TĂBELLA,dim.of TĂBŬLA, a billet or tablet, with which each citizen and judex voted in the comitia and courts of justice. For details see pp.107,236.
TĂBELLĀRĬUS, a letter-carrier. As the Romans had no public post, they were obliged to employ special messengers, who were calledtabellarii, to convey their letters (tabellae,literae), when they had not an opportunity of sending them otherwise.
TĂBERNĀCŬLUM. [Templum.]
TABLĪNUM. [Domus.]
TĂBŬLAE. This word properly means planks or boards, whence it is applied to several objects, as gaming-tables, pictures, but more especially to tablets used for writing. Generally,tabulaeandtabellaesignify waxen tablets (tabulae ceratae), which were thin pieces of wood, usually of an oblong shape, covered over with wax (cera). The wax was written on by means of the stilus. These tabulae were sometimes made of ivory and citron-wood, but generally of the wood of a more common tree, as the beech, fir, &c. The outer sides of the tablets consisted merely of the wood; it was only the inner sides that were covered over with wax. They were fastened together at the back by means of wires, which answered the purpose of hinges, so that they opened and shut like our books; and to prevent the wax of one tablet nibbing against the wax of the other, there was a raised margin around each, as is clearly seen in the woodcut onp. 354. There were sometimes two, three, four, five, or even more, tablets fastened together in the above-mentioned manner. Two such tablets were calleddiptycha(δίπτυχα), which merely means “twice-folded” (fromπτύσσω, “to fold”), whence we haveπτυκτίον, or with the τ omitted,πυκτίον. The Latin wordpugillares, which is the name frequently given to tablets covered with wax, may perhaps be connected with the same root, though it is usually derived frompugillus, because they were small enough to be held in the hand. Three tablets fastened together were calledtriptycha; in the same way we also read ofpentaptycha, and ofpolyptychaormultiplices(cerae). The pages of these tablets were frequently called by the name of cerae alone; thus we read ofprima cera,altera cera, “first page,” “second page.” In tablets containing important legal documents, especially wills, the outer edges were pierced through with holes (foramina), through which a triple thread (linum) was passed, and upon which a seal was then placed. This was intended to guard against forgery, and if it was not done such documents were null and void. Waxen tablets were used among the Romans for almost every species of writing, where great length was not required. Thus letters were frequently written upon them, which were secured by being fastened together with packthread and sealed with wax. Legal documents, and especially wills, were almost always written on waxen tablets. Such tablets were also used for accounts, in which a person entered what he received and expended (tabulaeorcodex accepti et expensi), whencenovae tabulaemean an abolition of debts either wholly or in part. The tablets used in voting in the comitia and the courts of justice were also called tabulae, as well as tabellae. [Tabella.]
TĂBŬLĀRĬI were notaries or accountants, who are first mentioned under this name in the time of the empire. Public notaries, who had the charge of public documents, were also called tabularii. They were first established by M. Antoninus in the provinces, who ordained that the births of all children were to be announced to the tabularii within thirty days from the birth.
TĂBŬLĀRĬUM, a place where the public records (tabulae publicae) were kept. These records were of various kinds, as for instance senatusconsulta, tabulae censoriae, registers of births, deaths, of the names of those who assumed the toga virilis, &c. There were various tabularia at Rome, all of which were in temples; we find mention made of tabularia in the temples of the Nymphs, of Lucina, of Juventus, of Libitina, of Ceres, and more especially in that of Saturn, which was also the public treasury.
TAGUS (ταγός), a leader or general, was more especially the name of the military leader of the Thessalians. He is sometimes calledking(βασιλεύς). His command was of a military rather than of a civil nature, and he seems only to have been appointed when there was a war or one was apprehended. We do not know the extent of the power which the Tagus possessed constitutionally, nor the time for which he held the office; probably neither was precisely fixed, and depended on the circumstances of the times and the character of the individual.
TĀLĀRĬA, small wings, fixed to the ancles of Hermes and reckoned among his attributes (πέδιλα,πτηνοπέδιλος). In many works of ancient art they are represented growing from his ancles (see cut,p. 63); but more frequently he is represented with sandals, which have wings fastened to them on each side over the ancles.
Talaria. (From a Statue of Hermes at Naples.)
Talaria. (From a Statue of Hermes at Naples.)
TĂLASSĬO. [Matrimonium.]
TĂLENTUM (τάλαντον) meant originallya balance[Libra], then the substance weighed, and lastly and commonly a certain weight,the talent. The Greek system of money, as well as the Roman [As], was founded on a reference to weight. A certain weight of silver among the Greeks, as of copper among the Romans, was used as a representative of a value, which was originally and generally that of the metal itself. The talent therefore and its divisions are denominations of money as well as of weight. The Greek system of weights contained four principal denominations, which, though different in different times and places, and even at the same place for different substances, always bore the same relationto each other. These were the talent (τάλαντον), which was the largest, then the mina (μνᾶ), the drachma (δραχμή), and the obolus (ὀβολός). [SeeTables.] The Attic and Aeginetan were the two standards of money most in use in Greece. The Attic mina was 4l.1s.3d., and the talent 243l.15s.The Aeginetan mina was 5l.14s.7d., and the talent 343l.15s.The Euboic talent was of nearly the same weight as the Attic. A much smaller talent was in use for gold. It was equal to six Attic drachmae, or about ¾ oz. and 71 grs. It was called thegold talent, or theSicilian talent, from its being much used by the Greeks of Italy and Sicily. This is the talent always meant when the word occurs in Homer. This small talent explains the use of the termgreat talent(magnum talentum), which we find in Latin authors, for the silver Attic talent wasgreatin comparison with this. But the use of the word by the Romans is altogether very inexact. Where talents are mentioned in the classical writers without any specification of the standard, we must generally understand the Attic.
TĀLĬO, from Talis, signifies an equivalent, but it is used only in the sense of a punishment or penalty the same in kind and degree as the mischief which the guilty person has done to the body of another. Talio, as a punishment, was a part of the Mosaic law.
TĀLUS (ἀστράγαλος), a huckle-bone. The huckle-bones of sheep and goats were used to play with from the earliest times, principally by women and children, occasionally by old men. To play at this game was sometimescalledπενταλιθίζειν, because five bones or other objects of a similar kind were employed; and this number is retained among ourselves. When the sides of the bone were marked with different values, the game became one of chance. [Alea;Tessera.] The two ends were left blank, because the bone could not rest upon either of them on account of its curvature. The four remaining sides were marked with the numbers 1, 3, 4, 6; 1 and 6 being on two opposite sides, and 3 and 4 on the other two opposite sides. The Greek and Latin names of the numbers were as follows:—1.Μονάς,εἶς,κύων,Χῖος; Ion.Οἴνη:Unio,Vulturius,canis: 3.Τρίας,Ternio; 4.Τετράς,Quaternio; 6.Ἑξάς,ἑξίτης,Κῷος;Senio. Two persons played together at this game, using four bones, which they threw up into the air, or emptied out of a dice-box, and observing the numbers on the uppermost sides. The numbers on the four sides of the four bones admitted of thirty-five different combinations. The lowest throw of all was four aces (jacere vultorios quatuor). But the value of a throw was not in all cases the sum of the four numbers turned up. The highest in value was that calledVenus, orjactus Venereus, in which the numbers cast up were all different, the sum of them being only fourteen. It was by obtaining this throw that the king of the feast was appointed among the Romans [Symposium], and hence it was also calledBasilicus. Certain other throws were called by particular names, taken from gods, illustrious men and women, and heroes. Thus the throw, consisting of two aces and two trays, making eight, which number, like the jactus Venereus, could be obtained only once, was denominatedStesichorus.
Game of Tali. (From an ancient Painting.)
Game of Tali. (From an ancient Painting.)
TĂMĬAE (ταμίαι), the treasurers of the temples and the revenue at Athens. The wealthiest of all the temples at Athens was that of Athena on the Acropolis, the treasures of which were under the guardianship of tentamiae, who were chosen annually by lot from the class of pentacosiomedimni, and afterwards, when the distinction of classes had ceased to exist, from among the wealthiest of Athenian citizens. The treasurers of the other gods were chosen in like manner; but they, about the 90th Olympiad, were all united into one board, while those of Athena remained distinct. Their treasury, however, was transferred to the same place as that of Athena, viz., to the opisthodomus of the Parthenon, where were kept not only all the treasures belonging to the temples, but also the state treasure (ὅσια χρήματα, as contra-distinguished fromἱερά), under the care of the treasurers of Athena. All the funds of the state were considered as being in a manner consecrated to Athena; while on the other hand the people reserved to themselves the right of making use of the sacred monies, as well as the other property of the temples, if the safety of the state should require it. Payments made to the temples were received by the treasurers in the presence of some members of the senate, just as public monies were by the Apodectae; and then the treasurers became responsible for their safe custody.—The treasurer of the revenue (ταμίαςorἐπιμελητής τῆς κοινῆς προσόδου) was a more important personage than those last mentioned. He was not a mere keeper of monies, like them, nor a mere receiver, like the apodectae; but a general paymaster, who received through the apodectae all money which was to be disbursed for the purposes of the administration (except the property-taxes, which were paid into the war-office, and the tribute from the allies, which was paid to the hellenotamiae [Hellenotamiae]), and then distributed it in such manner as he was required to do by the law; the surplus (if any) he paid into the war-office or the theoric fund. As this person knew all the channels in which the public money had to flow, and exercised a general superintendence over the expenditure, he was competent to give advice to the people upon financial measures, with a view to improve the revenue, introduce economy, and prevent abuses; he is sometimes calledταμίας τῆς διοικήσεως, orὁ ἐπὶ τῆς διοικήσεως, and may be regarded as a sort of minister of finance. He was elected by vote (χειροτονία), and held his office for four years, but was capable of being re-elected. A law, however, was passed during the administration of Lycurgus, the orator, prohibiting re-election; so that Lycurgus, who is reported to have continued in office for twelve years, must have held it for the last eight years under fictitious names. The power of this officer was by no means free from control; inasmuch as any individual was at liberty to propose financial measures, or institute criminal proceedings for malversation or waste of the public funds; and there was anἀντιγραφεὺς τῆς διοικήσεωςappointed to check the accounts of his superior. Anciently there were persons calledPoristae(πορίσται), who appear to have assisted the tamiae in some part of their duties. The money disbursed by the treasurer of the revenue was sometimes paid directly to the various persons in the employ of the government, sometimes through subordinate pay offices. Many public functionaries had their own paymasters, who were dependent on the treasurer of therevenue, receiving their funds from him, and then distributing them in their respective departments. Such were theτριηροποιοί,τειχοποιοί,ὁδοποιοί,ταφροποιοί,ἐπεμεληταὶ νεωρίων, who received through their own tamiae such sums as they required from time to time for the prosecution of their works. The payment of the judicial fees was made by theColacretae(κωλακρέται), which, and the providing for the meals in the Prytaneium, were the only duties that remained to them after the establishment of the apodectae by Cleisthenes. The tamiae of the sacred vessels (τῆς Παράλουandτῆς Σαλαμινίας) acted not only as treasurers, but as trierarchs, the expenses (amounting for the two ships together to about sixteen talents) being provided by the state. They were elected by vote. Other trierarchs had their own private tamiae.—The war fund at Athens (independently of the tribute) was provided from two sources: first, the property-tax (εἰσφορά), and secondly, the surplus of the yearly revenue, which remained after defraying the expenses of the civil administration. Of the ten strategi, who were annually elected to preside over the war department, one was calledστρατηγὸς ὁ ἐπὶ τῆς διοικήσεως, to whom the management of the war fund was entrusted. He had under him a treasurer, called theταμίας τῶν στρατιωτικῶν, who gave out the pay of the troops, and defrayed all other expenses incident to the service. So much of the surplus revenue as was not required for the purposes of war, was to be paid by the treasurer of the revenue into the theoric fund; of which, after the archonship of Euclides, special managers were created. [Theorica.]—Lastly, we have to notice the treasurers of the demi (δήμων ταμίαι), and those of the tribes (φυλῶν ταμίαι), who had the care of the funds belonging to their respective communities, and performed duties analogous to those of the state treasurers. The demi, as well as the tribes, had their common lands, which were usually let to farm. The rents of these formed the principal part of their revenue.
TAXIARCHI (ταξίαρχοι), military officers at Athens, next in rank to the strategi. They were ten in number, like the strategi, one for each tribe, and were elected by vote (χειροτονία). In war each commanded the infantry of his own tribe, and they were frequently called to assist the strategi with their advice at the war-council. In peace they assisted the strategi in levying and enlisting soldiers, and seem to have also assisted thestrategiin the discharge of many of their other duties. The taxiarchs were so called from their commandingtaxeis(τάξεις), which were the principal divisions of the hoplites in the Athenian army. Each tribe (φυλή) formed ataxis. As there were ten tribes, there were consequently in a complete Athenian army tentaxeis, but the number of men contained in each would of course vary according to the importance of the war. Among the other Greeks, thetaxiswas the name of a much smaller division of troops. Thelochus(λόχος) among the Athenians was a subdivision of thetaxis, and thelochagi(λοχαγοί) were probably appointed by the taxiarchs.
TĒGŬLA (κέραμος,dim.κεραμίς), a roofing-tile. Roofing-tiles were originally made, like bricks, of baked clay (γῆς ὀπτῆς). Byzes of Naxos first introduced tiles of marble about the year 620B.C.A still more expensive and magnificent method of roofing consisted in the use of tiles made of bronze and gilt. At Rome the houses were originally roofed with shingles, and continued to be so down to the time of the war with Pyrrhus, when tiles began to supersede the old roofing material.
TEICHŎPOII (τειχοποιοί), magistrates at Athens, whose business it was to build and keep in repair the public walls. They appear to have been elected by vote (χειροτονία), one from each tribe, and probably for a year. Funds were put at their disposal, for which they had their treasurer (ταμίας) dependent on the treasurer of the revenue. They were liable to render an account (εὐθύνη) of their management of these funds, and also of their general conduct, like other magistrates. This office has been invested with peculiar interest in modern times, on account of its having been held by Demosthenes, and its having given occasion to the famous prosecution of Ctesiphon, who proposed that Demosthenes should receive the honour of a crown before he had rendered his account according to law.
TĒLA (ἱστός), a loom. Although weaving was among the Greeks and Romans a distinct trade, carried on by a separate class of persons (ὑφάνται,textoresandtextrices,linteones), yet every considerable domestic establishment, especially in the country, contained a loom, together with the whole apparatus necessary for the working of wool (lanificium,ταλασία, ταλασιουργία). [Calathus.] These occupations were all supposed to be carried on under the protection of Athena or Minerva, specially denominatedErgane(Ἐργάνη). When the farm or the palace was sufficiently large to admit of it, a portion of it called thehiston(ἱστῶν) ortextrinumwas devoted to this purpose. The work was there principally carried on byfemale slaves (quasillariae), under the superintendence of the mistress of the house. Every thing woven consists of two essential parts, the warp and the woof, called in Latinstamenandsubtegmen,subtemen, ortrama; in Greekστήμωνandκροκή. The warp was calledstamenin Latin (fromstare) on account of its erect posture in the loom. The corresponding Greek termστήμων, and likewiseἱστός, have evidently the same derivation. For the same reason, the very first operation in weaving was to set up the loom (ἱστὸν στήσασθαι); and the web or cloth, before it was cut down or “descended” from the loom, was calledvestis pendensorpendula tela, because it hung from the transverse beam, orjugum. These particulars are all clearly exhibited in the picture of Circe’s loom given in the annexed cut. We observe in the preceding woodcut, about the middle of the apparatus, a transverse rod passing through the warp. A straight cane was well adapted to be so used, and its application is clearly expressed by Ovid in the wordsstamen secernit arundo. In plain weaving it was inserted between the threads of the warp so as to divide them into two portions, the threads on one side of the rod alternating with those on the other side throughout the whole breadth of the warp. In a very ancient form of the loom there was a roller underneath the jugum, turned by a handle, and on which the web was wound as the work advanced. The threads of the warp, besides being separated by a transverse rod or plank, were divided into thirty or forty parcels, to each of which a stone was suspended for the purpose of keeping the warp in a perpendicular position, and allowing the necessary play to the strokes of the spatha. Whilst the comparatively coarse, strong, and much-twisted thread designed for the warp was thus arranged in parallel lines, the woof remained upon the spindle [Fusus], forming aspool,bobbin, orpen(πήνη). This was either conveyed through the warp without any additional contrivance, or it was made to revolve in a shuttle (radius). This was made of box brought from the shores of the Euxine, and was pointed at its extremities, that it might easily force its way through the warp. All that is effected by the shuttle is the conveyance of the woof across the warp. To keep every thread of the woof in its proper place, it is necessary that the threads of the warp should be decussated. This was done by the leashes, called in Latinlicia, in Greekμίτοι. By a leash we are to understand a thread having at one end a loop, through which a thread of the warp was passed, the other end being fastened to a straight rod calledliciatorium, and in Greekκανών. The warp, having been divided by the arundo, as already mentioned, into two sets of threads, all those of the same set were passed through the loops of the corresponding set of leashes, and all these leashes were fastened at their other end to the same wooden rod. At least one set of leashes was necessary to decussate the warp, even in the plainest and simplest weaving. The number of sets was increased according to the complexity of the pattern, which was calledbilixortrilix,δίμιτος, τρίμιτος, orπολύμιτος, according as the number was two, three, or more. The process of annexing the leashes to the warp was calledordiri telam, alsolicia telae addere, oradnectere. It occupied two women at the same time, one of whom took in regular succession each separate thread of the warp, and handed it over to the other (παραφέρειν,παραδίδοναι, orπροσφωρεῖσθαι); the other, as she received each thread, passed it through the loop in proper order; an act which we call “entering,” in Greekδιάζεσθαι. Supposing the warp to have been thus adjusted, and the pen or the shuttle to have been carried through it, it was then decussated by drawing forwards the proper rod, so as to carry one set of the threads of the warp across the rest, after which the woof was shot back again, and by the continual repetition of this process the warp and woof were interlaced. Two staves were occasionally used to fix the rods in such a position as was most convenient to assist the weaver in drawing her woof across her warp. After the woof had been conveyed by the shuttle through the warp, it was driven sometimes downwards, as is represented in the woodcut, but more commonly upwards. Two different instruments were used in this part of the process. The simplest, and probably the most ancient, was in the form of a large wooden sword (spatha,σπάθη). The spatha was, however, in a great degree superseded by the comb (pecten,κερκίς), the teeth of which were inserted between the threads of the warp, andthus made by a forcible impulse to drive the threads of the woof close together.—The lyre, the favourite musical instrument of the Greeks, was only known to the Romans as a foreign invention. Hence they appear to have described its parts by a comparison with the loom, with which they were familiar. The termsjugumandstaminawere transferred by an obvious resemblance from the latter to the former object; and, although they adopted into their own language the Greek wordplectrum, they used the Latinpectento denote the same thing, not because the instrument used in striking the lyre was at all like a comb in shape and appearance, but because it was held in the right hand, and inserted between the stamina of the lyre, as the comb was between the stamina of the loom.
Tela, Loom. (From the Vatican MS. of Virgil.)
Tela, Loom. (From the Vatican MS. of Virgil.)
TĔLAMŌNES. [Atlantes.]
TĔLŌNES (τελώνης), a farmer of the public taxes at Athens. The taxes were let by auction to the highest bidder. Companies often took them in the name of one person, who was calledἀρχώνηςorτελωνάρχης, and was their representative to the state. Sureties were required of the farmer for the payment of his dues. The office was frequently undertaken by resident aliens, citizens not liking it, on account of the vexatious proceedings to which it often led. The farmer was armed with considerable powers: he carried with him his books, searched for contraband or uncustomed goods, watched the harbour, markets, and other places, to prevent smuggling, or unlawful and clandestine sales; brought aphasis(φάσις) or other legal process against those whom he suspected of defrauding the revenue; or even seized their persons on some occasions, and took them before the magistrate. To enable him to perform these duties, he was exempted from military service. Collectors (ἐκλογεῖς) were sometimes employed by the farmers; but frequently the farmer and the collector were the same person. The taxes were let by the commissioners (πωλῆται), acting under the authority of the senate. The payments were made by the farmer on stated prytaneias in the senate-house. There was usually one payment made in advance,προκαταβολή, and one or more afterwards, calledπροσκατάβλημα. Upon any default of payment, the farmer becameatimus, if a citizen, and he was liable to be imprisoned at the discretion of the court, upon an information laid against him. If the debt was not paid by the expiration of the ninth prytaneia, it was doubled; and if not then paid, his property became forfeited to the state, and proceedings to confiscation might be taken forthwith. Upon this subject, see the speech of Demosthenes against Timocrates.
TĔLOS (τέλος), a tax. The taxes imposed by the Athenians, and collected at home, were either ordinary or extraordinary. The former constituted a regular or permanent source of income; the latter were only raised in time of war or other emergency. The ordinary taxes were laid mostly uponproperty, and upon citizensindirectly, in the shape of toll or customs; though the resident aliens paid a poll-tax (calledμετοίκιον), for the liberty of residing at Athens under protection of the state. There was a duty of two per cent. (πεντηκοστή), levied upon all exports and imports. An excise was paid on all sales in the market (calledἐπωνία), though we know not what the amount was. Slave-owners paid a duty of three obols for every slave they kept; and slaves who had been emancipated paid the same. This was a very productive tax before the fortification of Deceleia by the Lacedaemonians. The justice fees (πρυτανεῖα,παραστασις, &c.) were a lucrative tax in time of peace. The extraordinary taxes were the property-tax, and the compulsory services calledliturgies(λειτουργίαι). Some of these last were regular, and recurred annually; the most important, thetrierarchia, was a war-service, and performed as occasion required. As these services were all performed, wholly or partly, at the expense of the individual, they may be regarded as a species of tax. [Eisphora;Leitourgia;Trierarchia.] The tribute (φόρος) paid by the allied states to the Athenians formed, in the flourishing period of the republic, a regular and most important source of revenue. In Olymp. 91 2, the Athenians substituted for the tribute a duty of five per cent. (εἰκοστή) on all commodities exported or imported by the subject states, thinking to raise by this means a larger income than by direct taxation. This was terminated by the issue of the Peloponnesian war, though the tribute was afterwards revived, on more equitable principles, under the name ofσύνταξις. Other sources of revenue were derived by the Athenians from their mines and public lands, fines, and confiscations. The public demesne lands, whether pasture or arable, houses or other buildings, were usually let by auction to private persons. The conditions of the lease were engraven on stone. The rent was payable by prytaneias. These various sources of revenue produced, according to Aristophanes, an annual income of two thousand talents in the most flourishing period of Athenian empire.Τελεῖνsignifies “to settle, complete, or perfect,” and hence “to settle an account,” and generally “to pay.” ThusΤέλοςcomesto mean any payment in the nature of a tax or duty. The words are connected withzahlenin German, and the old sense oftalein English, and the modern wordtoll. Thoughτέλοςmay signify any payment in the nature of a tax or duty, it is more commonly used of the ordinary taxes, as customs, &c.Ἰσοτέλειαsignifies the right of being taxed on the same footing, and having other privileges, the same as the citizens; a right sometimes granted to resident aliens.Ἀτέλειαsignifies an exemption from taxes, or other duties and services; an honour very rarely granted by the Athenians. As to the farming of the taxes, seeTelones.
TEMPLUM is the same word as the GreekTemenos(τέμενος, fromτέμνω, to cut off); fortemplumwas any place which was circumscribed and separated by the augurs from the rest of the land by a certain solemn formula. The technical terms for this act of the augurs areliberareandeffari, and hence a templum itself is alocus liberatus et effatus. A place thus set apart and hallowed by the augurs was always intended to serve religious purposes, but chiefly for taking the auguries. The place in the heavens within which the observations were to be made was likewise called templum, as it was marked out and separated from the rest by the staff of the augur. When the augur had defined the templum within which he intended to make his observations, he fixed his tent in it (tabernaculum capere), and this tent was likewise calledtemplum, or, more accurately,templum minus. The place chosen for a templum was generally an eminence, and in the city it was thearx, where the fixing of a tent does not appear to have been necessary, because here a place calledauguraculumwas once for all consecrated for this purpose. Besides this meaning of the word templum in the language of the augurs, it also had that of a temple in the common acceptation. In this case, however, the sacred precinct within which a temple was built, was always alocus liberatus et effatusby the augurs, that is, atemplumor afanum; the consecration was completed by the pontiffs, and not until inauguration and consecration had taken place, could sacra be performed or meetings of the senate be held in it. It was necessary then for a temple to be sanctioned by the gods, whose will was ascertained by the augurs, and to be consecrated or dedicated by the will of man (pontiffs). Where the sanction of the gods had not been obtained, and where the mere act of man had consecrated a place to the gods, such a place was only asacrum,sacrarium, orsacellum. The ceremony performed by the augurs was essential to a temple, as the consecration by the pontiffs took place also in other sanctuaries which were not templa, but meresacraoraedes sacrae. Thus the sanctuary of Vesta was not a templum, but an aedes sacra, and the various curiae (Hostilia, Pompeia, Julia) required to be made templa by the augurs before senatusconsulta could be made in them. It is impossible to determine with certainty in what respects a templum differed from adelubrum.—Temples appear to have existed in Greece from the earliest times. They were separated from the profane land around them (τόπος βέβηλοςorτὰ βέβηλα), because every one was allowed to walk in the latter. This separation was in early times indicated by very simple means, such as a string or a rope. Subsequently, however, they were surrounded by more efficient fences, or even by a wall (ἕρκος, περίβολος). The whole space enclosed in such aπερίβολοςwas calledτέμενος, or sometimesἱερόν; and contained, besides the temple itself, other sacred buildings, and sacred ground planted with groves, &c. Within the precincts of the sacred enclosure no dead were generally allowed to be buried, though there were some exceptions to this rule, and we have instances of persons being buried in or at least near certain temples. The religious laws of the island of Delos did not allow any corpses to be buried within the whole extent of the island, and when this law had been violated, a part of the island was first purified by Pisistratus, and subsequently the whole island by the Athenian people. The temple itself was calledναόςorνεώς, and at its entrance fonts (περιῤῥαντήρια) were generally placed, that those who entered the sanctuary to pray or to offer sacrifices might first purify themselves. The act of consecration, by which a temple was dedicated to a god, was calledἵδρυσις. The character of the early Greek temples was dark and mysterious, for they had no windows, and they received light only through the door, which was very large, or from lamps burning in them. Architecture in the construction of magnificent temples, however, made great progress even at an earlier time than either painting or statuary, and long before the Persian wars we hear of temples of extraordinary grandeur and beauty. All temples were built either in an oblong or round form, and were mostly adorned with columns. Those of an oblong form had columns either in the front alone, in the fore and back fronts, or on all the four sides. Respecting the original use of these porticoes seePorticus. The friezes and metopes were adorned with various sculptures, and no expense was spared in embellishing the abodes of the gods. The light, which was formerlylet in at the door, was now frequently let in from above through an opening in the middle. Most of the great temples consisted of three parts: 1. theπρόναοςorπρόδομος, the vestibule; 2. the cella (ναός,σηκός); and 3. theὀπισθόδομος. The cella was the most important part, as it was, properly speaking, the temple or the habitation of the deity whose statue it contained. In one and the same cella there were sometimes the statues of two or more divinities, as in the Erechtheum at Athens, the statues of Poseidon, Hephaestus, and Butas. The statues always faced the entrance, which was in the centre of the prostylus. The place where the statue stood was calledἕδος, and was surrounded by a balustrade or railings. Some temples also had more than one cella, in which case the one was generally behind the other, as in the temple of Athena Polias at Athens. In temples where oracles were given, or where the worship was connected with mysteries, the cella was calledἄδυτον,μέγαρον, orἀνάκτορον, and to it only the priests and the initiated had access. Theὀπισθόδομοςwas a building which was sometimes attached to the back front of a temple, and served as a place in which the treasures of the temple were kept, and thus supplied the place ofθησαυροί, which were attached to some temples.—Quadrangular Templeswere described by the following terms, according to the number and arrangement of the columns on the fronts and sides. 1.Ἄστυλος,astyle, without any columns. 2.Ἐν παραστάσι,in antis, with two columns in front between the antae. 3.Πρόστυλος,prostyle, with four columns in front. 4.Ἀμφιπρόστυλος,amphiprostyle, with four columns at each end. 5.Περίπτεροςorἀμφικίων,peripteral, with columns at each end and along each side. 6.Δίπτερος,dipteral, with two ranges of columns (πτερά) all round, the one within the other. 7.Ψευδοδίπτερος,pseudodipteral, with one range only, but at the same distance from the walls of thecellaas the outer range of aδίπτερος. To these must be added a sort of sham invented by the Roman architects, namely: 8.Ψευδοπερίπτερος,pseudoperipteral, where the sides had only half-columns (at the angles three-quarter columns), attached to the walls of thecella, the object being to have thecellalarge without enlarging the whole building, and yet to keep up something of the splendour of a peripteral temple. Names were also applied to the temples, as well as to the porticoes themselves, according to the number of columns in the portico at either end of the temple: namely,τετράστυλος,tetrastyle, when there werefourcolumns in front,ἑξάστυλος,hexastyle, when there weresix,ὀκτάστυλος,octastyle, when there wereeight,δεκάστυλος,decastyle, when there wereten. There were never more than ten columns in the end portico of a temple; and when there were only two, they were always arranged in that peculiar form calledin antis(ἐν παραστάσι). The number of columns in the end porticoes was never uneven, but the number along the sides of a temple was generally uneven. The number of the side columns varied: where the end portico was tetrastyle, there were never any columns at the sides, except false ones, attached to the walls: where it was hexastyle or octastyle, there were generally 13 or 17 columns at the sides, counting in the corner columns: sometimes a hexastyle temple had only eleven columns on the sides. The last arrangement resulted from the rule adopted by the Roman architects, who counted by intercolumniations (the spaces between the columns), and whose rule was to havetwice as many intercolumniations along the sides of the building as in front. The Greek architects on the contrary, counted by columns, and their rule was to havetwice as many columns along the sides as in front, and one more, counting the corner columns in each case. Another set of terms, applied to temples and other buildings having porticoes, as well as to the porticoes themselves, was derived from the distances between the columns as compared with the lower diameters of the columns. They were the following:—1.Πυκνόστυλος,pycnostyle, the distance between the columns a diameter of a column and half a diameter. 2.Σύστυλος,systyle, the distance between the columns two diameters of a column. 3.Εὔστυλος,eustyle, the distance between the columns two diameters and a quarter, except in the centre of the front and back of the building, where each intercolumniation (intercolumnium) was three diameters; called eustyle, because it was best adapted both for beauty and convenience. 4.Διάστυλος,diastyle, the intercolumniation, or distance between the columns, three diameters. 5.Ἀραιόστυλος,araeostyle, the distances excessive, so that it was necessary to make the epistyle (ἐπιστύλιον), or architrave, not of stone, but of timber. These five kinds of intercolumniation are illustrated by the following diagram.
Independently of theimmense treasures contained in many of the Greek temples, which were either utensils or ornaments, and of the tithes of spoils, &c., the property of temples, from which they derived a regular income, consisted of lands (τεμένη), either fields, pastures, or forests. These lands were generally let out to farm, unless they were, by some curse which lay on them, prevented from being taken into cultivation. Respecting the persons entrusted with the superintendence, keeping, cleaning, &c., seeAeditui. In the earliest times there appear to have been very few temples at Rome, and on many spots the worship of a certain divinity had been established from time immemorial, while we hear of the building of a temple for the same divinity at a comparatively late period. Thus the foundation of a temple to the old Italian divinity Saturnus, on the Capitoline, did not take place tillB.C.498. In the same manner, Quirinus and Mars had temples built to them at a late period. Jupiter also had no temple till the time of Ancus Martius, and the one then built was certainly very insignificant. We may therefore suppose that the places of worship among the earliest Romans were in most cases simple altars or sacella. The Roman temples of later times were constructed in the Greek style. As regards the property of temples, it is stated that in early times lands were assigned to each temple, but these lands were probably intended for the maintenance of the priests alone. [Sacerdos.] The supreme superintendence of the temples of Rome, and of all things connected with them, belonged to the college of pontiffs. Those persons who had the immediate care of the temples were theAeditui.
TĔPĬDĀRĬUM. [Balneum,p. 56.]
TERMĬNĀLĬA, a festival in honour of the god Terminus, who presided over boundaries. His statue was merely a stone or post stuck in the ground to distinguish between properties. On the festival the two owners of adjacent property crowned the statue with garlands, and raised a rude altar, on which they offered up some corn, honeycombs, and wine, and sacrificed a lamb or a sucking-pig. They concluded with singing the praises of the god. The public festival in honour of this god was celebrated at the sixth mile-stone on the road towards Laurentum, doubtless because this was originally the extent of the Roman territory in that direction. The festival of the Terminalia was celebrated on the 23rd of February, on the day before the Regifugium. The Terminalia was celebrated on the last day of the old Roman year, whence some derive its name. We know that February was the last month of the Roman year, and that when the intercalary month Mercedonius was added, the last five days of February were added to the intercalary month, making the 23rd of February the last day of the year.
TĔRUNCĬUS. [As.]
TESSĔRA (κύβος), a square or cube; a die; a token. The dice used in games of chance were tesserae, small squares or cubes, and were commonly made of ivory, bone, or wood. They were numbered on all the six sides, like the dice still in use; and in this respect as well as in their form they differed from thetali. [Talus.] Whilst four tali were used in playing, only three tesserae were anciently employed. Objects of the same materials with dice, and either formed like them, or of an oblong shape, were used as tokens for different purposes. Thetessera hospitaliswas the token of mutual hospitality, and is spoken of underHospitium. This token was probably in many cases of earthenware, having the head of Jupiter Hospitalis stamped upon it.Tesserae frumentariaeandnummariaewere tokens given at certain times by the Roman magistrates to the poor, in exchange for which they received a fixed amount of corn or money. From the application of this term to tokens of various kinds, it was transferred tothe wordused as a token among soldiers. This was thetessera militaris, theσύνθημαof the Greeks. Before joining battle it was given out and passed through the ranks, as a method by which the soldiers might be able to distinguish friends from foes.
TESTĀMENTUM, a will. In order to be able to make a valid Roman will, the Testator must have the Testamentifactio, which term expresses the legal capacity to make a valid will. The testamentifactio was the privilege only of Roman citizens who were patresfamilias. The following persons consequently had not the testamentifactio: those who were in the Potestas or Manus of another, or in Mancipii causa, as sons and daughters, wives In manu and slaves: Latini Juniani, Dediticii: Peregrini could not dispose of their property according to the form of a Roman will: an Impubes could not dispose of his property by will even with the consent of his Tutor; when a male was fourteen years of age, he obtained the testamentifactio, and a female obtained the power, subject to certain restraints, on the completion of her twelfth year: muti, surdi, furiosi, and prodigi “quibus lege bonis interdictum est” had not the testamentifactio. In order to constitute a valid will, it was necessary that a heres should be instituted, which might be done in such terms as follow:—Titiusheres esto, Titium heredem esse jubeo. [Heres(Roman.)] Originally there were two modes of making wills; either at Calata Comitia, which were appointed twice a year for that purpose; orin procinctu, that is, when a man was going to battle. A third mode of making wills was introduced, which was effectedper aes et libram, whence the name of Testamentum per aes et libram. If a man had neither made his will at Calata Comitia nor In procinctu, and was in imminent danger of death, he would mancipate (mancipio dabat) his Familia, that is, his Patrimonium to a friend and would tell him what he wished to be given to each after his death. There seems to have been no rule of law that a testament must be written. The heres might either be made by oral declaration (nuncupatio) or by writing. Written wills however were the common form among the Romans at least in the later republican and in the imperial periods. They were written on tablets of wood or wax, whence the word “cera” is often used as equivalent to “tabella;” and the expressions prima, secunda cera are equivalent to prima, secunda pagina. The will must have been in some way so marked as to be recognized, and the practice of the witnesses (testes) sealing and signing the will at last became common. It was necessary for the witnesses both to seal (signare), that is, to make a mark with a ring (annulus) or something else on the wax and to add their names (adscribere). Wills were to be tied with a triple thread (linum) on the upper part of the margin which was to be perforated at the middle part, and the wax was to be put over the thread and sealed. Tabulae which were produced in any other way had no validity. A man might make several copies of his will, which was often done for the sake of caution. When sealed, it was deposited with some friend, or in a temple, or with the Vestal Virgins; and after the testator’s death it was opened (resignare) in due form. The witnesses or the major part were present, and after they had acknowledged their seals, the thread (linum) was broken and the will was opened and read, and a copy was made; the original was then sealed with the public seal and placed in the archium, whence a fresh copy might be got, if the first copy should ever be lost.
TESTIS, a witness.—(1)Greek.[Martyria.]—(2)Roman.[Jusjurandum.]
TESTŪDO (χελώνη), a tortoise, was the name given to several other objects.—(1) To the Lyra, because it was sometimes made of a tortoise-shell.—(2) To an arched or vaulted roof.—(3) To a military machine moving upon wheels and roofed over, used in besieging cities, under which the soldiers worked in undermining the walls or otherwise destroying them. It was usually covered with raw hides, or other materials which could not easily be set on fire. The battering-ram [Aries] was frequently placed under a testudo of this kind, which was then calledTestudo Arietaria.—(4) The name of testudo was also applied to the covering made by a close body of soldiers who placed their shields over their heads to secure themselves against the darts of the enemy. The shields fitted so closely together as to present one unbroken surface without any interstices between them, and were also so firm that men could walk upon them, and even horses and chariots be driven over them. A testudo was formed (testudinem facere) either in battle to ward off the arrows and other missiles of the enemy, or, which was more frequently the case, to form a protection to the soldiers when they advanced to the walls or gates of a town for the purpose of attacking them. Sometimes the shields were disposed in such a way as to make the testudo slope. The soldiers in the first line stood upright, those in the second stooped a little, and each line successively was a little lower than the preceding down to the last, where the soldiers rested on one knee. Such a disposition of the shields was calledfastigata testudo, on account of their sloping like the roof of abuilding. The advantages of this plan were obvious: the stones and missiles thrown upon the shields rolled off them like water from a roof; besides which, other soldiers frequently advanced upon them to attack the enemy upon the walls. The Romans were accustomed to form this kind of testudo, as an exercise, in the games of the circus.