BRUTUS

Pescetti wrote his tragedy with the evident intention of flattering the Duke of Ferrara, yet never was fulfillment further from promise. “Cesare” could hardly have furnished agreeable reading to a prince, who, lauded on one page as the greatest descendant of the mightiest Julius, finds throughout the succeeding pages this same ancestor denounced as an odious tyrant, and displayed in action as a weak, vacillating braggart. Nor would his appreciation of Pescetti’s efforts have been increased by a consideration of the treatment accorded Brutus. Far from presenting the assassin of Caesar in a manner which might have been regarded as acceptable to the Duke, the Italian dramatist considers him throughout with the highest favor and never wearies of his praises.

Pescetti’s dedication renders it rather difficult to account satisfactorily for his Brutus. Possibly he harbored liberal sympathies of which he found it hard to rid himself; possibly he was here too greatly under Plutarch’s influence; perhaps he was simply following in the footsteps of Muretus and Grévin. Plutarch certainly wrote the life “con amore,” and both Pescetti and Shakespeare continue the idealization of the character begun by the biographer. To both dramatists, as to Muretus and Grévin, Brutus was the “last of the Romans,” in whom the old regime found its final and noblest champion. Under the circumstances it is difficult to seize upon any phase of the character peculiar alone to Shakespeare and Pescetti. Both went to the same, or nearly the same source for their material; both followed their source faithfully. Yet it is this very similarity in the conception of the character which is especially significant for our purpose, for Shakespeare could have found in the Italian dramatist nothing to weaken, but much to confirm the favorable impression he gathered from the varied pages of Plutarch.

Pescetti’s pronounced bias is discernible from the verybeginning. In his dedication[89]his fulsome flattery of Alfonso does not prevent him hinting that Caesar was no lawful ruler, nor from glancing at his excessive ambition, even though he afterward, in his drama, makes little mention of the one and none of the other. But perhaps most significant of his own feelings are the words he puts into the mouth of the Chorus of Citizens in his last act. The chorus sings the praises of Brutus in a manner which makes the immediately following praise of Caesar by the soldiers pale in comparison:

Coro di Cittadini: . . . . . . .O magnanimo Bruto,Vera stirpe di lui,Che cacciò i Rè, ch’uccise i figli sui:O vero Rè, ch’i regniNon pur sprezzi, ma spegni,Et, ucciso il Tiranno,Torni la libertà nel proprio scanno;Qual premio possiam dartiAl tuo valor condegno?Qual lingua, qual ingegnoÈ bastante a lodarti,Quanto se’ degno?O quanto sdegnoHò, che ’l mio stileNon giunga al segnoDelle tuo lodi, ond’ ioPortar potessi, al mioDesir conforme, il tuo nome gentileDall’ aureo Gange alla rimota Tile.Dov’ è, dov’ è la TrombaOnd’ Achille, et Ulisse ancor rimbomba?Che con sonoro cantoCelebri in ogni cantoIl generoso, e pioFatto, e tolga di mano al cieco oblio.—Pp. 140–141.

Coro di Cittadini: . . . . . . .

O magnanimo Bruto,

Vera stirpe di lui,

Che cacciò i Rè, ch’uccise i figli sui:

O vero Rè, ch’i regni

Non pur sprezzi, ma spegni,

Et, ucciso il Tiranno,

Torni la libertà nel proprio scanno;

Qual premio possiam darti

Al tuo valor condegno?

Qual lingua, qual ingegno

È bastante a lodarti,

Quanto se’ degno?

O quanto sdegno

Hò, che ’l mio stile

Non giunga al segno

Delle tuo lodi, ond’ io

Portar potessi, al mio

Desir conforme, il tuo nome gentile

Dall’ aureo Gange alla rimota Tile.

Dov’ è, dov’ è la Tromba

Ond’ Achille, et Ulisse ancor rimbomba?

Che con sonoro canto

Celebri in ogni canto

Il generoso, e pio

Fatto, e tolga di mano al cieco oblio.—Pp. 140–141.

It is difficult to consider these utterances as impersonal. Such is Pescetti’s admiration for the assassin of Caesar that he speaks in his own person, apparently forgetting in his enthusiasm that he has assigned the words to the Chorus of Citizens.[90]A further remove from Dante’s conception of Brutus can hardly be imagined.

Such an exhibition of partiality could not have been lost on Shakespeare. Such an emphasis of Plutarch’s attitude could not have failed to confirm the favorable impression which he gathered from the biographer. Nor could Shakespeare, in those scenes in “Cesare” wherein Pescetti attempts to exhibit Brutus in action, have gathered any hints to shake the final opinion in his own play:

“This was the noblest Roman of them all.”

Like Shakespeare, Pescetti very carefully eliminates from his characterization anything which might reflect unfavorably upon the moral character of the protagonist. We hear nothing of his positive moral defects; of his divorce, of his rivalry with Cassius for offices within the gift of the Dictator, nor of his many obligations to Caesar. All is discreetly passed over. Whatever Pescetti’s intentions, he probably found it a dramatic necessity to exclude them, much for the same reason that Shakespeare, in all likelihood influenced by his example, was led to ignore them. Possibly it was the Italian’s purpose to portray the fruitless struggle of a hopeless, though noble and virtuous Republicanism against a condition of affairs whose existence had been preordained by the gods, and against which all the forces of an outraged idealism could not prevail. The mortal embodiment of this power might fall; a place was ready for him with the gods, while Tartarus enlarged its bounds to compass his foes.[91]

If we are to accept the opinion of some critics, Shakespeare was influenced in his treatment of the subject by the recent failure of the Duke of Essex’ rebellion. It showed plainly and forcibly the folly of opposition to the monarchial power. The same idea can be discovered in Pescetti. Much as he lauds Brutus, the practical considerations of authorship compel him at times to a consideration of contemporary conditions. Possibly he realized that he was going too far in his denunciation of Caesar, for we find the Nurse engaging in a defense of monarchs, and declaring,

“E non son altro i Regi, che VicariDel sommo Giove.”—P. 55.

“E non son altro i Regi, che Vicari

Del sommo Giove.”—P. 55.

At the end of the play, the author is careful to emphasize the futility of fighting against the established order:

“E chiaro vedrai meco,Che questo mondo è una perpetua guerra,Ove l’un l’altro atterra,E si tosto, ch’un manca,Rinasce un altro, e ’l mondo si rinfranca.”—P. 149.

“E chiaro vedrai meco,

Che questo mondo è una perpetua guerra,

Ove l’un l’altro atterra,

E si tosto, ch’un manca,

Rinasce un altro, e ’l mondo si rinfranca.”—P. 149.

But it is quite possible that neither Pescetti nor Shakespeare had the faintest idea of introducing any such problem into their tragedy. Possibly both dramatized history as they conceived it, without any attempt to invest their work with a larger significance. Yet consciously or unconsciously, by thus representing their hero as morally immaculate, actuated solely by the highest and most unselfish motives, while the representative of monarchy is depicted as weak, vacillating, and tyrannous, both Pescetti and Shakespeare have secured for the problem its most elemental and most emphatic statement.

Both dramatists, therefore, approached the subject in the same spirit. Both excluded from their portrait of Brutus whatever seemed to reflect unfavorably upon his character; both included whatever might add to his moral elevation. It is this peculiar insistence upon certain traits of Brutus’character to the exclusion of others, that furnishes a close parallel between the two plays.[92]

The Brutus of “Cesare”, at his first appearance, curiously resembles the Brutus of “Julius Caesar” after the famous soliloquy. He is torn by no doubts as to the moral excellence of his plans: his whole soul is bent upon the destruction of the tyrant. Thus, in his opening speech[92]he exclaims,

“Oggi a Roma farò conoscer, ch’ioDegno nipote son di quel gran Bruto,Che di questa Città cacciando i RegiAlta vendetta, e memorabil feoDel barbarico stupro di Lucrezia.Roma, oggi questa mano, e questo ferro,O hà da sciorre, e romper le catene,Ond’ in duro servaggio avvinta sei,O hà da trar di vergognosa, e graveVita, anzi morte me.”—P. 12.

“Oggi a Roma farò conoscer, ch’io

Degno nipote son di quel gran Bruto,

Che di questa Città cacciando i Regi

Alta vendetta, e memorabil feo

Del barbarico stupro di Lucrezia.

Roma, oggi questa mano, e questo ferro,

O hà da sciorre, e romper le catene,

Ond’ in duro servaggio avvinta sei,

O hà da trar di vergognosa, e grave

Vita, anzi morte me.”—P. 12.

This, in style, sentiment, and wording is closely parallel to the exclamation of Brutus on reading the notes:

“Shall Rome stand under one man’s awe? What, Rome?My ancestors did from the streets of RomeThe Tarquin drive, when he was called a King.‘Speak, strike, redress.’—Am I entreatedTo speak and strike? O Rome, I make thee promiseIf the redress will follow, thou receivestThy full petition at the hand of Brutus!”

“Shall Rome stand under one man’s awe? What, Rome?

My ancestors did from the streets of Rome

The Tarquin drive, when he was called a King.

‘Speak, strike, redress.’—Am I entreated

To speak and strike? O Rome, I make thee promise

If the redress will follow, thou receivest

Thy full petition at the hand of Brutus!”

The exclamatory style is particularly noteworthy, as it occurs frequently in the parallels.

A peculiar difference in treatment, but a striking parallel in content, is to be found in a portion of the Brutus-Cassius scene.[93]In Pescetti, Brutus enters the action fully resolved, and though Cassius is already in the plot, that cautious conspirator has his doubts as to Caesar’s vulnerability. Brutus thereupon indulges in an argument curiously similar to that used later by Cassius in Shakespeare’s play when he is striving to arouse Brutus. In Pescetti, Cassius says of Caesar:

“Tu sai, ch’egli è feroce, e ne’ perigliNon si sgomenta punto, anzi divieneAllor più ardito, e coraggioso, quandoMaggior vede il periglio.”[94]—P. 24.

“Tu sai, ch’egli è feroce, e ne’ perigli

Non si sgomenta punto, anzi diviene

Allor più ardito, e coraggioso, quando

Maggior vede il periglio.”[94]—P. 24.

Brutus replies:

“. . . . . E siasi, nullaLi gioverà l’ardir, nulla la forza,Che non potrà, se tutto acciaio ei fosseResister al furor di trenta, c’hannoPosta la propria vita in abbandonoPer liberar la patria. O Cassio, crediTu, ch’io non sappia, ch’in cotesto tuoPetto non meno ardir si chiude, e serra,Ch’in quel di Giulio? e che cotesto braccioNon è del suo men nerboruto, e forte?”[95]

“. . . . . E siasi, nulla

Li gioverà l’ardir, nulla la forza,

Che non potrà, se tutto acciaio ei fosse

Resister al furor di trenta, c’hanno

Posta la propria vita in abbandono

Per liberar la patria. O Cassio, credi

Tu, ch’io non sappia, ch’in cotesto tuo

Petto non meno ardir si chiude, e serra,

Ch’in quel di Giulio? e che cotesto braccio

Non è del suo men nerboruto, e forte?”[95]

Shakespeare has:

It is remarkable that in both dramas the authors found it necessary to convince one of their conspirators that Caesar was physically the same as other men.

The Brutus of Pescetti is accorded the same high estimate by his countrymen as the Brutus of Shakespeare. Cassius refers to him as “Il mio Bruto” and lauds him as

“Bruto sovrano pregio, e gloria dellaRomana gioventù, Bruto, in cui splendeOgni prisco valor, cui chiama il cieloA gloriose, et immortali imprese.”—P. 15.

“Bruto sovrano pregio, e gloria della

Romana gioventù, Bruto, in cui splende

Ogni prisco valor, cui chiama il cielo

A gloriose, et immortali imprese.”—P. 15.

A little further on he continues:

“Or sì, c’huomo ti stimo, Bruto, e veroRamo di quella eccelsa, e gloriosaStirpe, ch’à Roma il giogo indegno scosse.Or sì, che chiaro veggio, ch’in te spirtoVeramente Roman si chiude, e serra;Ch’in te quel valor vive, ch’oggi, invanoCerco nel popol nostro, invan disio.”—P. 16.

“Or sì, c’huomo ti stimo, Bruto, e vero

Ramo di quella eccelsa, e gloriosa

Stirpe, ch’à Roma il giogo indegno scosse.

Or sì, che chiaro veggio, ch’in te spirto

Veramente Roman si chiude, e serra;

Ch’in te quel valor vive, ch’oggi, invano

Cerco nel popol nostro, invan disio.”—P. 16.

This speech follows Brutus’ revelation of his determination to kill the tyrant. In Shakespeare, after Cassius has succeeded in moving Brutus, he says,

“Well, Brutus, thou art noble....”[97]

The shade of Pompey says to Brutus:

“. . . Tu puoi dunque,Bruto, servir? tu, che l’origin traiDa colui, che premier la libertadeA questa alta Città donò? tu puoiA Tiranno servir? tu, che discendiDa colui, che’l leggitimo SignoreTollerar non poteo? questo appreso haiDa quella sacrosanta, e venerandaMaestra della vita, e de’ costumi,Per cui seguir già nell’ etade acerbaLa patria abbandonasti, e là te’n gisti,Ove fiorian tutti i lodati studi,Tutte l’arti gentili, e bei costumi?Ahi quanto defraudato hai quella speme,Che già fanciullo ancor di te destastiNel petto di ciascun, che ti conobbe?Mal col principio il fin s’accorda, o Bruto,Mal risponde alla prima la mezzanaEtà: pur sai, ch’in valor dee l’huom sempreIrsi avanzando, qual fiume reale,Che quanto più dal fonte suo si scosta,Tanto più cresce, e al mar più ricco corre.Destati, e Bruto, destati, e raccendiQuel fuoco, ch’era in te ne’ tuoi primi anni;E mostra, ch’al tuo nome corrispondeL’animo, nè dal ceppo tuo traligni.”—P. 17.

“. . . Tu puoi dunque,

Bruto, servir? tu, che l’origin trai

Da colui, che premier la libertade

A questa alta Città donò? tu puoi

A Tiranno servir? tu, che discendi

Da colui, che’l leggitimo Signore

Tollerar non poteo? questo appreso hai

Da quella sacrosanta, e veneranda

Maestra della vita, e de’ costumi,

Per cui seguir già nell’ etade acerba

La patria abbandonasti, e là te’n gisti,

Ove fiorian tutti i lodati studi,

Tutte l’arti gentili, e bei costumi?

Ahi quanto defraudato hai quella speme,

Che già fanciullo ancor di te destasti

Nel petto di ciascun, che ti conobbe?

Mal col principio il fin s’accorda, o Bruto,

Mal risponde alla prima la mezzana

Età: pur sai, ch’in valor dee l’huom sempre

Irsi avanzando, qual fiume reale,

Che quanto più dal fonte suo si scosta,

Tanto più cresce, e al mar più ricco corre.

Destati, e Bruto, destati, e raccendi

Quel fuoco, ch’era in te ne’ tuoi primi anni;

E mostra, ch’al tuo nome corrisponde

L’animo, nè dal ceppo tuo traligni.”—P. 17.

Here we find many characteristics enumerated, garnered from Plutarch and Appian, which, in addition to those already quoted, could have enabled Shakespeare without Plutarch’s scattered hints, to build a considerable part of his characterization of Brutus. In Shakespeare, Cassius says to Brutus:

“You bear too stubborn and too strange a handOver your friend that loves you.”[98]

“You bear too stubborn and too strange a hand

Over your friend that loves you.”[98]

Here, as in Pescetti, all animosity between them is forgotten.

Further on Cassius exclaims, as Brutus assures him that he loves the name of honor more than he fears death:

“I know that virtue to be in you, Brutus,As well as I do know your outward favor.”[99]

“I know that virtue to be in you, Brutus,

As well as I do know your outward favor.”[99]

Just before this, he says:

“And it is very much lamented, Brutus,That you have no such mirrors as will turnYour hidden worthiness into your eye,That you might see your shadow. I have heardWhere many of the best respect in Rome,Except immortal Caesar, speaking of Brutus,And groaning underneath this age’s yoke,Have wished that noble Brutus had his eyes.”[100]

“And it is very much lamented, Brutus,

That you have no such mirrors as will turn

Your hidden worthiness into your eye,

That you might see your shadow. I have heard

Where many of the best respect in Rome,

Except immortal Caesar, speaking of Brutus,

And groaning underneath this age’s yoke,

Have wished that noble Brutus had his eyes.”[100]

Casca refers to Brutus as follows:

“O, he sits high in all the people’s hearts.”[101]

Cassius again:

“... and no man hereBut honors you; and every one doth wishYou had but that opinion of yourselfWhich every noble Roman bears of you.”[102]

“... and no man here

But honors you; and every one doth wish

You had but that opinion of yourself

Which every noble Roman bears of you.”[102]

Ligarius hails him as,

“Soul of Rome,Brave son, derived from honorable loins.”[103]. . . . .“Set on your foot,And with a heart new-fired I follow you,To do I know not what; but it sufficethThat Brutus leads me on.”[104]

“Soul of Rome,Brave son, derived from honorable loins.”[103]

“Soul of Rome,

Brave son, derived from honorable loins.”[103]

. . . . .

“Set on your foot,And with a heart new-fired I follow you,To do I know not what; but it sufficethThat Brutus leads me on.”[104]

“Set on your foot,

And with a heart new-fired I follow you,

To do I know not what; but it sufficeth

That Brutus leads me on.”[104]

The same confidence in Brutus is manifested by the Cassius of “Cesare.” As Brutus and he come out of the temple, Cassius says:

“Scritta nel volto tuo veggio, e per gli occhiScintillar fuor tal tua baldanza scorgo.Quindi felice augurioio prendo; quindiAnch’ io tutto m’inanimo, e rincuoroE certissima speme io concepisco,Ch’aver felice fin deggia la cosa.”—P. 23.

“Scritta nel volto tuo veggio, e per gli occhi

Scintillar fuor tal tua baldanza scorgo.

Quindi felice augurioio prendo; quindi

Anch’ io tutto m’inanimo, e rincuoro

E certissima speme io concepisco,

Ch’aver felice fin deggia la cosa.”—P. 23.

Like Shakespeare, Pescetti lays great stress upon Brutus’ lack of foresight. As is evident from the discussion regarding Antony, he utterly fails to see the fatal mistake he makes in sparing that subtle opportunist. That it is a mistake, Pescetti shows, when, near the end of the drama, the Messenger announced that Antony and Lepidus are about to avenge Caesar’s death. Brutus’ whole argument is characteristic of the closet philosopher; books, not men, have been the object of his studies. He can dissect sagely the motives of his own actions, but he is helpless to penetrate the purposes of other men. In glaring contrast to the Brutus of the famous soliloquy, yet akin in his impracticability, here is a Brutus who speaks thus, when a cautious, worldly Cassius reminds him (in regard to Antony),

“A me più saggioSembra colui che l’ suo nemico uccidePria che l’ offenda, che lui, che dopoCh’ è stato offeso, vendica l’ingiuria.Bruto—Non il pensier, ma l’opra punir vuolsi.Oltra, che chi m’accerta, ch’ei tal menteAbbia, qual dici? Chi può dentro il pettoSuo penetrar? e ciò, che vi nascondeVeder? Gli uman pensier sol Giove intende.”—P. 26.

“A me più saggio

Sembra colui che l’ suo nemico uccide

Pria che l’ offenda, che lui, che dopo

Ch’ è stato offeso, vendica l’ingiuria.

Bruto—Non il pensier, ma l’opra punir vuolsi.

Oltra, che chi m’accerta, ch’ei tal mente

Abbia, qual dici? Chi può dentro il petto

Suo penetrar? e ciò, che vi nasconde

Veder? Gli uman pensier sol Giove intende.”—P. 26.

He would spare Antony because he is a reveller and given to the pleasures of the flesh. How could such a man, he asks, triumph over those who have devoted their lives to study and toil? He fatuously believes that Caesar’s death will so intimidate Antony as to drive all desire of domination out of the head of that wily schemer.

And to all of this, Cassius very appropriately replies:

“Bruto, tu se’ troppo pietoso: vogliaIl ciel, che questa tua pietà non siaUn giorno a noi crudel.”—P. 27.

“Bruto, tu se’ troppo pietoso: voglia

Il ciel, che questa tua pietà non sia

Un giorno a noi crudel.”—P. 27.

Yet this Brutus, just like Shakespeare’s Brutus, is so carried away by the conviction of the irresistible justice of his cause that he abruptly terminates this vital discussion by the lofty statement:

“Chiunque ama virtù, figlio è di Giove.”

This overpowering sense of the righteousness of his cause is strong throughout. In his opening speech he exclaims, as he addresses Jove:

“. . . . . . . nè sdegnar, ch’io sia,Benchè indegno, ministro, et instrumentoDella giustizia tua; nè perchè sacroLuogo alla morte del Tiranno abbiamoEletto, riputar, ch’in noi s’annidiAltro pensier, che pio: Rimira al cuore,Che, se l’atto è profano, il cuor è pio,E pietà sola è di tal atto madre.”—P. 13.

“. . . . . . . nè sdegnar, ch’io sia,

Benchè indegno, ministro, et instrumento

Della giustizia tua; nè perchè sacro

Luogo alla morte del Tiranno abbiamo

Eletto, riputar, ch’in noi s’annidi

Altro pensier, che pio: Rimira al cuore,

Che, se l’atto è profano, il cuor è pio,

E pietà sola è di tal atto madre.”—P. 13.

He considers himself the unworthy instrument of Jove’s vengeance. He feels that the act itself is impious,[105]but his lofty motives must plead his excuse.

“O conspiracy,Shamest thou to show thy dangerous brow by night,When evils are most free? O, then, by dayWhere will thou find a cavern dark enoughTo mask thy monstrous visage?”[106]

“O conspiracy,

Shamest thou to show thy dangerous brow by night,

When evils are most free? O, then, by day

Where will thou find a cavern dark enough

To mask thy monstrous visage?”[106]

Just before this he says:

“Since Cassius first did whet me against CaesarI have not slept.”[107]

“Since Cassius first did whet me against Caesar

I have not slept.”[107]

Since the shade of Pompey appeared to him, Pescetti’s Brutus exclaims that his thoughts, like those of the Greek Milthiades,

“Non mi lascian dormir, nè prender posa.”—P. 15.

When Portia reminds him that fortune often opposes merit he replies:

“Hà ben fortuna per antica usanzaDi contrastar alla virtù; ma quelloAddopra contra lei, che l’onda insanaDel tempestoso mar nel fermo scoglio.”—P. 49.

“Hà ben fortuna per antica usanza

Di contrastar alla virtù; ma quello

Addopra contra lei, che l’onda insana

Del tempestoso mar nel fermo scoglio.”—P. 49.

This is the same spirit that prompts Shakespeare’s Brutus to reject the oath:

“What other oathThan honesty to honesty engagedThat this shall be or we will fall for it?”

“What other oath

Than honesty to honesty engaged

That this shall be or we will fall for it?”

“Unto bad causes swearSuch creatures as men doubt, but do not stainThe even virtue of our enterprise,Nor the insuppressive mettle of our spiritsTo think that or our cause or our performanceDid need an oath....”[108]

“Unto bad causes swear

Such creatures as men doubt, but do not stain

The even virtue of our enterprise,

Nor the insuppressive mettle of our spirits

To think that or our cause or our performance

Did need an oath....”[108]

In “Cesare,” Brutus has such a hold over the conspirators that they gladly, as in Shakespeare, accept his leadership and decision on all points. To him are left all the details of the murder. When the fateful moment comes, he stands, after the first shock, unmoved by the fears of his fellows, and calms their panic when Lenate speaks to Caesar.

“Respira, ò Cassio, che li parla d’altro,Per quel, che di quì posso dal sembianteComprender, e da gesti.”[109]

“Respira, ò Cassio, che li parla d’altro,

Per quel, che di quì posso dal sembiante

Comprender, e da gesti.”[109]

“Cassius, be constant;Popilius Lena speaks not of our purpose;For, look, he smiles, and Caesar doth not change.”[110]

“Cassius, be constant;

Popilius Lena speaks not of our purpose;

For, look, he smiles, and Caesar doth not change.”[110]

The Brutus of Pescetti, who can find time to study faces at such a critical moment, never forgets the respect due to himself. Just like Shakespeare’s Brutus, as long as a fighting chance exists, he would fight to the last, but he would sooner die by his own hand than grace the triumph of his enemy. To Cassius, who rouses him to the danger in Lenate’s talk to Caesar, he replies:

One of the curious things in Shakespeare’s drama is the rather vague causes of resentment which the conspirators have towards Caesar. As Professor MacCallum says, “Cassius, the moving spirit of the opposition, is, at his noblest, actuated by jealousy of greatness. And he is not always at his noblest. He confesses that had he been in Caesar’s good graces, he would have been on Caesar’s side. This strain of servility is more apparent in the flatteries and officiousness of Decius and Casca. And what is the motive? Cassius seeks to win Antony by promising him an equal voice in disposing of the dignities; and he presently uses his position for extortion, and the patronage of corruption. Envy, ambition, cupidity, are the principles of the governing classes; and their enthusiasm for freedom means nothing more than an enthusiasm for prestige and influence, for the privilege of parcelling out the authority and dividing the spoils. What care have these against the Man of Destiny, whose glories have given compass, peace and security to the Roman world? But their plea of liberty misleads the impractical student, the worshipper of dreams, memories, and ideals, behind whose virtue they shelter their selfish aims, and whose countenance alone canmake their conspiracy respectable. And this very Brutus enters the conspiracy, not because of what Caesar did, or what he is, but because of what he may become! I need not here recount such causes of resentment which may be gleaned from the play. They all tend to the conclusions advanced above. The only serious charge urged against Caesar is that he was ambitious;—surely a sorry charge upon which to justify to the Roman populace the murder of a benefactor.”[112]

The same lack of definiteness in the charges against Caesar is to be found in Pescetti. The latter, like Shakespeare, could have found enough material in Appian and in Plutarch upon which to ground the conspiracy, but we look in vain for some decisive accusation. There is much talk of tyranny, much about the hard yoke under which Romans groan, but very little in the way of elucidation. Caesar is not accused of ambition; no mention whatever is made of the attempts to crown him. Envy does not seem to be a motive; at least we gain no such idea from the conduct of the conspirators, although Mark Antony directly hints at this in his warning to Caesar.

“Della fortuna io t’assicuro, ch’ellaNon ti sie mai contraria sì nel crineAvvolte l’hai le mani. Dall’insidieBen t’esort’ io guardarti de’ nemici.Molti offesi da te si tengon: moltiPortano invidia alla tua gloria; alcuniAbbaglia il tuo splendore: altri patire,Che tu lor sii superior, non ponno.”—P. 67.

“Della fortuna io t’assicuro, ch’ella

Non ti sie mai contraria sì nel crine

Avvolte l’hai le mani. Dall’insidie

Ben t’esort’ io guardarti de’ nemici.

Molti offesi da te si tengon: molti

Portano invidia alla tua gloria; alcuni

Abbaglia il tuo splendore: altri patire,

Che tu lor sii superior, non ponno.”—P. 67.

As far as most of the conspirators in “Julius Caesar” are concerned, this seems to fit them; but, strange to say, it is difficult to see where it applies in “Cesare.” Of the many offenses of which Caesar is held responsible we get very little beyond this bare statement.

As far as Brutus is concerned, he evidently blames Caesar for Pompey’s death and burns to avenge it. Just why, is nowhere apparent. He longs to restore the ancient liberties, but in what degree they have been destroyed, and aboveall, just what part Caesar played[113]in their destruction is not very clear. In the very first scene, Brutus apostrophises the shade of Pompey, who had appeared to him during the night, and had said,

“. . . Tu puoi dunque,Bruto, servir? tu che l’origin traiDa colui che primo la libertadeA questa alta Città donò? tu puoiA Tiranno servir? tu, che discendiDa colui, ch’l leggitimo SignoreTollerar non poteo? questo appreso haiDa quella sacrosanta, e venerandaMaestra della vita, e de’ costumi,Per cui seguir già nell’ etade acerbaLa patria abbandonasti:”[114]

“. . . Tu puoi dunque,

Bruto, servir? tu che l’origin trai

Da colui che primo la libertade

A questa alta Città donò? tu puoi

A Tiranno servir? tu, che discendi

Da colui, ch’l leggitimo Signore

Tollerar non poteo? questo appreso hai

Da quella sacrosanta, e veneranda

Maestra della vita, e de’ costumi,

Per cui seguir già nell’ etade acerba

La patria abbandonasti:”[114]

He recounts the hopes entertained by the bright promise of Brutus’ youth, and exhorts him to prove to the world that these hopes may yet be realized.

The shade does not demand vengeance on his own account; he deplores Brutus’ fealty to a tyrant, and states certain conditions, but nothing specifically tyrannical. In his opening apostrophe to the shade, Brutus indulges in the same generalities. I will quote this entire speech, partly for its bearing on the matter under discussion, and partly for the light it sheds on Pescetti’s conception of Brutus’ character.

“Magnanim’ ombra ecch’io ti seguo, ecch’ioM’accingo all’ alta impresa, a che m’esorti.Oggi ò del sangue del crudel Tiranno,O del mio spargerassi il terren sacro.Oggi ò vendicarò l’empia tua morte,E riporrò la patria in libertade,O verrotti a trovar, dovunque sei.Oggi a Roma farò conoscer, ch’ioDegno nipote son di quel gran Bruto,Che di questa Città cacciando i RegiAlta vendetta, e memorabil feoDel barbarico stupro di Lucrezia.Roma, oggi questa mano, e questo ferroO hà da sciorre, e romper le catene,Ond’ in duro servaggio avvinta sei,O hà da trar di vergognosa, e graveVita, anzi morte me. Giove, se giustoSe’, se ’l trar le Città di sotto a piediDe superbi Tiranni, se ’l punireGli empi, se ’l dar a gli innocenti aita,Opra è, che sovra ogn’altra aggrada, e piaceAlla tua maestà, deh favorisciLa santa impresa, e se prosontuosoSon in tor quell’effetto alla tua destra,Che si doveva a lei, ch’era suo proprio,Perdona al gran disio, c’ho di vedereNella primiera libertà ripostaQuest’alta patria; nè sdegnar, ch’io sia,Benchè indegno, ministro, et instrumentoDella giustizia tua: nè perchè sacroLuogo alla morte del Tiranno abbiamoEletto, riputar, ch’in noi s’annidiAltro pensier, che pio: Rimira al cuore,Che, se l’atto è profano, il cuore è pio,E pietà sola è di tal atto madre.”

“Magnanim’ ombra ecch’io ti seguo, ecch’io

M’accingo all’ alta impresa, a che m’esorti.

Oggi ò del sangue del crudel Tiranno,

O del mio spargerassi il terren sacro.

Oggi ò vendicarò l’empia tua morte,

E riporrò la patria in libertade,

O verrotti a trovar, dovunque sei.

Oggi a Roma farò conoscer, ch’io

Degno nipote son di quel gran Bruto,

Che di questa Città cacciando i Regi

Alta vendetta, e memorabil feo

Del barbarico stupro di Lucrezia.

Roma, oggi questa mano, e questo ferro

O hà da sciorre, e romper le catene,

Ond’ in duro servaggio avvinta sei,

O hà da trar di vergognosa, e grave

Vita, anzi morte me. Giove, se giusto

Se’, se ’l trar le Città di sotto a piedi

De superbi Tiranni, se ’l punire

Gli empi, se ’l dar a gli innocenti aita,

Opra è, che sovra ogn’altra aggrada, e piace

Alla tua maestà, deh favorisci

La santa impresa, e se prosontuoso

Son in tor quell’effetto alla tua destra,

Che si doveva a lei, ch’era suo proprio,

Perdona al gran disio, c’ho di vedere

Nella primiera libertà riposta

Quest’alta patria; nè sdegnar, ch’io sia,

Benchè indegno, ministro, et instrumento

Della giustizia tua: nè perchè sacro

Luogo alla morte del Tiranno abbiamo

Eletto, riputar, ch’in noi s’annidi

Altro pensier, che pio: Rimira al cuore,

Che, se l’atto è profano, il cuore è pio,

E pietà sola è di tal atto madre.”

Here is a man ready to kill Caesar because of a dream! The Brutus of Shakespeare would kill him not because of what he is, but for what he might become. The same statement regarding tyranny, ancient liberties, etc., occurs again and again throughout “Cesare.” Cassius repeats them in the very next speech; but all is very vague, very indefinite. Brutus and Cassius later indulge in a lofty dialogue concerning liberty, and Brutus says that the only thing which has kept him alive is the hope that some day he may be able to help Rome regain her ancient liberties. That alone, he feels sure, has also kept Cassius from desiring to outlive the dead Republic.[115]

Perhaps the strongest statement is contained in Brutus’ speech at the beginning of the fifth act.[116]

“Cittadini, Il Tiranno hà col suo sanguePagate le dovute pene, et hà soddisfattoAll’anime di tanti huomini illustri,Che son, per colpa sua, giti sotterra.Omai libera è Roma,Dalle nostre cervici è scosso il giogo,Et ei conforme al merto suo nel proprioSangue, ch’in larga venaPer cento piaghe versaGiace a piè della statuaDel magnanimo Duce,Cui non vider mai par quest’ alte mura:”—P. 115.

“Cittadini, Il Tiranno hà col suo sangue

Pagate le dovute pene, et hà soddisfatto

All’anime di tanti huomini illustri,

Che son, per colpa sua, giti sotterra.

Omai libera è Roma,

Dalle nostre cervici è scosso il giogo,

Et ei conforme al merto suo nel proprio

Sangue, ch’in larga vena

Per cento piaghe versa

Giace a piè della statua

Del magnanimo Duce,

Cui non vider mai par quest’ alte mura:”—P. 115.

Yet there is nothing stronger in all this than in Shakespeare. There Caesar comes in triumph over Pompey’s sons; not alone the parent, but the offspring have fallen. Brutus says,

“No, not an oath: if not the face of men,The sufferance of our souls, the time’s abuse,—If these be motives weak, break off betimes,And every man hence to his idle bed;So let high sighted tyranny rage onTill each man drop by lottery” (II., 1, 114).

“No, not an oath: if not the face of men,

The sufferance of our souls, the time’s abuse,—

If these be motives weak, break off betimes,

And every man hence to his idle bed;

So let high sighted tyranny rage on

Till each man drop by lottery” (II., 1, 114).

Nor can I, despite all this talk concerning ancient liberties, this vehement denunciation of tyranny, discern any definite republican tendencies in “Cesare.” As has already been pointed out, Pescetti’s treatment of Caesar aroused the resentment of the partisans of Alfonso d’Este, yet the author takes pains to have it understood that princes rule by divine right as God’s vicars on earth. In the fourth act, Brutus and Cassius indulge in a dialogue, entirely superfluous, regarding liberty, and Cassius advances what, to a Roman at least, must have seemed rather a novel view of this much discussed subject.

The interjection of this philosophical conception, seemingly so at variance with classical traditions, serves only further to complicate an already sufficiently complicated issue. In short, the motives of the conspirators are not expressed with sufficient clearness to enable us to indicate their exact nature.

Yet, in spite of his impracticability, in spite of the haziness of his motives, the Brutus of Pescetti, like that of Shakespeare, leaves us in no doubt as to the sincerity of his purpose. Whatever base motives may actuate his follows (and in Pescetti none are discernible), he seems to deserve the same eulogy accorded the Brutus of Shakespeare. The salvation of the common weal alone, even at the expense of his own life, seems to animate him. Thus, he says to Decimus Brutus:

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