Silenus astride upon a Wine-skin. (Museo Borbonico. vol. iii. tav. 28.)
Silenus astride upon a Wine-skin. (Museo Borbonico. vol. iii. tav. 28.)
As the process of wine-making among the ancients was for the most part conducted in an unscientific manner, it was found necessary, except in the case of the finest varieties, to have recourse to various devices for preventing or correcting acidity, heightening the flavour, and increasing the durability of the second growths. The object in view was accomplished sometimes by merely mixing different kinds of wine together, but more frequently by throwing into the dolia or amphorae various condiments or seasonings (ἀρτύσεις,medicamina,conditurae). The principal substances employed ascondituraewere, 1. sea-water; 2. turpentine, either pure, or in the form of pitch (pix), tar (pix liquida), or resin (resina). 3. Lime, in the form of gypsum, burnt marble, or calcined shells. 4. Inspissated must. 5. Aromatic herbs, spices, and gums; and these were used either singly, or cooked up into a great variety of complicated confections. But not only were spices and gums steeped in wine or incorporated during fermentation, but even the precious perfumed essential oils (unguenta) were mixed with it before it was drunk (μυῤῥίνη,murrhina.) Of these compound beverages the most popular was theoenomeli(οἰνόμελι) of the Greeks, themulsumof the Romans. This was of two kinds; in the one honey was mixed with wine, in the other with must. The former was said to have been invented by the legendary hero Aristaeus, the first cultivator of bees, and was considered most perfect and palatable when made of some old rough (austerum) wine, such as Massic or Falernian (although Horace objects to the latter for this purpose), and new Attic honey. The proportions were four, by measure, of wine to one of honey, and various spices and perfumes, such as myrrh, cassia, costum, malobathrum, nard, and pepper, might be added. The second kind was made of must evaporated to one half of its original bulk, Attic honey being added in the proportion of one to ten. This, therefore, was merely a very rich fruit syrup, in no way allied to wine.Mulsumwas considered the most appropriate draught upon an empty stomach, and was therefore swallowed immediately before the regular business of a repast began and hence the whet (gustatio) coming before the cup of mulsum was called thepromulsis.Mulsumwas given at a triumph by the imperator to his soldiers.Mulsum(sc.vinum) oroenomeli(οἰνόμελι) is perfectly distinct frommulsa(sc.aqua). The latter, ormead, being made of honey and water mixed and fermented, is themelicraton(μελίκρατον) orhydromeli(ὑδρόμελι) of the Greeks. The ancients considered old wine not only more grateful to the palate, but also more wholesome and invigorating. Generally speaking the Greek wines do not seem to have required a long time to ripen. Nestor in the Odyssey, indeed, drinks wine ten years old; but the connoisseurs under the empire pronounced that all transmarine wines arrived at a moderate degree of maturity in six or seven. Many of the Italian varieties, however, required to be kept for twenty or twenty-five years before they were drinkable (which is now considered ample for our strongest ports), and even the humble growths of Sabinum were stored up for from four to fifteen. Hence it became a matter of importance to hasten, if possible, the natural process. This was attempted in various ways, sometimes by elaborate condiments, sometimes by sinking vessels containing the must in the sea, by which an artificial mellowness was induced (praecox vetustas) and the wine in consequence termedthalassites; but more usually by the application of heat. Thus it was customary to expose the amphorae for some years to the full fervour of the sun’s rays, or to construct theapothecaein such a manner as to be exposed to the hot air and smoke of the bath-furnaces, and hence the namefumariaapplied to such apartments, and the phrasesfumosos,fumum bibere,fuligine testae, in reference to the wines. If the operation was not conducted with care, and the amphorae not stoppered down perfectly tight, a disagreeable effect would be produced on the contents. In Italy, in the first century of the Christian aera, the lowest market price of the most ordinary quality of wine was 300 sesterces for 40 urnae, that is, 15 sesterces for the amphora, or 6d.a gallon nearly. At a much earlier date, the triumph of L. Metellus during the first Punic war (B.C.250), wine was sold at the rate of 8 asses the amphora. The price of native wine at Athens was four drachmas for the metretes, that is, about 4½d.the gallon, when necessaries were dear, and we may perhaps assume one half of this sum as the average of cheaper times. On the other hand, high prices were given freely for the varieties held in esteem, since as early as the time of Socrates a metretes of Chian sold for a mina.—With respect to the way in which wine was drunk, and the customs observed by the Greeks andRomans at their drinking entertainments, the reader is referred to the articleSymposium.—The wine of most early celebrity was that which the minister of Apollo, Maron, who dwelt upon the skirts of Thracian Ismarus, gave to Ulysses. It was red (ἐρυθρόν), and honey-sweet (μελιηδέα), so precious, that it was unknown to all in the mansion save the wife of the priest and one trusty house-keeper; so strong, that a single cup was mingled with twenty of water; so fragrant, that even when thus diluted it diffused a divine and most tempting perfume. Homer mentions also more than oncePramnian wine(οἴνος Πραμνεῖος), an epithet which is variously interpreted by different writers. In after times a wine bearing the same name was produced in the island of Icaria, around the hill village of Latorea in the vicinity of Ephesus, in the neighbourhood of Smyrna, near the shrine of Cybele, and in Lesbos. But the wines of greatest renown at a later period were grown in the islands of Thasos, Lesbos, Chios, and Cos, and in a few favoured spots on the opposite coast of Asia, such as the slopes of Mount Tmolus, the ridge which separates the valley of the Hermus from that of the Caÿster, Mount Messogis, which divides the tributaries of the Caÿster from those of the Meander, the volcanic region of the Catacecaumene, which still retains its fame, the environs of Ephesus, of Cnidus, of Miletus, and of Clazomenae. Among these the first place seems to have been by general consent conceded to theChian, of which the most delicious varieties were brought from the heights of Ariusium in the central parts, and from the promontory of Phanae at the southern extremity of the island. TheThasianandLesbianoccupied the second place, and theCoandisputed the palm with them. In Lesbos the most highly prized vineyards were around Mytilene and Methymna. There is no foundation whatever for the remark that the finest Greek wines, especially the products of the islands in the Aegean and Ionian seas, belonged for the most part to the luscious sweet class. The very reverse is proved by the epithetsαὐστηρός,σκληρός,λεπτός, and the like, applied to a great number, whileγλυκύςandγλυκάζωνare designations comparatively rare, except in the vague language of poetry.—The most noble Italian wines, with a very few exceptions, were derived from Latium and Campania, and for the most part grew within a short distance of the sea. In the first rank we must place theSetinum, which fairly deserves the title ofImperial, since it was the chosen beverage of Augustus and most of his courtiers. It grew upon the hills of Setia, above Forum Appii, looking down upon the Pomptine marshes. Before the age of Augustus theCaecubumwas the most prized of all. It grew in the poplar swamps bordering on the gulf of Amyclae, close to Fundi. In the time of Pliny its reputation was entirely gone, partly in consequence of the carelessness of the cultivators, and partly from its proper soil, originally a very limited space, having been cut up by the canal of Nero extending from Baiae to Ostia. It was full-bodied and heady, not arriving at maturity until it had been kept for many years. The second rank was occupied by theFalernum, of which theFaustianumwas the most choice variety, having gained its character from the care and skill exercised in the cultivation of the vines. TheFalernus agercommenced at the Pons Campanus, on the left hand of those journeying towards the Urbana Colonia of Sulla, theFaustianus agerat a village about six miles from Sinuessa, so that the whole district in question may be regarded as stretching from the Massic hills to the river Vulturnus. Falernian became fit for drinking in ten years, and might be used until twenty years old, but when kept longergave headaches, and proved injurious to the nervous system. Pliny distinguishes three kinds, the rough (austerum), the sweet (dulce), and the thin (tenue). Others arranged the varieties differently; that which grew upon the hill tops they calledCaucinum, that on the middle slopesFaustianum, and that on the plainFalernum. In the third rank was theAlbanum, from the Mons Albanus, of various kinds, very sweet (praedulce), sweetish, rough, and sharp; it was invigorating (nervis utile), and in perfection after being kept for fifteen years. Here too we place theSurrentinum, from the promontory forming the southern horn of the bay of Naples, which was not drinkable until it had been kept for five-and-twenty years, for, being destitute of richness, and very dry, it required a long time to ripen, but was strongly recommended to convalescents, on account of its thinness and wholesomeness. Of equal reputation were theMassicum, from the hills which formed the boundary between Latium and Campania, although somewhat harsh, and theGauranum, from the ridge above Baiae and Puteoli, produced in small quantity, but of very high quality, full-bodied, and thick. In the same class are to be included theCalenumfrom Cales, and theFundanumfrom Fundi. TheCalenumwas light and better for the stomach than Falernian; theFundanumwas full-bodied and nourishing, but apt to attack both stomach and head; therefore little soughtafter at banquets. This list is closed by theVeliturninum,Privernatinum, andSigninum, from Velitrae, Privernum, and Signia, towns on the Volscian hills; the first was a sound wine, but had this peculiarity, that it always tasted as if mixed with some foreign substance; the second was thin and pleasant; the last was looked upon only in the light of a medicine valuable for its astringent qualities. We may safely bring in one more, theFormianum, from the Gulf of Caieta, associated by Horace with the Caecuban, Falernian, and Calenian. The fourth rank contained theMamertinum, from the neighbourhood of Messana, first brought into fashion by Julius Caesar. The finest was sound, light, and at the same time not without body.
VIRGĬNES VESTĀLES. [Vestales Virgines.]
VIS. Leges were passed at Rome for the purpose of preventing acts of violence. The Lex Plotia or Plautia was enacted against those who occupied public places and carried arms. The lex proposed by the consul Q. Catulus on the subject, with the assistance of Plautius the tribunus, appears to be the Lex Plotia. There was a Lex Julia of the dictator Caesar on this subject, which imposed the penalty of exile. Two Juliae Leges were passed as to this matter in the time of Augustus, which were respectively entitled De Vi Publica and De Vi Privata.
VISCĔRĀTĬO. [Funus,p. 190,b.]
VĪTIS. [Centurio.]
VITRUM (ὕαλος), glass. A story has been preserved by Pliny, that glass was first discovered accidentally by some merchants who, having landed on the Syrian coast at the mouth of the river Belus, and being unable to find stones to support their cooking-pots, fetched for this purpose from their ships some of the lumps of nitre which composed the cargo. This being fused by the heat of the fire, united with the sand upon which it rested, and formed a stream of vitrified matter. No conclusion can be drawn from this tale, even if true, in consequence of its vagueness; but it probably originated in the fact, that the sand of the district in question was esteemed peculiarly suitable for glass-making, and exported in great quantities to the workshops of Sidon and Alexandria, long the most famous in the ancient world. Alexandria sustained its reputation for many centuries: Rome derived a great portion of its supplies from this source, and as late as the reign of Aurelian we find the manufacture still flourishing. There is some difficulty in deciding by what Greek author glass is first mentioned, because the termὕαλοςunquestionably denotes not only artificial glass but rock-crystal, or indeed any transparent stone or stone-like substance. Thus theὕελοςof Herodotus, in which the Ethiopians encased the bodies of their dead, cannot be glass, for we are expressly told that it was dug in abundance out of the earth; and hence commentators have conjectured that rock-crystal or rock-salt, or amber, or oriental alabaster, or some bituminous or gummy product, might be indicated. But when the same historian, in his account of sacred crocodiles, states that they were decorated with ear-rings made of melted stone, we may safely conclude that he intends to describe some vitreous ornament for which he knew no appropriate name. Glass is, however, first mentioned with certainty by Theophrastus, who notices the circumstance alluded to above, of the fitness of the sand at the mouth of the river Belus for the fabrication of glass. Among the Latin writers Lucretius appears to be the first in which the wordvitrumoccurs; but it must have been well known to his countrymen long before, for Cicero names it along with paper and linen, as a common article of merchandise brought from Egypt. Scaurus, in his aedileship (B.C.58), made a display of it such as was never witnessed even in after-times; for thescenaof his gorgeous theatre was divided into three tiers, of which the under portion was of marble, the upper of gilded wood, and the middle compartment of glass. In the poets of the Augustan age it is constantly introduced, both directly and in similes, and in such terms as to prove that it was an object with which every one must be familiar. Strabo declares that in his day a small drinking-cup of glass might be purchased at Rome for half an as, and so common was it in the time of Juvenal and Martial, that old men and women made a livelihood by trucking sulphur matches for broken fragments. When Pliny wrote, manufactories had been established not only in Italy, but in Spain and Gaul also, and glass drinking-cups had entirely superseded those of gold and silver; and in the reign of Alexander Severus we findvitreariiranked along with curriers, coachmakers, goldsmiths, silversmiths, and other ordinary artificers whom the emperor taxed to raise money for his thermae. The numerous specimens transmitted to us prove that the ancients were well acquainted with the art of imparting a great variety of colours to their glass; they were probably less successful in their attempts to render it perfectly pure and free from all colour, since we are told that it was considered most valuable in this state. It waswrought according to the different methods now practised, being fashioned into the required shape by the blowpipe,cut, as we term it, althoughground(teritur) is a more accurate phrase, upon a wheel, and engraved with a sharp tool like silver. The art of etching upon glass, now so common, was entirely unknown, since it depends upon the properties of fluoric acid, a chemical discovery of the last century. The following were the chief uses to which glass was applied:—1. Bottles, vases, cups, and cinerary urns. 2. Glass pastes, presenting fac-similes either in relief or intaglio of engraved precious stones. 3. Imitations of coloured precious stones, such as the carbuncle, the sapphire, the amethyst, and, above all, the emerald. 4. Thick sheets of glass of various colours appear to have been laid down for paving floors, and to have been attached as a lining to the walls and ceilings of apartments in dwelling houses, just as scagliuola is frequently employed in Italy, and occasionally in our own country also. Rooms fitted up in this way were calledvitreae camerae, and the panelsvitreae quadraturae. Such was the kind of decoration introduced by Scaurus for the scene of his theatre, not columns nor pillars of glass as some, nor bas-reliefs as others have imagined. 5. Glass was also used for windows. [Domus,p. 144.]
VITTA, or plural VITTAE, a ribbon or fillet, is to be considered, 1. As an ordinary portion of female dress. 2. As a decoration of sacred persons and sacred things. 1. When considered as an ordinary portion of female dress, it was simply a band encircling the head, and serving to confine the tresses (crinales vittae), the ends when long (longae taenia vittae) hanging down behind. It was worn by maidens, and by married women also, the vitta assumed on the nuptial day being of a different form from that used by virgins. The Vitta wasnotworn by libertinae even of fair character, much less by meretrices; hence it was looked upon as aninsigne pudoris, and, together with thestolaandinstita, served to point out at first sight the freeborn matron. The colour was probably a matter of choice: white and purple are both mentioned. When employed for sacred purposes, it was usually twisted round the infula [Infula], and held together the loose flocks of wool. Under this form it was employed as an ornament for 1. Priests, and those who offered sacrifice. 2. Priestesses, especially those of Vesta, and hencevittata sacerdosfor a vestal,κατ’ ἐξόχην. 3. Prophets and poets, who may be regarded as priests, and in this case the vittae were frequently intertwined with chaplets of olive or laurel. 4. Statues of deities. 5. Victims decked for sacrifice. 6. Altars. 7. Temples. 8. Theἱκετήριαof suppliants. The sacred vittae, as well as the infulae, were made of wool, and hence the epithetslaneaandmollis. They were white (niveae), or purple (puniceae), or azure (caeruleae), when wreathed round an altar to the manes.
Vittae. (Statues from Herculaneum.)
Vittae. (Statues from Herculaneum.)
VŎLŌNES is synonymous withVoluntarii(fromvolo), and might hence be applied to all those who volunteered to serve in the Roman armies without there being any obligation to do so. But it was applied more especially to slaves, when in times of need they offered or were allowed to fight in the Roman armies. Thus when during the second Punic war, after the battle of Cannae, there was not a sufficient number of freemen to complete the army, about 8000 young and able-bodied slaves offered to serve. Their proposal was accepted; they received armour at the public expense, and as they distinguished themselves they were honoured with the franchise. In after times the name volones was retained whenever slaves chose or were allowed to take up arms in defence of their masters, which they were the more willing to do, as they were generally rewarded with the franchise.
VŎLŪMEN. [Liber.]
VŎLUNTĀRĬI. [Volones.]
VŎMĬTŌRĬA. [Amphitheatrum.]
VULCĀNĀLĬA, a festival celebrated at Rome in honour of Vulcan, on the 23rd of August, with games in the circus Flaminius, where the god had a temple. The sacrifice on this occasion consisted of fishes, which the people threw into the fire. It was also customary on this day to commence working by candle-light, which was probably considered as an auspicious beginning of the use of fire, as the day was sacred to the god of this element.
VULGĀRES. [Servus.]