IDUS. [Calendarium.]
IGNŌMĬNĬA. [Censor;Infamia.]
IGNŌBĬLES. [Nobiles.]
ĬMĀGO, a representation or likeness, an image or figure of a person. Among the Romans those persons, who had filled any of the higher or curule magistracies of the state, had the right of having images of themselves. Respecting thisjus imaginumseeNobiles.
IMMŪNĬTAS (frominandmunus), signifies, (1) A freedom from taxes. (2) A freedom from services which other citizens had to discharge. With respect to the first kind of immunitas we find that the emperors frequently granted it to separate persons, or to certain classes of persons, or to whole states. The second kind of immunitas was granted to all persons who had a valid excuse(excusatio) to be released from such, services, and also to other persons as a special favour. The immunitas might be either general, from all services which a citizen owed to the state, or special, such as from military service, from taking the office of tutor or guardian, and the like.
IMPĔRĀTOR. [Imperium.]
IMPĔRĬUM, was under the republic a power, without which no military operation could be carried on as in the name and on the behalf of the state. It was not incident to any office, and was always specially conferred by a lex curiata, that is, a lex passed in the comitia curiata. Consequently, not even a consul could act as commander of an army, unless he were empowered by a lex curiata. It could not be held or exercised within the city in the republican period; but it was sometimes conferred specially upon an individual for the day of his triumph within the city, and at least, in some cases, by a plebiscitum. As opposed topotestas, imperiumis the power which was conferred by the state upon an individual who was appointed to command an army. The phrasesconsularis potestasandconsulare imperiummight both be properly used; but the expressiontribunitia potestasonly could be used, as the tribuni never received the imperium. In respect of his imperium, he who received it was styledimperator. After a victory it was usual for the soldiers to salute their commander as imperator, but this salutation neither gave nor confirmed the title, since the title as a matter of course was given with the imperium. Under the republic the title came properly after the name; thus Cicero, when he was proconsul in Cilicia, could properly style himself M. Tullius Cicero Imperator, for the term merely expressed that he had the imperium. The emperors Tiberius and Claudius refused to assume the praenomen of imperator, but the use of it as a praenomen became established among their successors. The term imperium was applied in the republican period to express the sovereignty of the Roman state. Thus Gaul is said by Cicero to have come under the imperium and ditio of the populus Romanus.
IMPLŬVĬUM. [Domus.]
IMPŪBES. An infans was incapable of doing any legal act. An impubes, who had passed the limits of infantia, could do any legal act with the auctoritas of his tutor. With the attainment of pubertas, a person obtained the full power over his property, and the tutela ceased: he could also dispose of his property by will; and he could contract marriage. Pubertas, in the case of a male, was attained with the completion of the fourteenth, and, in a female, with the completion of the twelfth year. Upon attaining the age of puberty a Roman youth assumed the toga virilis, but until that time he wore the toga praetexta, the broad purple hem of which (praetexta) atonce distinguishedhim from other persons. The toga virilis was assumed at the Liberalia in the month of March, and though no age appears to have been positively fixed for the ceremony, it probably took place as a general rule on the feast which next followed the completion of the fourteenth year; though it is certain that the completion of the fourteenth year was not always the time observed. Still, so long as a male wore the praetexta, he was impubes, and when he assumed the toga virilis, he was pubes.
INAUGŬRĀTĬO, was in general the ceremony by which the augurs obtained, or endeavoured to obtain, the sanction of the gods to something which had been decreed by man; in particular, however, it was the ceremony by which things or persons were consecrated to the gods, whence the termsdedicatioandconsecratiowere sometimes used as synonymous with inauguratio. Not only were priests inaugurated, but also the higher magistrates, who for this purpose were summoned by the augurs to appear on the capitol, on the third day after their election. This inauguratio conferred no priestly dignity upon the magistrates, but was merely a method of obtaining the sanction of the gods to their election, and gave them the right to take auspicia; and on important emergencies it was their duty to make use of this privilege.
INAURIS, an ear-ring; called in Greekἐνώτιον, because it was worn in the ear (οὗς), andἐλλόβιον, because it was inserted into the lobe of the ear (λοβός), which was bored for the purpose. Ear-rings were worn by both sexes in oriental countries. Among the Greeks and Romans they were worn only by females. This ornament consisted of the ring (κρίκος), and of the drops (stalagmia). The ring was generally of gold, although the common people also wore ear-rings of bronze. Instead of a ring a hook was often used. The drops were sometimes of gold, very finely wrought, and sometimes of pearls.
INCENDĬUM, the crime of setting any object on fire, by which the property of a man is endangered. A law of the Twelve Tables inflicted a severe punishment on the person who set fire to property maliciously (sciens,prudens); but if it was done by accident (casu,id est,negligentia), the law obliged the offender to repair the injury hehad committed. Sulla, in hisLex Cornelia de Sicariis, punished malicious (dolo malo) incendium, but only in the city, or within a thousand paces of it, with aquae et ignis interdictio. Cn. Pompeius, inB.C.52, made incendium a crime ofVisby hisLex Pompeia de Vi, in consequence of the burning of the Curia and the Porcia Basilica on the burial of Clodius; and Julius Caesar also included it in hisLex Julia de Vi. Besides the two criminal prosecutions given by the Lex Cornelia and Lex Julia, a person could also bring actions to recover compensation for the injury done to his property.
INCESTUM or INCESTUS. Incestum is non castum, and signifies generally all immoral and irreligious acts. In a narrower sense it denotes the unchastity of a Vestal, and sexual intercourse of persons within certain degrees of consanguinity. Incest with a Vestal was punished with the death of both parties. [Vestales.]
INCŪNĀBŬLA or CŪNABŬLA (σπάργανον), swaddling-clothes, in which a new-born child was wrapped. It was one of the peculiarities of the Lacedaemonian education to dispense with the use of incunabula, and to allow children to enjoy the free use of their limbs.
Incunabula, swaddling-clothes. (From a Bas-relief at Rome.)
Incunabula, swaddling-clothes. (From a Bas-relief at Rome.)
INDUTUS. [Amictus.]
INFĀMĬA, was a consequence of condemnation for certain crimes, and also a direct consequence of certain acts, such as adultery, prostitution, appearing on the public stage as an actor, &c. A person who becameinfamislost the suffragium and honores, and was degraded to the condition of an aerarian. Infamia shouldbe distinguishedfrom theNota Censoria, the consequence of which was onlyignominia. [Censor.]
INFANS, INFANTIA. In the Roman law there were several distinctions of age which were made with reference to the capacity for doing legal acts:—1. The first period was from birth to the end of the seventh year, during which time persons were calledInfantes, orQui fari non possunt. 2. The second period was from the end of seven years to the end of fourteen or twelve years, according as the person was a male or a female, during which persons were defined as thoseQui fari possunt. The persons included in these first two classes wereImpuberes. 3. The third period was from the end of the twelfth or fourteenth to the end of the twenty-fifth year, during which period persons wereAdolescentes,Adulti. The persons included in these three classes were minores xxv annis or annorum, and were often, for brevity’s sake, called minores only [Curator]; and the persons included in the third and fourth class werePuberes. 4. The fourth period was from the age of twenty-five, during which persons wereMajores.
INFĔRĬAE. [Funus.]
INFŬLA, a flock of white and red wool, which was slightly twisted, drawn into the form of a wreath or fillet, and used by the Romans for ornament on festive and solemn occasions. In sacrificing it was tied with a white band [Vitta] to the head of the victim and also of the priest.
INGĔNŬI, were those freemen who were born free. Consequently, freedmen (libertini) were not ingenui, though the sons of libertini were ingenui; nor could a libertinus by adoption become ingenuus. The wordsingenuusandlibertinusare often opposed to one another; and the title of freeman (liber), which would comprehendlibertinus, is sometimes limited by the addition ofingenuus(liber et ingenuus.) Under the empire a person, not ingenuus by birth, could be made ingenuus by the emperor.
INJŪRĬA.Injuria, in the general sense, is opposed toJus. In a special senseinjuriawas done by striking or beating a man either with the hand or with anything; by abusive words (convicium); by the proscriptio bonorum, when the claimant knew that the alleged debtor was not really indebted to him; by libellous writings or verses; by soliciting a materfamilias, &c. The Twelve Tables had various provisions on the subject of Injuria. Libellous songs or verses were followed by capital punishment. In the case of a limb being mutilated the punishment was Talio. In the case of a broken bone, the penalty was 300 asses if the injury was done to a freeman, and 150 if it was done to a slave. In other cases the Tables fixed thepenalty at 25 asses. These penalties were afterwards considered to be insufficient; and the injured person was allowed by the praetor to claim such damages as he thought that he was entitled to, and the judex might give the full amount or less. Infamia was a consequence of condemnation in an actio Injuriarum.
ĪNŌA (ἰνῶα), festivals celebrated in several parts of Greece, in honour of Ino.
INQUĬLĪNUS. [Exsilium.]
INSTĬTA (περιπόδιον), a flounce; a fillet. The Roman matrons sometimes wore a broad fillet with ample folds, sewed to the bottom of the tunic and reaching to the instep. The use of it indicated a superior regard to decency and propriety of manners.
INSŬLA was, properly, a house not joined to the neighbouring houses by a common wall. An insula, however, generally contained several separate houses, or at least separate apartments or shops, which were let to different families; and hence the worddomusunder the emperors seems to be applied to the house where a family lived, whether it were an insula or not, and insula to any hired lodgings.
INTERCESSĬO was the interference of a magistrates to whom an appeal [Appellatio] was made. The object of the intercessio was to put a stop to proceedings, on the ground of informality or other sufficient cause. Any magistratus mightintercedere, who was of equal rank with or of rank superior to the magistratus from or against whom the appellatio was. Cases occur in which one of the praetors interposed (intercessit) against the proceedings of his colleague. The intercessio is most frequently spoken of with reference to the tribunes, who originally had not jurisdictio, but used the intercessio for the purpose of preventing wrong which was offered to a person in their presence. The intercessio of the tribunes of the plebs was auxilium, and it might be exercised eitherin jureorin judicio. The tribunequi intercessitcould prevent a judicium from being instituted. The tribunes could also use the intercessio to prevent execution of a judicial sentence. A single tribune could effect this, and against the opinion of his colleagues.
INTERCĪSI DĬES. [Dies.]
INTERDICTUM. “In certain cases (certis ex causis) the praetor or proconsul, in the first instance (principaliter), exercises his authority for the termination of disputes. This he chiefly does when the dispute is about possession or quasi-possession; and the exercise of his authority consists in ordering something to be done, or forbidding something to be done. The formulae and the terms, which he uses on such occasions, are called eitherinterdictaordecreta. They are calleddecretawhen he orders something to be done, as when he orders something to be produced (exhiberi) or to be restored: they are calledinterdictawhen he forbids something to be done, as when he orders that force shall not be used against a person who is in possession rightfully (sine vitio), or that nothing shall be done on a piece of sacred ground. Accordingly all interdicta are either restitutoria, or exhibitoria, or prohibitoria.” This passage, which is taken from Gaius, the Roman jurist, contains the essential distinction between anactioand aninterdictum. In the case of an actio, the praetor pronounces no order or decree, but he gives a judex, whose business it is to investigate the matter in dispute, and to pronounce a sentence consistently with the formula, which is his authority for acting. In the case of an actio, therefore, the praetor neither orders nor forbids a thing to be done, but he says,Judicium dabo. In the case of an interdict, the praetor makes an order that something shall be done or shall not be done, and his words are accordingly words of command;Restituas, Exhibeas, Vim fieri veto. Thisimmediateinterposition of the praetor is appropriately expressed by the wordprincipaliter.
INTERPRES, an interpreter. This class of persons became very numerous and necessary to the Romans as their empire extended. In large mercantile towns the interpreters, who formed a kind of agents through whom business was done, were sometimes very numerous. All Roman praetors, proconsuls, and quaestors, who were entrusted with the administration of a province, had to carry on all their official proceedings in the Latin language, and as they could not be expected to be acquainted with the language of the provincials, they had always among their servants [Apparitores] one or more interpreters, who were generally Romans, but in most cases undoubtedly freedmen. These interpreters had not only to officiate at the conventus [Conventus], but also explained to the Roman governor everything which the provincials might wish to be laid before him.
INTERREGNUM. [Interrex.]
INTERREX. This office is said to have been instituted on the death of Romulus, when the senate wished to share the sovereign power among themselves, instead of electing a king. For this purpose, according to Livy, the senate, which then consisted of one hundred members, was divided into ten decuries; and from each of these decuries one senator was nominated. These together formed a board of ten, with the title ofInterreges,each of whom enjoyed in succession the regal power and its badges for five days; and if no king was appointed at the expiration of fifty days, the rotation began anew. The period during which they exercised their power was called anInterregnum. These ten interreges were theDecem Primi, or ten leading senators, of whom the first was chief of the whole senate. The interreges agreed among themselves who should be proposed as king, and if the senate approved of their choice, they summoned the assembly of the curiae, and proposed the person whom they had previously agreed upon; the power of the curiae was confined to accepting or rejecting him. Interreges were appointed under the republic for holding the comitia for the election of the consuls, when the consuls, through civil commotions or other causes, had been unable to do so in their year of office. Each held the office for only five days, as under the kings. The comitia were hardly ever held by the first interrex; more usually by the second or third; but in one instance we read of an eleventh, and in another of a fourteenth interrex. The interreges under the republic, at least fromB.C.482, were elected by the senate from the whole body, and were not confined to the decem primi or ten chief senators, as under the kings. Plebeians, however, were not admissible to this office; and consequently, when plebeians were admitted into the senate, the patrician senators met without the plebeian members to elect an interrex. For this reason, as well as on account of the influence which the interrex exerted in the election of the magistrates, we find that the tribunes of the plebs were strongly opposed to the appointment of an interrex. The interrex had jurisdictio. Interreges continued to be appointed occasionally till the time of the second Punic war, but after that time we read of no interrex, till the senate, by command of Sulla, created an interrex to hold the comitia for his election as dictator,B.C.82. InB.C.55 another interrex was appointed, to hold the comitia in which Pompey and Crassus were elected consuls; and we also read of interreges inB.C.53 and 52, in the latter of which years an interrex held the comitia in which Pompey was appointed sole consul.
ISTHMĬA (ἴσθμια), the Isthmian games, one of the four great national festivals of the Greeks. This festival derived its name from the Corinthian isthmus, where it was held. Subsequent to the age of Theseus the Isthmia were celebrated in honour of Poseidon; and this innovation is ascribed to Theseus himself. The celebration of the Isthmia was conducted by the Corinthians, but Theseus had reserved for his Athenians some honourable distinctions: those Athenians who attended the Isthmia sailed across the Saronic gulf in a sacred vessel (θεωρίς), and an honorary place (προεδρία), as large as the sail of their vessel, was assigned to them during the celebration of the games. In times of war between the two states a sacred truce was concluded, and the Athenians were invited to attend at the solemnities. These games were celebrated regularly every other year, in the first and third years of each Olympiad. After the fall of Corinth, in 146B.C., the Sicyonians were honoured with the privilege of conducting the Isthmian games; but when the town of Corinth was rebuilt by Julius Caesar, the right of conducting the solemnities was restored to the Corinthians. The season of the Isthmian solemnities was, like that of all the great national festivals, distinguished by general rejoicings and feasting. The contests and games of the Isthmia were the same as those at Olympia, and embraced all the varieties of athletic performances, such as wrestling, the pancratium, together with horse and chariot racing. Musical and poetical contests were likewise carried on, and in the latter women were also allowed to take part. The prize of a victor in the Isthmian games consisted at first of a garland of pine-leaves, and afterwards of a wreath of ivy. Simple as such a reward was, a victor in these games gained the greatest distinction and honour among his countrymen; and a victory not only rendered the individual who obtained it a subject of admiration, but shed lustre over his family, and the whole town or community to which he belonged. Hence Solon established by a law, that every Athenian who gained the victory at the Isthmian games should receive from the public treasury a reward of one hundred drachmae. His victory was generally celebrated in lofty odes, called Epinikia, or triumphal odes, of which we still possess some beautiful specimens among the poems of Pindar.