Stock-purse.In the British service, is a certain saving which is made in a corps for regimental purposes.
Stockton-on-Tees.A town of England, in Durham, on the left bank of the Tees, 11 miles east-northeast of Darlington. It was plundered by the Scotch in 1325; taken for the Parliament in 1644, and totally destroyed by the Roundheads in 1652.
Stœni.A Ligurian people in the Maritime Alps, conquered by Q. Marcius Rex, 118B.C., before he founded the colony of Narbo Martius.
Stoke, East.A parish of England, county of Notts, 4 miles southwest of Newark. Near here, on June 16, 1487, the adherents of Lambert Simnel, who personated Edward, earl of Warwick, and claimed the crown, were defeated by Henry VII. John de la Pole, the earl of Lincoln, and most of the leaders were slain; and Simnel, whose life was spared, was afterwards employed in the king’s household.
Stone Arabia.SeePalatine.
Stone Fougass. SeeFougass, Stone.
Stone River, Battle of.SeeMurfreesboro’.
Stone-bow.A cross-bow formerly used or designed for throwing stones.
Stone-mortar.Was a mortar which was used to throw stones a short distance, from 150 to 250 yards; and also 6-pounder shells from 50 to 150 yards. The stones which were used in this mortar were put into a basket fitted to the bore, and placed on a wooden bottom which covers the mouth of the chamber.
Stony Point.A village in Orange Co., N. Y., on the west bank of the Hudson River, at the head of Haverstraw Bay, 42 miles north of New York. The capture of the fort at this place by Gen. Wayne, on July 16, 1779, is justly considered one of the most brilliant exploits performed during the Revolutionary war. The fortifications were destroyed and abandoned on July 18.
Stoppage of Pay.Where pay is stopped on account of arrears to the United States, the party whose pay is stopped may demand a suit, and the agent of the treasury is required to institute a suit within sixty days thereafter.
Stoppages.In the British service, are the deductions from a soldier’s pay, the better to provide him with necessaries, etc.; also stoppage for the subsistence of the sick.
Store-keeper, Military.An officer specially appointed for the care of military stores. The law discontinues this grade in the U. S. service by casualties.
Stores, Military.The arms, ammunition, clothing, provisions, etc., pertaining to an army, is so called. In the United States all public stores taken in the enemy’s camp, towns, forts, or magazines, shall be secured for the service of the United States; for the neglect of which the commanding officer is to be answerable.
Storm.A violent assault on a fortified place; a furious attempt of troops to enter and take a fortified place by scaling the walls, forcing the gates, and the like. Also, to assault; to attack and attempt to take by scaling the walls, forcing gates or breaches, and the like; as, to storm a fortified town.
Storming-party.A party assigned to theduty of first entering the breach in storming a fortress.
Stourton, orStour Head. A village of England, in Wiltshire, about 23 miles west from Salisbury. The Britons were defeated here in 658 by the Saxons, and in 1010 and 1025 the Danes also encountered the Saxons near this place.
Stragglers.Are individuals who wander from the line of march; and it is the duty of the rear-guard to pick up all such stragglers.
Strains.SeeOrdnance, Strains Upon.
Stralsund.A fortified town and seaport of Prussia, province of Pomerania, on a narrow strait called Strela Sunda, which divides the mainland from the island of Rügen. It was founded in 1209 by Prince Jaromar of Rügen, became a member of the Hanse, and rapidly rose into importance. During the Thirty Years’ War, it was unsuccessfully besieged (1628) by Wallenstein; and after being, with some alternations of fortune, in the possession of Sweden for about 200 years, it finally passed to Prussia in 1815.
Strappado.A punishment formerly inflicted upon foreign soldiers by hoisting them up with their arms tied behind them, and then suddenly letting them down within a certain distance of the earth.
Strapped Ammunition.SeeOrdnance, Ammunition for.
Straps.Are decorations made of worsted, silk, gold, or silver, and worn upon the shoulders, without epaulette.
Strasbourg, orStrassburg. Formerly a fortified town of France, and capital of the department of Bas-Rhin, but in 1871 ceded to Germany, and capital of the province of Alsace, not far from the left bank of the Rhine, 312 miles east from Paris by railway. During the Middle Ages it was subject to the German emperors, and was the capital of Alsace, but along with that province it was ceded to Louis XIV. in 1681. Subsequently its defenses were greatly improved under the direction of Vauban. Strasbourg was invested by the Germans, principally from Baden, during the Franco-Prussian war, August 10, 1870. Gen. von Werder assumed the command of the besiegers, and the bombardment began August 14, and a vigorous sally was repulsed August 16. Gen. Uhrich, the commander, declared that he would not surrender except upon a heap of ashes. After a heroic resistance, and when a breach had been made and an assault was impending, notice was given September 27, and the place surrendered at 2A.M., September 28; at 8A.M.17,150 men and 400 officers laid down their arms. The German loss was said to be 906 men, of whom 43 were officers. The Germans entered Strasbourg, September 30, the anniversary of its surrender to the French in 1681 by a surprise. Uhrich received the grand cross of the Legion of Honor, October, 1870. About 400 houses and the invaluable library were destroyed, the cathedral injured, and 8000 persons rendered homeless.
Stratagem.In war, is any scheme or plan for the deceiving and surprising an army, or any body of men.
Stratarithmetry.The art of drawing up an army, or any given number of men, in any geometrical figure, or of estimating or expressing the number of men in such a figure.
Strategetics.The science of military movements; generalship.
Strategic, orStrategical. Pertaining to strategy; effected by artifice.
Strategic Point.Any point or region in the theatre of warlike operations which affords to its possessor an advantage over his opponent.
Strategical Fronts.The portion of the theatre of war in front of any position occupied by an army as it advances, is termed thefront of operations. That part which is directly in front of an army, or which can be reached in two or three days, forms simply afront. When the whole extent lying between the two hostile armies is considered, the termstrategical frontis applied.
Strategical Lines.SeeLines, Strategical.
Strategical Points.Every point of the theatre of war, the possession of which is of great importance to an army in its military operations, is astrategical point. These are points which an army acting on the offensive strives to gain and the army on the defensive strives to retain.
Strategist.One skilled in strategy, or the science of directing great military movements.
Strategos(invented by Lieut. C. A. L. Totten, 4th U. S. Artillery). The American “game of war,” which takes its name from the Greek wordstrategos, the title of an Athenian general officer, derived in turn fromstratos, “an army,” andago, “I lead;” the secondary meaning of this term being a board or council of ten Athenians chosen annually to conduct the war department at home. The game ofstrategosis divided into six separate ones, or studies, of gradually increasing importance, and is far more comprehensive than the foreign war games, which have little in common with the subaltern and the student, and are so complicated as to excite interest only among the most profound and advanced scholars of military science. The six parts ofstrategosare: (1) The “minor tactical game,” which embraces all the details of the tactics of each of the three arms. (2) “Grand tactics,” embracing the topographical and strategical game, for the general elucidation of the grand principles of this branch of military science. (3) The “historical game,” for the study of historical battles and campaigns. (4) “Text-book illustration.” (5) A “battle game,” based upon military principles and precepts, which is calculated to instruct as well as interest without fatiguing thatlarge class of students whose patience would not stand the close application required in a more advanced game. (6) The “advanced game,” which affords to the professional military student every opportunity for pursuing studies commenced in more elementary fields to their legitimate termination. It is only in the “advanced game” thatstrategossolves the same problem attempted by the Germans inkriegspiel, and other military nations in various alterations and improvements upon the great original. War games are by no means of such modern invention as may at first appear; chess is a very ancient “battle game,” and checkers one in which decisive concentration plays a most important part. During the last century two games, thejeu de la guerreand thejeu de la fortification, appeared in France and were played with cards. These games differ, however, entirely from the modern ones. Kriegspiel, the father of modern war games, was the invention of a civilian, Herr von Reitwitz, the details of which his son, a Prussian artillery officer, carefully improved. It rapidly grew into military favor, and since 1824, when it was first mentioned by officers of note, has undergone many modifications except as to its underlying principles. Von Moltke himself some twenty years ago was the president of a society whose special object was to play this game, and the great skill of Prussian officers and their success in their late wars is in no small degree to be attributed to this game, familiarity with which has become a sort of necessary step in advancement in the Prussian army. The American game possesses all the valuable features of kriegspiel, and some noticeable improvements thereon as to method, men, tables, etc., while it possesses the peculiar advantages of having elementary games of special interest to all classes of military men. The cost of this game is about $50.
Strategus(Strategos). Any Athenian general officer was so called.
Strategy.Is defined by military writers to be the science of manœuvring an army out of fire of the enemy, as tactics is the art of managing it in battle or under fire. Strategy is the greater science, as including all those vast combinations which lead to the subsequent available displays of tactics.
A movement of the army is said to bestrategicalwhen by its means there are concentrated at a given point troops superior in numbers to those of the enemy; or, at this point, there is gained a position by which the enemy’s communications with his base are cut or threatened while those of the army are secure; or, a position is gained by which the forces of the enemy are separated, or are prevented from acting in concert. Strategical operations are directed to attain one or more of these objects; and the line followed by an army in an operation of this kind is called astrategical line. The area of country or territory in any part of which the hostile forces can come into collision is termed thetheatre of war.
There may be employed in a given theatre of war several armies or only one. If there are several armies, but each acting independently of the others, or if there is only one, the particular portion of the territory in which each act is termed thetheatre of operationsfor that army.
A theatre of operations of an army may be defined to be all the territory it may desire to invade, and all that it may have to defend. Where several armies are employed, acting in concert, the theatre of operations of each army depends upon the movements of the other armies, and the theatres of operations of each army in this case are usually designated aszones of operations; although this term is also applied to those three divisions of a theatre of operations lying directly in advance of the centre and flanks of a front of operations. Whatever is true for a theatre of operations of an army acting alone is equally true for the theatre of operations of several armies acting separately, and is also applicable to the whole theatre of war.
To make the above statements definite, suppose a single army acting in an independent theatre of operations. A general with such an army under his command proposing an advance towards the enemy will have three things to consider, viz.: (1) The place from which the army is to start; (2) The point to which the army is to go; (3) The roads or routes by which the army is to move in order to reach this point. The first, or place of starting, is termed thebase of operations. The second, the point to be reached, is called theobjective-point, or simply theobjective. The third, the roads or routes used by the army in reaching the objective-point, is termed theline of operations. The portion of the theatre of operations occupied by the army as it advances is known as thefront of operations.
Stratton-Hill, Battle of.In Cornwall, England, May 16, 1643, between the royal army under Sir Ralph Hopton, and the forces of the Parliament under the Earl of Stamford. The victory was gained over the Parliamentarians, who lost heavily in killed and wounded.
Strelitz, or properlyStreltzi(“arquebuzziers”). The ancient Russian militia-guard, first raised by Ivan Vatsilevitch the Terrible, in the second half of the 16th century. At that time and for long afterwards, they were the only standing army in Russia, and at times amounted to between 40,000 and 50,000 men. They were located at Moscow in time of peace, in a quarter of the Capitol which was set apart for them, and being the bravest and most trustworthy troops in the army, were made objects of special favor and distinctions. But like all such petted corps, the RomanPrætorians, the Turkish Janissaries, and the Egyptian Mamelukes, their general turbulence, frequent revolts against the government (notablyduring the Demetrian insurrections), and incessant conspiracies, rendered them more formidable to the Russian government than to external enemies. The Strelitz having, at the instigation of the Grand Duchess Sophia and the chiefs of the Old Muscovite party, revolted against Peter the Great, that iron-handed ruler caused them to be decimated (1698) in the great square of Moscow, and the remainder to be banished to Astrakhan. The feeble remnant still manifesting their characteristic turbulence and disloyalty, Peter exterminated them almost completely in 1705. Few Russian families at present can claim kindred with the old Strelitz, but to this the family of Orloff forms a prominent exception, being descended from a Strelitz who was pardoned by Peter the Great while the axe was being raised over him.
Strength.This word may be variously understood in military matters. It means fortification; strongholds, etc. It likewise signifies armament; power; force. In all returns which are made of corps,strengthimplies the number of men that are borne upon the establishment, in contradistinction toeffective force, which means the number fit for service.
Stretcher.A litter or frame for carrying sick, wounded, or dead persons.
Strict.Exact, severe, rigorous; the contrary to mild, indulgent. Hence, a strict officer. It is sometimes used in a bad sense, to signify a petulant, troublesome commander.
Striegau.A town of Prussia in Silesia, 29 miles southwest from Breslau. The Austrians were defeated by the Prussians under Frederick the Great near this town in 1745.
Strife.Contention in battle;, contest; struggle for victory; quarrel of war.
Strike.This word is variously used in military phraseology; as, tostrike a tent, is to loosen the cords of a tent which has been regularly pitched, and to have it ready, in a few minutes, to throw upon a baggage-wagon.To strike terror into an enemy, is to cause alarm and apprehension in him; to make him dread the effects of superior skill and valor.To strike a blow, to make some decisive effort.
Stripes.The chevrons on the coats of non-commissioned officers are sometimes so called.
Strong.Well fortified; able to sustain attacks; not easily subdued or taken; as, a strong fortress or town. Having great military or naval force; powerful; as, a strong army or fleet; a nation strong at sea.
Stronghold.A fastness; a fort or fortress; a fortified place; a place of security.
Struggle, To.To make extraordinary exertion in direct contest with an enemy, or against superior forces.
Stuhlweissenburg.A town of Austria, in Hungary, 37 miles southwest from Buda-Pesth. It was besieged and taken from the Turks by the Austrians under the Duke of Mercoeur, in September, 1601; was besieged and captured by the Turks in August, 1602; and was besieged and taken by assault by the Austrians on September 6, 1688.
Stuhm.A town of West Prussia, 13 miles north-northeast of Marienwerder. Here a battle was fought between the Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus and the Poles under Gen. Koniecpolski, June 17, 1629.
Stuttgart, orStutgard. The capital of Würtemberg, Germany, 38 miles east-southeast from Carlsruhe. During the wars of Louis XIV., Stuttgart was thrice taken; and again in 1796, 1800, and 1801.
Stylet.A small poniard or dagger; a stiletto.
Styra(nowStura). A town in Eubœa, on the southwest coast, nearly opposite Marathon in Attica. The inhabitants took an active part in the Persian war, and fought at Artemisium, Salamis, and Platææ. They afterwards became subject to the Athenians. The town was destroyed in the Lamian war by the Athenian general Phædrus, and its territory was annexed to Eretia.
Suabia,Swabia, orSuevia(Ger.Schwaben). An ancient duchy in the southwest of Germany, so named from a horde of Suevi, who spread over it in the 5th century; was a great duchy of the Frank empire till the 8th century. In 918, it was acknowledged a ducal fief of the empire; and after changing hands several times, it was bestowed upon Count Frederick of Hohenstaufen, the founder of the illustrious house of that name, also known as the house of Suabia. Under the rule of this prince, Suabia became the most rich, civilized, and powerful country of Germany; but the wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, and the quarrel with the French respecting Naples, put an end to the dynasty in 1268. The ducal vassals of Suabia rendered themselves almost independent, and professed to acknowledge no lord but the emperor. During these dissensions arose the lordships of Würtemberg and Baden, with numerous lesser states, holding direct of the crown, and opposed to them the cities, which strove also for an equal independence, and obtained, in 1347, great additional privileges. A number of them united to make common cause against the neighboring feudal lords in 1376 (known as the “First Suabian League”); an opposite league was formed between Würtemberg, Baden, and seventeen towns in 1405, called the “League of Marbach”; and both took part in the war of Swiss independence, the former in support of the Swiss, the latter of the Austrians. At last the towns, which had been increasing in power, decided at Ulm, in 1449, to form a standing army, and a permanent military commission, for the forcible preservation, if necessary, of peace and order; and the Count of Würtemberg, the most powerful of the opposite party, having joined them, was appointed military chief of the league, which ultimately grew up into the “Great SuabianLeague,” which effectively repressed feudal quarrels. In 1512, Suabia became one of the ten circles into which Germany was now divided, received its complete organization in 1563, and retained it almost without change till the dissolution of the empire in 1806. But during this period, the wars of the towns with Würtemberg, the Peasants’ war, of which Suabia was one of the foci, the Thirty Years’ War, and those between France and the empire, destroyed the democratic constitution of the towns, and with it their energy, and then their prosperity disappeared, leaving now no relic which could suggest their former great importance.
Subadar.A native officer in a native East Indian infantry regiment holding a rank corresponding to that of captain.
Subadar-Major.In the East Indies, is the native commandant of a native infantry regiment.
Subaltern.A commissioned officer below the rank of captain. But strictly speaking every officer is a subaltern to the grades above him, as the captain is subaltern to the major, and so upward.
Sub-Brigadier.An officer in the Horse Guards who ranks as cornet.
Subdivision.The parts of a regiment on parade distinguished by a second division. Thus, a company divided forms two subdivisions.
Subdue.To bring under; to conquer by force or the exertion of superior power, and bring into permanent subjection; to reduce under dominion. To overpower so as to disable from further resistance; to crush.
Subdur.In the East Indies signifies a chief.
Subjugate.To subdue and bring under the yoke of power or dominion; to conquer by force, and compel to submit to the government or absolute control of another.
Sub-Lieutenant.In the British service, is the lowest commissioned rank in infantry and cavalry.
Subordinary, orSubordinate Ordinary. In heraldry, a name given to a certain class of charges mostly formed of straight or curved lines. Heralds vary a little in their enumeration, but the following are generally held to come within this category: the Bordure, the Orle, the Tressure, the Flanche, the Pile, the Pall, the Quarter, the Canton, the Gyron, the Fret, the Inescutcheon, the Lozenge, the Fusil, and the Mascle. Some heraldic writers account the Pile an ordinary, and the diminutives of the ordinaries are sometimes ranked as subordinaries.
Subordination.A perfect submission to the orders of superiors; a perfect dependence, regulated by the rights and duties of every military man, from the soldier to the general. Subordination should show the spirit of the chief in all the members; and this single idea, which is manifest to the dullest apprehension, suffices to show its importance. Without subordination it is impossible that a corps can support itself; that its motions can be directed, order established, or the service carried on. In effect, it is subordination that gives a soul and harmony to the service; it adds strength to authority, and merit to obedience; and while it secures the efficacy of command, reflects honor upon its execution. It is subordination which prevents every disorder, and procures every advantage to an army.
Subsidy.A stipulated sum of money, paid by one prince to another in pursuance of a treaty of alliance for offensive or defensive war.Subsidiary troops, are the troops of a nation assisting those of another, for a given sum or subsidy.
Subsist.To support with provisions; to feed; to maintain.
Subsistence.This word may be divided into two sorts, namely, that species of subsistence which is found in an adjacent country, such as forage, and frequently corn; and that which is provided at a distance, and regularly supplied by means of a well-conducted commissary. The latter consists chiefly of meat, bread, etc. To these may be added wood or coals, and straw; which are always wanted in an army.
Subsistence Department.A department which provides subsistence stores for the army, either by contract or purchase. The U. S. subsistence department consists of 1 brigadier-general, 2 colonels, 3 lieutenant-colonels, 8 majors, and 12 captains. SeeCommissariat.
Substitute, Military.In nations where conscription is resorted to for the supply of soldiers for the army, the lot often falls on those unwilling to serve in person. In such a case, the state agrees to accept the services of a substitute,—that is, of a person of equally good physique. Unless the levy be very extensive, or the term of military service very long, substitutes are readily found among military men who have already served their prescribed period. Of course, the substitute must be paid for the risk he runs. His price depends, like all other salable articles, on the demand and supply.
Succeedant.In heraldry, succeeding one another, following.
Success of Arms.The good luck, or fortune, which attends military operations, and upon which the fate of a nation frequently depends. Success is indispensable to the reputation of a general. It often hallows rash and unauthorized measures.
Succession of Rank.Relative gradation according to the dates of commission.
Succession Wars.These wars were of frequent occurrence in Europe, between the middle of the 17th and the middle of the 18th centuries, on the occasion of the failure of a sovereign house. The most important of these was that of the Orleans succession to the Palatinate (1686-97), closed by the peace of Ryswick; of the Spanish succession (1700-13), which was distinguished by the achievements of the Duke of Marlborough and the Earl of Peterborough,and their unprofitable results, arose on the question whether an Austrian prince or a French prince should succeed to the throne of Spain; of the Polish succession (1733-38), closed by the peace of Vienna; of the Austrian succession (1740-48); and of the Bavarian succession (1777-79), called, in ridicule, the Potato war. Of these, the second and fourth were by far the most important.
Successive Pontons.SeePontons.
Sudbury.A town in Middlesex Co., Mass., 20 miles west by north from Boston. A battle was fought here on April 18, 1776, in which Capt. S. Wadsworth and two-thirds of his men were killed by the Indians, in King Philip’s war.
Suessiones, orSuessones. A powerful people in Gallia Belgica, who were reckoned the bravest of all the Belgic Gauls after the Bellovaci, and who could bring 50,000 men into the field in Cæsar’s time. Their king Divitiacus, shortly before Cæsar’s arrival in the country, was reckoned the most powerful chief in all Gaul, and had extended his sovereignty even over Britain. The Suessiones dwelt in an extensive and fertile country east of the Bellovaci, south of the Veromandui, and west of the Remi. They possessed twelve towns, of which the capital was Noviodunum, subsequently Augusta Suessonum, or Suessones.
Suevi.One of the greatest and most powerful races of Germany, or, more properly speaking, the collective name of a great number of German tribes, who were grouped together on account of their migratory mode of life, and spoken of in opposition to the more settled tribes, who went under the general name of Ingævones. The Suevi are described by all the ancient writers as occupying the greater half of all Germany; but the accounts vary respecting the part of the country which they inhabited. At a later time the collective name of the Suevi gradually disappeared. In the second half of the 2d century, however, we again find a people called Suevi, dwelling between the mouth of the Main and the Black Forest, whose name is still preserved in the modern Suabia; but this people was only a body of bold adventurers from various German tribes, who assumed the celebrated name of the Suevi in consequence of their not possessing any distinguishing appellation.
Suisses(Fr.). The Swiss soldiers who were in the pay of France previous to August 10, 1792, were generally so called. It was also a general term to signify stipendiary troops.
Suliots.A people in and around the valley of Acheron, the southern corner of the pashalic of Janina (Epirus), in Turkey in Europe, are a mixed race, being partly of Hellenic and partly of Albanian origin. They are the descendants of a number of families who fled from the Turkish oppressors to the mountains of Suli (whence they derive their name) during the 17th century. In this obscure corner of the Turkish empire they prospered, and towards the close of the 18th century numbered 560 families. For about fifteen years they heroically resisted the encroachments of Ali Pasha of Janina upon their independence, the very women taking part in the strife. Vanquished in 1803, they retreated to Parga, and afterwards to the Ionian Islands, where they remained till 1820, when their old oppressor, Ali Pasha, finding himself hard pressed by the Turks, invoked their aid. Eager to return to their cherished home, they accepted his terms, and under Marcos Bozzaris maintained a long and desperate conflict with the Turks, but were ultimately forced again to flee from their country, and take refuge to the number of 3000 in Cephalonia, though a large remnant preferred to skulk in the neighboring mountains. Though, after this, they took an active and glorious part in the war of Greek independence, their country was not included by the treaty of 1829 within the Greek boundary-line, but many of them, as Bozzaris (son of Marcos) and Tzavellas, have since been raised to important political offices in the new kingdom of Greece.
Sulphur.A simple mineral substance, of a yellow color, brittle, insoluble in water, easily fusible and inflammable;—called alsobrimstone,—that is,burn-stone, from its great combustibility. It burns with a blue flame and a peculiar suffocating odor. It is an ingredient ofgunpowder(which see).
Sultan, orSultaun. An Arabic word signifying the “mighty man,” and evidently closely connected with the Hebrew wordshalal, “to rule,” is in the East an ordinary title of Mohammedan princes. It is given,par excellence, to the supreme head of the Ottoman empire. It is applied in Egypt to the ruler of that country, and is also retained by the heir of the former reigning line of the Crim-Tartars.Sultanais the title of the wife of a sultan.
Sumatra.The most westerly of the Sunda Islands, lies southwest of the Malay peninsula, from which it is separated by the Strait of Malacca. When the Portuguese landed here, in 1509, they found that the ancient Malay kingdom of Menangcabau had been dissolved; but there was a powerful monarch ruling over Acheen, who endeavored to exclude the strangers from his country. In 1575, the Portuguese shipping in the harbor of Acheen was destroyed by the natives, and in 1582, an attempt which they made to gain possession of the town proved quite unsuccessful. In 1600, the Dutch established a factory at Pulo Chinko, on the west coast. The kingdom of Acheen had by this time begun to decline in power, being distracted by internal wars and discords: The Dutch rapidly increased the number of their factories and settlements, founding one at Padang in 1649, at Palembang in 1664. The English followed the Dutch in this island, and founded a colony at Bencoolen in 1685. In 1811, the Dutch settlements in the East Indies fell into the hands of the British, butwere restored to the Dutch by the peace of 1816. A singular war which took place in Sumatra led to a material extension of the Dutch possession. It was occasioned by a religious sect called Padries. About 1815 a society of this sect was formed for the purpose of spreading their doctrines and practices by force; and this speedily roused resistance and opposition. The Malays and Battas made common cause against the Padries, and for a long time a fierce struggle was carried on, which devastated Menangcabau and the neighboring regions. At length, with the assistance of the Dutch, the sect was entirely put down. The indirect results of this war were the annexation of Menangcabau to the Dutch possessions in 1835, and the opening up to them of the Batta country, from which foreigners had previously been excluded. In 1865, an expedition was sent to force the king of Asahan, one of the small states on the northeast coast, to submit to the Dutch authority. In 1871 these settlements were sold to Great Britain.
Summon.To call upon to surrender; as, to summon a fort.
Summons.A call or invitation to surrender.
Sumpit.An arrow blown from thesumpitanin Borneo. The sumpitan is about 7 feet long; the arrow has been driven with some force at 130 yards. Some suppose it to be poison.
Sumter, Fort.SeeFort Sumter.
Suncion, Treaty of.Between Gen. Urquiza, director of the Argentine Confederation, and C. A. Lopez, president of the republic of Paraguay, recognizing the independence of Paraguay, July 15, 1852.
Superannuated.Incapacitated for service, either from age or infirmity, and placed on a pension.
Supercharge.In heraldry, a bearing or figure placed upon another.
Superintendent.One who has the oversight and charge of something, with the power of direction; as the superintendent of recruiting service; superintendent of national cemeteries, etc.
Superior Officer.Any officer of higher rank, or who has priority in the same rank, by the date of his commission, etc.
Superior Slope.The upper surface of a parapet.
Supernumerary.Officers or men in excess of the establishment, but borne on the rolls of the corps till absorbed.Supernumeraries, orsupernumerary rank, also signifies the officers and non-commissioned officers in the infantry, cavalry, etc., who are not included among rank and file, and stand in the third rank on parade, when the troops are drawn up in double ranks.
Supersede.Is to deprive an officer of rank and pay for any offense or neglect, or to place one officer over the head of another, who may or may not be more deserving.
Supply.Relief of want; making up deficiencies. A fresh supply of troops, ammunition, etc.To supply, to make up deficiencies. To aid; to assist; to relieve with something wanted. To fill any room made vacant. Thus, covering sergeants supply the places of officers when they step out of the ranks, or are killed in action.
Support.To aid, to assist; it likewise signifies to preserve untarnished; as, to support the ancient character of a corps.Well supported, is well aided or assisted. It likewise signifies well kept up; as, a well supported fire from the batteries; a well supported fire of musketry.
Support Arms.Is to hold the musket vertically on the left shoulder, supported by having the hammer rest on the left forearm, which is passed across the breast.
Supporters.In heraldry, figures placed on each side of an armorial shield, as it were to support it. They seem to have been, in their origin, a purely decorative invention of mediæval seal-engravers, often, however, bearing allusion to the arms or descent of the bearer; but in the course of time their use came to be regulated by authority, and they were considered indicative that the bearer was the head of a family of eminence or distinction. The most usual supporters are animals, real or fabulous; but men in armor are also frequent, and savages, or naked men, often represented with clubs, and wreathed about the head and middle. There are occasional instances of inanimate supporters. On early seals, a single supporter is not unfrequent, and instances are particularly common of the escutcheon being placed on the breast of an eagle displayed. The common rule, however, has been to have a supporter on each side of the shield. The dexter supporter is very often repeated on the sinister side; but the two supporters are in many cases different; when the bearer represents two different families, it is not unusual for a supporter to be adopted from the achievement of each.
Suppress.To overpower and crush; to subdue; to put down; to quell; to destroy; as, the troops suppressed the rebellion.
Surat.A large but declining city of British India, 150 miles north of the city of Bombay, on the south shore of the Tapti, and 8 miles from its mouth in the Gulf of Cambay. Surat was sacked in 1512 by the Portuguese soon after their arrival in India. In 1612 an English force arrived here in two vessels, under the command of Capt. Best, who defeated the Portuguese, and obtained afirmanfrom the Mogul emperor, authorizing the residence of a British minister, and established a factory. An attack of the Mahratta chief Sivajee on the British factory was defeated by Sir George Oxenden, 1664. The English were again attacked in 1670 and 1702, and often subsequently. The East India Company, in 1759, fitted out an armament which dispossessed the admiral of the castle (the Great Mogul had here an officerwho was styled his admiral); and, soon after, the possession of this castle was confirmed to them by the court of Delhi. Surat was vested in the British by treaty in 1800 and 1803.
Surcingle.A belt, band, or girth, which passes over a saddle, or over anything laid on a horse’s back, to bind it fast.
Surcoat.A short coat worn over the other garments; especially the long and flowing drapery of knights, anterior to the introduction of plate-armor, and which was frequently emblazoned with the arms of a family.
Surface.In fortification, that part of the side which is terminated by the flank prolonged, and the angle of the nearest bastion; the double of this line with the curtain is equal to the exterior side.
Surgeon.A staff-officer of the medical department. He has the rank of major, but “shall not in virtue of such rank be entitled to command in the line or other staff departments of the army.”
Surgeon-General.The chief of the medical department, with the rank of brigadier-general, but subject to the same restriction of command as other officers of the medical department.
Surgeons, Acting Assistant-(Contract). In the U. S. army, are physicians employed from civil life, at a certain compensation, to perform the duties required of commissioned medical officers, when the number of the latter is insufficient. While they have no rank they still have the allowances of an assistant-surgeon (first lieutenant). A physician so employed cannot displace a commissioned officer by choice of quarters; but to obviate being displaced by a commissioned officer, the commanding officer of a post may assign him an allowance of first lieutenant’s quarters near the hospital, under the provisions authorizing the commanding officer to assign quarters to officers convenient to their troops. Acting assistant-surgeons are entitled to the same protection and respectful conduct from enlisted men as commissioned officers are, so far as relates to their duties as surgeons. A contract physician in the army is regarded as a “quasi-officer.”
Surgery, Military.Restricted to its rigorous signification, military surgery is the surgical practice in armies; but in its broad and ordinary acceptation embraces many other branches of art comprehending the practice of medicine, sanitary precautions, hospital administration, ambulances, etc. The military surgeon must not only be a skillful physician and surgeon, but he must have a constitution sufficiently strong to resist the fatigues of war, and all inclemencies of weather; a solid judgment and a generous activity in giving prompt assistance to the wounded without distinction of rank or grade, and without even excluding enemies. He must have the courage to face dangers without the power, in all cases, of combating them; he must have great coolness in order to act and operate in the most difficult positions, whether amidst the movement of troops, the shock of arms, the cries of the wounded when crowded together, in a charge, in a retreat, in intrenchments, under the ramparts of a besieged place, or at a breach. He must have inventive ingenuity which will supply the wants of the wounded in extreme cases, and a compassionate heart, with strength of will which will inspire confidence in those with whom he is brought so closely in contact. The military surgeon, with his flying ambulance, throws himself into the field of battle, through the mêlée, under the fire of the enemy, runs the risk of being taken prisoner, being wounded, or being killed, and is worthy of all the honors that should be bestowed on bravery and skill in the performance of his high functions. Additional grades, as hospital-surgeons, surgeons of divisions, surgeons-in-chief, and inspector-generals of hospitals, etc., are required for every army in the field.
Surinam, orDutch Guiana. A Dutch colony in South America, situated between English and French Guiana. The factories established here by the English in 1640, were occupied by the Portuguese in 1643; by the Dutch, 1654; captured by the English in 1804; and restored to the Dutch in 1814.
Surmounted.In heraldry, a term used to indicate that one charge is to be placed over another of different color or metal, which may respectively be blazoned:sable, a pile argent surmounted by a chevron gules; and,argent, a cross gules surmounted by another or.
Surprise.In war, to fall on an enemy unexpectedly, in marching through narrow and difficult passes, when one part of an army has passed, and is not able to come at once to the succor of the other; as in the passage of woods, rivers, inclosures, etc. A place is surprised by drains, casements, or the issues of rivers or canals; by encumbering the bridge or gate, or by wagons meeting and stopping each other; or by sending soldiers into the place, under pretense of being deserters, who, on entering,surprisethe guard, being sustained by troops at hand in ambush, to whom they give entrance, and thereby seize the place. Military history abounds with instances of successful surprises.
Surrender.To lay down your arms, and give yourself up as a prisoner of war. Also, the act of giving up, as the surrender of a town or garrison.
Surrey.One of the smallest of the English counties, has the Thames for its northern boundary, Berkshire and Hampshire on the west, Sussex on the south, and Kent on the east. Before the Roman era, Surrey formed a portion of the dominions of a Celtic tribe, named by Ptolemy theRegni, and after the Roman conquest was merged into the province of Britannica Prima, though, for many years, it retained its native princes, orsubreguli. Eventually it was swallowedup in the territory of the South Saxons, and reduced by Kenulf, king of Wessex, about 760, into that progressive kingdom which Alfred brought into constitutional harmony and national completeness. From the period of the Norman conquest, Surrey can claim no separate annals. At Kingston, Surrey, in 1642, took place the first military movement of the great civil war; a body of royalists unsuccessfully attempting to seize upon its magazine of arms. And there, on July 7, 1648, Lord Francis Villiers (Dryden’s “Zimri”), met his death in the skirmish which closed the famous struggle.
Surround.In sieges, to invest; in tactics, to outflank and cut off the means of retreating.
Surrounded.Inclosed; invested. A town is said to be surrounded when its principal outlets are blocked up; and an army, when its flanks are turned, and its retreat cut off.
Surtout(Fr.). In fortification, is the elevation of the parapet of a work at the angles to protect from enfilade fire.
Survey, Boards of.SeeBoards of Survey.
Susa(in the Old TestamentShushan; ruins atShus). The winter residence of the Persian kings, stood in the district Cissia of the province of Susiana, on the eastern bank of the river Choaspes. It was conquered by Antigonus in 315B.C.It was once more attacked by Molo in his rebellion against Antiochus the Great; and during the Arabian conquest of Persia it held out bravely for a long time, defended by Hormuzan.
Suspend.To delay, to protract; hence, to suspend hostilities. It is likewise used to express the act of temporarily depriving an officer of rank and pay, in consequence of some offense. SeeAppendix,Articles of War,101.
Suspension of Arms.A short truce which contending parties agree upon, in order to bury their dead without danger or molestation, to wait for succors, or to receive instructions from a superior authority.Suspension of hostilities, to cease attacking one another.
Sussex.A maritime county in the south of England. Ælla and his sons were the first Saxons who landed on the Sussex coast, 477. They assaulted and captured Wittering, near Chichester, spreading afterwards through the vastAndredsleaswith fire and sword, and finally establishing the South-Sexe, or Sussex kingdom. The sea-board of Sussex suffered terribly from the ravages of the Danish jarls. Within its limits was fought (October 14, 1066) the memorable battle which overthrew the Saxon dynasty, and eventually resulted in that union of Saxon solidity and Norman enterprise now recognized as distinctive of the English character. SeeLewesfor important battle in 1264. The French fleet, under D’Annebaut, made an attack on Brighton in 1545, and landed a body of troops, who were stoutly resisted by the natives, and compelled to retire. In 1643, the Parliamentarian forces, under Sir William Waller, besieged Chichester, which after ten days surrendered. The same leader, later in the year, beleaguered Arundel Castle for seventeen days, and reduced it to a heap of ruins. For naval combat off the Sussex coast, seeBeachy Head.
Sustain.To sustain is to aid, succor, or support, any body of men in action or defense.
Sutherland.A county in the extreme north of Scotland. Sutherland received its name from the Northmen, who frequently descended upon and pillaged it prior to the 12th century, and called it the Southern Land, as being the limit on the south of their settlements.
Sutler.A camp-follower, who sells drink and provisions to the troops. SeeCanteen, andPost-trader.
Swad, orSwadkin. A newly-raised soldier.
Swaddie.A discharged soldier.
Swallow’s-tail.In fortification, an outwork, differing from a single tenaille, as its sides are not parallel, like those of a tenaille; but if prolonged, would meet and form an angle on the middle of the curtain; and its head, or front, composed of faces, forming a re-entering angle.
Sway.The swing or sweep of a weapon. “To strike with huge two-handed sway.”
Sweaborg, orSveaborg. A great Russian fortress and seaport, in Finland, government of Viborg, sometimes called “the Gibraltar of the North.” In 1789 it was taken from Sweden by Russia. During the Crimean war it was bombarded by the Anglo-French fleet in the Baltic (on August 9-10, 1855). Twenty-one mortar-vessels were towed to within about 2 miles (3400 metres) of the centre of the Russian arsenal, while the gunboats of the squadron, keeping in constant motion, approached to a distance of 2000 or 3000 metres. The fire was maintained forty-five hours, during which 4150 projectiles (2828 of which were mortar-shells) were thrown into the place, killing and wounding 2000 men, and destroying magazines, supplies, and shipping.
Sweden.A kingdom in the north of Europe, and forming with Norway (with which it is now united under one monarchy), the whole of the peninsula known by the name of Scandinavia. The earliest traditions of Sweden, like those of most other countries, present only a mass of fables. The dawn of Swedish history (properly so called) now begins, and we find the Swedes constantly at war with their neighbors of Norway and Denmark, and busily engaged in piratical enterprises against the eastern shores of the Baltic. In 1155, Eric, surnamed the Saint, undertook a crusade against the pagan Finns, compelled them to submit, established Swedish settlements among them, and laid the foundation of the closer union of Finland with Sweden. Eric’s defeat and murder, in 1161, by the ambitious young Danish prince Magnus Henriksen, who had made an unprovoked attack upon the Swedish king, was the beginning of a long series of troubles, and during the following 200 years, one short and stormy reign was brought to a violent end by murder or civil war, only to be succeeded by another equally short and disturbed; until, at length, the throne was offered by the Swedish nobles to Margaret, queen of Denmark and Norway, who threw an army into Sweden, defeated the Swedish king, Albert of Mecklenburg, and by the union of Calmar, in 1397, brought Sweden under one joint sceptre with Denmark and Norway. Sweden emancipated itself from the union with Denmark in 1523. Gustavus I. (Gustaf Vasa) on his death, in 1560, left to his successor a hereditary and well-organized kingdom, a full exchequer, a standing army, and a well-appointed navy. John, brother of Eric XIV., ascended the throne in 1568, which he occupied for nearly a quarter of a century, dying in 1592, after a stormy reign, stained by the cruel murder of his unfortunate brother Eric, and distracted by the internal dissensions arising from his attempts to force Catholicism on the people, and the disastrous wars with the Danes, Poles, and Russians. John’s son and successor, Sigismund, after a stormy reign of eight years, was compelled to resign the throne. The deposition of Sigismund gave rise to the Swedo-Polish war of succession, which continued from 1604 to 1660; and on the death of Charles IX. in 1611, his son and successor, the great Gustavus Adolphus, found himself involved in hostilities with Russia, Poland, and Denmark. With Charles XII. the male line of the Vasas expired, and his sister and her husband, Frederick of Hesse-Cassel, were called to the throne by election, but were the mere puppets of the nobles, whose rivalries and party dissensions plunged the country into calamitous wars and almost equally disastrous treaties of peace. Gustavus IV. lacked the ability to cope with the difficulties of the times, and after suffering in turn for his alliance with France, England, and Russia, was forcibly deposed in 1809, and his successor, Charles XIII., saw himself compelled at once to conclude a humiliating peace with Russia by a cession of nearly a fourth part of the Swedish territories, with 1,500,000 inhabitants; Gen. Bernadotte was elected to the rank of crown-prince, and he assumed the reins of the government, and by his steady support of the allies against the French emperor, secured to Sweden, at the congress of Vienna, the possession of Norway, when that country was separated from Denmark. Under the able administration of Bernadotte, who, in 1818, succeeded to the throne as Charles XIV., the united kingdoms of Sweden and Norway made great advances in material prosperity and political and intellectual progress.
Sweep.To clear or brush away; as, the cannon swept everything before it.
Swell of the Muzzle.In gunnery, is the largest part of the gun in front of the neck. SeeOrdnance, Construction of, Molding.
Swiss Guards.SeeGardes Suisses.
Switzerland.A federal republic in Central Europe; bounded on the north by Baden, northeast by Würtemberg and Bavaria, east by the principality of Liechtenstein and the Tyrol, south by Piedmont and Savoy, and west and northwest by France. Switzerland was in Roman times inhabited by two races,—the Helvetii on the northwest, and the Rhætians on the southeast. When the invasions took place, the Burgundians settled in Western Switzerland, while the Alemanni took possession of the country east of the Aar. The Goths entered the country from Italy, and took possession of the country of the Rhætians. Switzerland in the early part of the Middle Ages formed part of the German empire, and feudalism sprang up in the Swiss highlands even more vigorously than elsewhere. During the 11th and 12th centuries, the greater part of Switzerland was ruled on behalf of the emperors by the lords of Zahringen, who did much to check civil wars. They, however, became extinct in 1218, and then the country was distracted by wars, which broke out among the leading families. The great towns united in self-defense, and many of them obtained imperial charters. Rudolph of Habsburg, who became emperor in 1273, favored the independence of the towns; but his son Albert I. took another course. He attacked the great towns, and was defeated. The leading men of the Forest Cantons met on the Rütli meadow, on November 7, 1307, and resolved to expel the Austrian bailiffs or landvögte. A war ensued which terminated in favor of the Swiss atMorgarten(which see) in 1315. Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden, with Lucerne, Zürich, Glarus, Zug, and Bern, eight cantons in all, in 1352, entered into a perpetual league, which was the foundation of the Swiss Confederation. Other wars with Austria followed, which terminated favorably for the confederates atNafels(which see) andSempach(which see). In 1415, the people of the cantons became the aggressors. They invaded Aargau and Thurgau, parts of the Austrian territory, and annexed them; three years later, they crossed the Alps, and annexed Ticino, and constituted all three subject states. The Swiss were next engaged in a struggle on the French frontier with Charles the Bold of Burgundy. They entered the field with 34,000 men, to oppose an army of 60,000, and yet they were successful, gaining the famous battles of Granson and Morat (seeMorat) in 1476. In 1499, the emperor Maximilian I. made a final attempt to bring Switzerland once more within the bounds of the empire. He sought to draw men and supplies from the inhabitants for his Turkishwar, but in vain. He was defeated in six desperate engagements. Basel and Schaffhausen (1501), and Appenzell (1513), were then received into the confederation, and its true independence began. New troubles sprang up with the Reformation. War broke out in 1531 between the Catholics and Protestants, and the former were successful atCappel(which see), where Zwingli was slain. This victory to some extent settled the boundaries of the two creeds; in 1536, however, Bern wrested the Pays de Vaud from the dukes of Savoy. During the Thirty Years’ War, Bern and Zürich contrived to maintain with great skill the neutrality of Switzerland, and in the treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, it was acknowledged by the great powers as a separate and independent state. At this period, the Swiss, in immense numbers, were employed as soldiers in foreign service, and the record of their exploits gives ample evidence of their courage and hardihood. In 1798, Switzerland was seized by the French. At the peace of 1815, its independence was again acknowledged. In 1839, at Zürich, a mob of peasants, headed by the Protestant clergy, overturned the government. In Valais, where universal suffrage had put power into the hands of the reactionary party, a war took place in which the latter were victorious. In 1844, a proposal was made in the Diet to expel the Jesuits; but that body declined to act. The radical party then organized bodies of armed men, called the Free Corps, which invaded the Catholic cantons; but they were defeated. The Catholic cantons then formed a league, named the Sonderbund, for defense against the Free Corps. A majority in the Diet, in 1847, declared the illegality of the Sonderbund, and decreed the expulsion of the Jesuits. In the war which ensued between the federal army and the forces of the Sonderbund, the former were victorious at Freiburg and Lucerne. The leagued cantons were made liable in all the expenses of the war, the Jesuits were expelled, and the monasteries were suppressed. Since then, the most important event which has occurred was a rebellion against the king of Prussia, as prince of Neufchâtel. The canton was declared a republic, with a constitution similar to that of the other Swiss states.
Swivel.A small piece of ordnance, turning on a point or swivel.
Sword.A well-known weapon of war, the introduction of which dates beyond the ken of history. It may be defined as a blade of steel, having one or two edges, set in a hilt, and used with a motion of the whole arm. Damascus and Toledo blades have been brought to such perfection, that the point can be made to touch the hilt and to fly back to its former position. In the last century every gentleman wore a sword; now the use of the weapon is almost confined to purposes of war. Among the forms of the sword are the rapier, cutlass, broadsword, scimiter, sabre, etc.
Sword Law.When a thing is enforced, without a due regard being paid to established rules and regulations, it is said to be carried by sword law, or by the will of the strongest.
Sword, Order of the.A Swedish military order of knighthood, instituted by Gustavus Vasa.
Sword-arm.The right arm.
Sword-bayonet.Short arms, as carbines, are sometimes furnished with a bayonet made in the form of a sword. The back of the handle has a groove, which fits upon a stud upon the barrel, and the cross-piece has a hole which fits the barrel. The bayonet is prevented from slipping off by a spring-catch. The sword-bayonet is ordinarily carried as a side-arm, for which purpose it is well adapted, having a curved cutting edge as well as sharp point.
Sword-bearer.In monarchical countries, is the title given to the public officer who bears the sword of state.
Sword-bearers, Knights.A community similar to, though much less distinguished than, the Teutonic Knights.
Sword-belt.A belt made of leather, that hung over the right shoulder of an officer, by which his sword was suspended on the left side. This belt is no longer used, as the sword is now suspended from the waist-belt.
Sword-blade.The blade or cutting part of a sword.
Sword-cane.A cane containing a sword.
Sword-cutler.One who makes swords.
Sworded.Girded with a sword.
Sword-fight.Fencing; a combat or trial of skill with swords.
Sword-knot.A ribbon tied to the hilt of a sword. In the United States, all general officers wear a gold cord with acorn ends, and all other officers, a gold lace strap, with gold bullion tassel; the enlisted men of cavalry wear a leathern strap with a bullion tassel of the same material.
Sword-player.A fencer; a gladiator; one who exhibits his skill in the use of the sword.
Swordsman.A soldier; a fighting man. One skilled in the use of the sword; a professor of the science of fencing.
Swordsmanship.The state of being a swordsman; skilled in the use of the sword.
Sybaris.A celebrated Greek town in Lucania, was situated between the rivers Sybaris and Crathis, and a short distance from the Tarentine Gulf, and near the confines of Bruttium. It was founded by Achæans and Trœzenians in 720B.C., and soon attained an extraordinary degree of prosperity and wealth, exercising dominion over twenty-five towns, and, it is said, was able to bring 300,000 men into the field. But its prosperity was of short duration. The Achæans having expelled the Trœzenian part of the population, the latter took refuge at the neighboring city of Croton, the inhabitants of which espoused their cause. Inthe war which ensued between the two states, the Sybarites were completely conquered by the Crotoniats, who followed up their victory by the capture of Sybaris, which they destroyed by turning the waters of the river Crathis against the town, 510B.C.
Syef(Ind.). A long sword.
Syef-ul Mulk(Ind.). The sword of the kingdom.
Sygambri,Sugambri,Sigambri,Sycambri, orSicambri. One of the most powerful tribes of Germany at an early time, belonged to the Istævones, and dwelt originally north of the Ubii on the Rhine, whence they spread toward the north as far as the Lippe. The territory of the Sygambri was invaded by Cæsar. They were conquered by Tiberius in the reign of Augustus, and a large number of them were transplanted to Gaul, where they received settlements between the Maas and the Rhine as Roman subjects. At a later period we find them forming an important part of the confederacy known under the name of Franci.
Symbol.In a military sense, a badge. Every regiment in the British service has its badge.
Syracuse(It.Siracusa). Anciently the most famous and powerful city of Sicily, situated on the southeast coast of the island, 80 miles south-southwest from Messina; was founded by a body of Corinthian settlers under Archias, one of the Bacchiadæ, 734B.C.In 486 a revolution took place and the oligarchic families—Geomori, orGamori, “land-owners”—were expelled, and the sovereign power was transferred to the citizens at large. Before a year passed, however, Gelon, “despot” of Gela, had restored the exiles, and at the same time made himself master of Syracuse. Hieron, brother of Gelon, raised Syracuse to an unexampled degree of prosperity. Hieron died in 467, and was succeeded by his brother Thrasybulus; but the rapacity and cruelty of the latter soon provoked a revolt among his subjects, which led to his deposition and the establishment of a democratical form of government. The next most important event in the history of Syracuse was the siege of the city by the Athenians, which ended in the total destruction of the great Athenian armament in 413; and Syracuse’s renown at once spread over the whole Greek world. Dionysius restored the “tyranny” of Gelon, and his fierce and victorious war with Carthage (397B.C.) raised the renown of Syracuse still higher. On the death of Hieron II., his grandson Hieronymus, who succeeded him, espoused the side of the Carthaginians. A Roman army under Marcellus was sent against Syracuse, and after a siege of two years, during which Archimedes assisted his fellow-citizens by the construction of various engines of war, the city was taken by Marcellus in 212. Under the Romans, Syracuse slowly but surely declined. Captured, pillaged, and burned by the Saracens (878) it sunk into complete decay, so that very few traces of its ancient grandeur are now to be seen. It was taken by Count Roger, the Norman, 1088; in the insurrection, Syracuse surrendered to the Neapolitan troops, April 8, 1849.
Syria.At present, forming together with Palestine, a division of Asiatic Turkey; extends between lat. 31° and 37° 20′ N. along the Mediterranean from the Gulf of Iskanderoon to the Isthmus of Suez. The oldest inhabitants of Syria were all of Shemitic descent; the Canaanites, like the Jews themselves, and the Phœnicians (who inhabited the coast-regions) were Shemites. So were also the Aramæans, who occupied Damascus and extended eastward towards the Euphrates. This territory, Syria proper, became subject to the Hebrew monarchy in the time of David; but after Solomon’s death Rezin made himself independent in Damascus, and while the Jewish empire was divided into two kingdoms, the Aramæan kings of Damascus conquered and incorporated the whole northern and central part of the country. In 740B.C.the Assyrian king, Tiglath-Pileser, conquered Damascus, and in 720B.C.the kingdom of Israel. In 587B.C.the kingdom of Judah was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, and Syria, with Palestine, was now successively handed over from the Assyrians to the Babylonians, from the Babylonians to the Medes, and from the Medes to the Persians. After the battle of the Issus (333B.C.) Alexander the Great conquered the country, and with him came the Greeks. After his death they formed here a flourishing empire under the Seleucidæ, who reigned from 312 to 64B.C.After the victories over Antigonus at Ipsus in 301B.C., and over Lysimachus at Cyropedion in 282B.C., the empire of Seleucus I. actually comprised the whole empire of Alexander with the exception of Egypt. But his son, Antiochus I., Soter (281-260), lost Pergamum, and failed in his attempts against the Gauls who invaded Asia Minor, and Antiochus II., Theos (260-247), lost Parthia and Bactria. Antiochus the Great (223-187) conquered Palestine, which by the division of Alexander’s empire had fallen to the Ptolemies of Egypt; but under Antiochus Epiphanes (174-164) the Jews revolted, and after a contest of twenty-five years they made themselves independent. Under Antiochus XIII. (69-64) Pompey conquered the country and made it a Roman province, governed by a Roman proconsul. After the conquest of Jerusalem (70) Palestine was added to this province. By the division of the Roman empire Syria fell to the Eastern or Byzantine part. In 638 the country was conquered by the Saracens. In 654 Damascus was made the capital of Syria, and in 661 of the whole Mohammedan empire. When the Abbassides removed their residence to Bagdad, Syria sank into a mere province. In the 11th century the Seljuk Turks conquered the country. The establishment ofthe Latin kingdom by the Crusaders in 1099 was of short duration and of little advantage. They held Jerusalem till 1187, Acre till 1291, but they proved more rapacious and more cruel than the Turks. When in 1291 the Mameluke rulers of Egypt finally drove the Christian knights out of the country, its cities were in ruins, its fields devastated, and its population degraded. Still worse things were in waiting,—the invasion of Tamerlane and his successors, which actually transformed large regions into deserts and the inhabitants into savages. In 1517, Sultan Selim I. conquered the country, and since that time it has formed part of the Turkish empire, with the exception of the short period from 1832 to 1841, when Ibrahim Pasha (who defeated the army of the grand seignior at Konieh, December 21, 1832) governed it under the authority of his father, Mehemet Ali (who had captured Acre, and overrun the whole of Syria). The Druses are said to have destroyed 151 Christian villages and killed 1000 persons, May 29 to July 1, 1860. The Mahommedans massacred Christians at Damascus; about 3300 were slain, but many were saved by Abd-el-Kader, July, 1860; the French and English governments intervened; 4000 French soldiers under Gen. Hautpoul landed at Beyrout, August 22, 1860. The French and Turks advanced against Lebanon, and fourteen emirs surrendered, October, 1860. The pacification of the country was effected, November, 1860; and the French occupation ceased June 5, 1861. The insurrection of Joseph Karaman, a Maronite, in Lebanon, was suppressed, March, 1866; another was suppressed, and Karaman fled to Algeria, January 31, 1867.