in which the parts were sometimes represented by women. It formed part of the public entertainments at the Panathenaic festivals. Julius Cæsar introduced it at Rome, where it became a great favorite.