Submarine Telegraphy.When the electric telegraph had been successfully established in Great Britain, the public soon became alive to the necessity of extending its operations beyond the confines of the United Kingdom.As early as 1840 Professor Charles Wheatstone, of England, suggested the practicability of connecting Dover and Calais, in France, by an electric wire, but it was ten years later before a submarine line was laid. This first attempt proved a failure, owing to the wires being imperfectly insulated.In 1851 a second cable, containing four copper wires insulated with gutta percha and surrounded by tarred hemp and protected by ten galvanized iron wires wound round spirally, was laid connecting England and France. This proved successful. All submarine cables thereafter were made on this pattern.It was now evident that the sea offered no barrier to international telegraphic communication.In the same year (1851) a submarine cable ten miles in length was laid connecting Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick.In 1852 six submarine lines were laid connecting England with Ireland, Scotland and the continent, the longest of which was one about one hundrednautical miles, and in 1854 five additional cables were laid in European waters.In 1856 Newfoundland and Cape Breton was connected by submarine wire, the distances being some eighty-five miles. The successful laying of this cable led to the more gigantic undertaking, viz., to connecting the old and the new worlds electrically. There are three names prominently connected with the origination of the idea, Bishop Mulock, of Newfoundland, Frederick Gisborne and Cyrus W. Field.The following interesting remarks of Mr. Mackay, of Newfoundland, is worth producing.In a speech he made at a banquet given by the old-time Telegraphers’ Association, held at the Windsor Hotel in the summer of 1901, he said; “If you please, I shall now refer to a matter that I think may be far more interesting to you all than anything I have said thus far. I mean to refer to the matter of the Atlantic telegraph, as it is a subject that must always occupy a large share of the attention of the telegraph world, because at the present time telegraphing by cable is one of the most important factors in the whole service that makes the telegraphy of the world as valuable as it is. The subject that I wanted to mention to you is the question as to who was the person that initiated or gave birth to the idea of an Atlantic telegraph, which, of course, gave birth to all deep-sea and long-distance telegraphy.“As a matter of fact, in Newfoundland, where this subject has been given considerable attention, it is stated that the Right Rev. Dr. Mulock, Roman Catholic Bishop of Newfoundland, was one of the parties. Others contend that the late F. N. Gisborne is the person, others that Cyrus W. Field is the person.“I would like to refer to those gentlemen, beginning first with Dr. Mulock.“I trust you will pardon me for saying that I consider my opinion on the matter is worth something, inasmuch as I think I am the only man of those that were connected with the Atlantic telegraph at the time of its inception, in an executive capacity, all the others having gone before, as far as I know.“Now with regard to Dr. Mulock, I think there is not the least doubt he got his information from Mr. Gisborne in regard to the Atlantic telegraph, and that his only connection with it was the expression of his belief in the possibility of its establishment, just as a man might say, for instance, we will in the next generation fly in the air; but he contributed nothing towards the direct accomplishment of the object. There is not the least doubt in my mind, therefore, that it lies between Mr. F. N. Gisborne and Cyrus W. Field.“Mr. Gisborne’s friends contend now that he was unjustly treated by Field, and that he really had advised Mr. Field of the possibility of accomplishingthis great work. Mr. Gisborne did not make this contention in his lifetime.“I had the privilege of seeing him some years before he died, long subsequent to the establishment of the Atlantic telegraph, and he said that on his meeting Cyrus W. Field, in the month of January, 1854, whilst foreshadowing the possibility and the desirability of establishing Atlantic communication between Newfoundland and the Continent of America, he did not refer to the possibility of a cable to England, but only relied on the success of that enterprise by contributing to its coffers messages obtained from steamers arriving in Newfoundland and transmitted from thence by carrier pigeons, and ultimately by telegraphic cable.“Mr. Gisborne made that statement, and he admitted that he did not, in his first interview with Cyrus W. Field, foreshadow the possibility of the Atlantic telegraph.“Now Mr. Field on being questioned in regard to that interview which took place in Mr. Field’s house in January, 1854, said exactly the same thing.“He only contended for the pigeons in the first place and the possibility of a cable to Cape Breton in the second place, and the clever far-seeing commercial man, as he was considered, said that there was no possibility of such a scheme ever paying, and, therefore, he would not have anything to do with it; but on seeing Gisborne, he turned over the Globe, and, inturning it over, seeing that Cape Breton was only an inch or two on the Globe from Newfoundland, and that Ireland was only six inches, with his shrewdness and cleverness he said at once, ‘If a cable can be laid to Cape Breton, why can’t it be laid to Ireland?’ and the next morning he wrote a letter to Professor Morse and asked him if a cable could be laid to Ireland and whether it could be worked. He also wrote a letter to Lieutenant Maury, of the United States Navy, and asked him whether it would be possible to lay a cable to Ireland. Satisfactory answers being obtained to these two questions, he at once embarked in the enterprise and threw his whole influence (rich man that he was at that time) into the work of laying the Atlantic cable. You will see, therefore, that Mr. Gisborne did not communicate the idea of the Atlantic cable, but he communicatedthe idea of a cablethat was quite enough for a man of Cyrus W. Field’s foresight and ingenuity to suggest the possibility of an Atlantic cable, so that there is really no difference as to credit due these two gentlemen for the initiation of the project, and I can assure you it is most satisfactory to me because I have always been a warm friend of both gentlemen (applause). I think I am the only living witness to these facts I have related, and I am glad to have this opportunity to state it publicly. I know it is a matter of interest to all telegraph men. Now the question comes to my mind, Who then was the author of the first idea of the Atlantic cable.“In this connection I will go back to the year 1850. In 1854 the New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company obtained a charter which gave them exclusive rights to land a cable in Newfoundland for fifty years. This charter terminates in 1904, and I hope to live to see that charter expire. I am confident it will never be renewed, because the British Government would never consent, now that deep-sea telegraphy is an assured fact, to exclusive rights, of that nature being conferred on anybody or corporation. (Applause.)“We will now go back to, Who was the first man that started the idea of the Atlantic cable? and I find no difficulty in naming the man, as far as my opinion goes.“In 1850, whilst studying telegraphy with Mr. Gisborne in Halifax, he was very communicative in all his methods and actions, and he showed me letters at that time from Mr. Brett. There were two Bretts. I think the first was John and the second Jacob, but it was the elder Brett who was in communication with him then by letter, and he had given birth to the idea of a cable. He not only gave birth to it in 1850, but in 1852 he laid the cable from Dover in England to France, and that cable was working until within a few years of the present time. He, therefore, not only gave birth to the idea, but he gave actual presence to the cable, and I think it is not unlikely, and I find it easy for me to say,that there never was an inventor who was wont to appreciate his own invention. I think it is not unlikely that Brett, when he had the idea of a cable at all, although only twenty-one miles in length, that he had within his vision thousands of miles, covering all bays, all waters and all seas (applause); that is my idea that John Brett was the originator and inventor of the submarine cable.”Mr. Mackay, whose testimony we have given, was the superintendent of telegraphs for the Anglo-American Telegraph and Cable Company for the Island of Newfoundland and held this position for many years.The circumstances which brought Gisborne and Field together was as follows: The former had planned a line of telegraph from St. John’s, Nfld., through four hundred miles of dense wilderness and forest to Cape Ray, there to connect by steamers or by carrier pigeons or by cable.To enable him to carry out this project the Legislature of Newfoundland granted £500 for a survey of the route.An Act was also passed incorporating the Newfoundland Telegraph Company with an exclusive right of way for thirty years, including amongst other privileges valuable concessions of public lands. Having thus laid the groundwork of his scheme Gisborne immediately left for New York to raise capital; in this he was successful. Horace B.Tebbets and D. H. Holbrook were among the more prominent to join him, and a company was organized under the charter which had been granted. Soon after the formation of the Company Mr. Gisborne left for England, to purchase a submarine cable to connect Cape Ray and Cape Breton.In 1852 thirty miles of the land line had been completed, and Mr. Gisborne had skilfully and successfully laid the first submarine cable of any considerable length in America between Cape Ray and Cape Breton and Cape Tormentine and Cape Traverse in Northumberland Straits.In 1853, however, the cable gave out, about the same time the New York stockholders withheld their support; this caused the work to be suspended and the Company became bankrupt. Mr. Gisborne, finding himself unable to proceed, gave up all he possessed to pay the accrued debts, and for a time abandoned the enterprise.Under such circumstances and with renewed courage Mr. Gisborne in 1854 returned to New York, to try, if possible, to resuscitate interest in his work. Among others to whom he now found access was Mr. Matthew D. Field, a New York Engineer, to whom he communicated his position and plans. Mr. Field, however, declined to interest himself, but politely offered to introduce him to his brother, Cyrus W. Field, at that time retired from active business. This led to several interviews, which hadthe effect of exciting a general interest in telegraph affairs in Mr. Field’s mind. Standing one evening over a large globe after one of these interviews with Mr. Gisborne, and tracing the lines overland to St. John’s, Nfld., an idea dawned on his mind which gradually strengthened its hold upon his imagination and soon absorbed his whole heart and life.While following with his finger the track of the inland lines to the ocean, it was natural to traverse also the course of the steamships across the Northern Atlantic. It was but a step further to plant his finger on London and to feel that to reach the centre of English commercial life by telegraph, were this practicable, would be an achievement worth striving for.Mr. Field, thus aroused to a comprehension of a possible opportunity to embark in a grand enterprise worthy of the age, began to make enquiry respecting the project of laying a cable on the bed of the Atlantic. He found that a recent survey of the Northern Atlantic, under the direction of Lieutenant Maury, had been made, and a plateau extending from Newfoundland to Ireland had been discovered, forming a safe and easy pathway for a submarine wire.Professor Morse also assured Mr. Field that the project was entirely feasible, and warmly encouraged him in it, and asserted the certainty of its ultimate accomplishment.Being now thoroughly convinced Mr. Field communicated with some of his intimate friends, amongst whom were Peter Cooper, Moses Taylor, Marshall O. Roberts and Chandler White, names familiar in the history of American enterprise. The scheme met with earnest attention and ready response. Mutual consultations resulted soon after in the organization of a company with a capital of one million and a half dollars to carry out the project and the immediate purchase of the Gisborne charter, it resulted also in the generous enlargement of the franchises granted by the colony of Newfoundland, the exclusive right to land ocean cables during fifty years, £50,000 to aid the work and fifty square miles of land when the cable was successfully laid was granted.The Government of Prince Edward Island also made liberal grants of money and land. With these important arrangements completed on May 6, 1854, a company was formally organized under the corporate name of the New York, Newfoundland and London Electric Telegraph Company.Peter Cooper was elected President.Chandler White, Vice-President.Moses Taylor, Treasurer.Professor Morse, Electrician.Matthew D. Field, Engineer.The latter immediately proceeded to Newfoundland to begin operations, first honorably paying the debts due to workmen under Mr. Gisborne.Mr. Field, with six hundred men, pushed the work of construction through the vast forests of Newfoundland until the wires were erected between St. John’s and Cape Ray. Meanwhile, Cyrus W. Field made his first voyage to England to contract for a new cable to connect Newfoundland with Nova Scotia, and to continue his enquiries into the scientific obstacles to the laying and operating a cable between the shores of the Old World and the New.In England Mr. Field met Mr. John W. Brett, the originator and inventor of submarine cables, who gave every encouragement to Mr. Field in the Atlantic cable project, and to show his faith in its success Mr. Brett purchased a considerable number of shares in the concern.In 1855 the cable for Cape Ray was shipped from England. It weighed 400 tons, and was manufactured by W. Kupert & Co., London. The steamer, “James Adger,” was chartered by Mr. Field, to convey a large party to Newfoundland to witness the submergence.Among these were Peter Cooper, Robert W. Lowber, Professor Morse, Rev. H. M. Field, Rev. Gardiner Spring, Rev. J. M. Sherwood, Dr. James A. Sayre, Bayard Taylor, Fitzjames O’Brien and John Mullarky.The cable had arrived in an English brig, which had to be towed by the steamer from shore to shore.Everything seemed favorable. A hawser was thrown from the steamer to the brig and the cable began to find its way to its appointed bed. Unfortunately, while yet in mid-channel, a furious gale set in when the overloaded brig became unmanageable, and, fearing destruction, the cable was cut and the work for the time abandoned.In 1856 a steamer amply provided for the purpose was chartered, by which after lading the cable it was easily and successfully submerged without a hitch.The line was now finished. Although it had to wait during many years for the completion of the great work for which it was a link, it ultimately showed the wisdom of its construction and became of much value to its projectors; it had cost so far $1,000,000.On the formation of the Atlantic Telegraph Company, the charter of the New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company, conferring the exclusive right for fifty years to land cables on the Island of Newfoundland, was made over to the new Company.In 1855 Chandler White died; on his death, Wilson G. Hunt, a name well-known among merchant princes of New York, took his place as director, and gave the company during its existence the benefit of his able counsel and active and intelligent support. Mr. Cyrus W. Field was at the same timeelected vice-president and Robt. W. Lowder, secretary.In 1857 the first attempt was made to lay a cable across the Atlantic, the length of which was 2,500 miles. After paying out 255 miles the cable broke, and the work was given up for that year.In 1858 another attempt was made, the British naval ship “Agamemnon” and the United States frigate “Niagara,” each carrying one-half of the cable, proceeded to mid-ocean, spliced the ends, and going in opposite directions reached Newfoundland and Ireland the same day, August 5, after each having successfully accomplished the submergence. There was great rejoicing on both sides of the Atlantic over the event, but disappointment soon followed. On the 1st of September, the cable ceased working and the project for a time was abandoned. Seven years after another attempt was made, a new cable had been prepared and stowed in the hold of the “Great Eastern.” The big ship, lightly carrying her great burden, steamed out to sea paying out the cable as she proceeded. Half the Atlantic was passed over in safety when the cable broke and the “Great Eastern” returned to her moorings. Such, however, had been the indications of success in laying the cable in 1865, that in 1866 the Anglo-American Telegraph Company was organized with a new capital, and the “Great Eastern” once more started across the deep, when the great work was at last accomplished.Universal joy followed the announcement that the cable was successfully laid, not only so, but the lost cable of the previous year was, to the general wonder, found, picked up and spliced and continued to the American shore.The cable was thrown open for public traffic August 26, 1866. A large and remunerative business followed, which has continued unbroken ever since.There are now fourteen cables spanning the bed of the Atlantic between Europe and America, the total length of these being 40,000 miles.In the present year (1902) the total length of submarine cables in the world is about 200,000 miles, all but 20,000 of which are owned by commercial concerns and the remainder by different Governments.The amount of capital invested in cables is estimated at about $210,000,000.The cost of the cable before laying depends upon the dimensions of the cars, or conducting wire, which is copper; gutta percha, which still forms the only trustworthy insulating material, constituting the principal item of expense.For an Atlantic cable of the most recent construction, the cost may be taken at £250 to £300 per nautical mile.The system of submarine cables originating in Great Britain has continued to develop in her hands, until the world has been covered with a veritable networkof cables, which has hitherto done much to prevent the decline of her commercial supremacy. During the last few years, however, other maritime nations in Europe have begun to realize the importance of submarine cable enterprise in this respect, and France and Germany have made some progress towards freeing themselves from British monopoly; both are now connected with America by cables which are owned in their respective countries, though their manufacture and submergence was effected by an English Company.This spread of the cable system has naturally followed trade routes, and thus, with the exception of the cables to America, their trend has been eastwards as far as Australia and Japan. During the year 1902 the Dominion of Canada was connected by cable with New Zealand and Australia, the total length of cable, 8,272 miles, and cost £1,795,000.An agreement was entered into between the Imperial Government and the Governments of Canada, Victoria, New South Wales, New Zealand and Queensland, and it was through the persistent efforts and advocacy of Sir Sandford Fleming that this great work was accomplished.Owing to the experience gained with many thousand miles in all depths and under varying conditions of weather and climate, the risks, and, consequently, the cost of laying, has been greatly reduced, but the cost of effecting a repair still remainsa very uncertain quantity, success being dependent on quiet conditions of sea and weather.Themodus operandiis briefly as follows: The position of the fracture is determined by electrical tests from both ends with more or less accuracy depending on the nature of the fault, but it can be located within a few miles. The repair steamer, on reaching the given position, lowers one or perhaps two mark buoys, mooring them by mushroom anchors, chain and rope, using these buoys to guide the direction of tow. Grapnel, a species of five pronged anchors attached to a strong compound rope formed of strands of steel and manilla, is lowered to the bottom and dragged at a slow speed, as it were ploughing a furrow in the sea-bottom in a line at right angles to the cable route until the behavior of the dynamometer shows that the cable is hooked. The ship is then stopped and the cable gradually hove up towards the surface; but in deep water, unless it has been caught near a loose end, the cable will break on the grapnel before it reaches the surface, as the catenary strain on the bight will be greater than it will stand. Another buoy is put down marking this position, fixing at the same time the actual line of the cable. Grappling will then be recommenced so as to hook the cable near enough to the end to allow of its being hove to the surface. When this has been done an electrical test is applied, and, if the original fracture is between the shipand shore, the heaving in of the cable will continue until the end comes on board. Another buoy is then lowered to mark the spot, and the cable on the other side of the fracture grappled for brought to the surface, and, if communication is found perfect with the shore, buoyed with sufficient chain and rope attached to allow of the cable itself reaching the bottom. The ship now returns to the position of original attack and by similar operations brings on board the end which secures communication with the shore. The gap between the two ends has now been closed by splicing on new cable and paying out until the buoyed end is reached, which is then hove up and brought on board. After the “final splice,” as it is termed, between these ends has been made, the bight made fast to a rope is lowered overboard, the slip rope cut and the cable allowed to sink by its own weight to its resting place on the sea-bed. The repairs being thus completed the various mark buoys are picked up and the ship returns to her usual station.The grappling of the cable and raising it to the surface from a depth of 2,000 fathoms seldom occupies less than twenty-four hours, and, since any extra strain due to the pitching of the vessel must be avoided, it is clear that the state of the sea and weather is the predominating factor in the time necessary for effecting the long series of operations which, under the most favorable circumstances, arerequired for a repair. In addition the intervention of heavy weather may mar all the work already accomplished and require the whole series of operations to be undertakende novo.As to cost, one transatlantic cable repair cost £75,000.The repair of the Aden Bombay cable, broken in a depth of 1,900 fathoms, was effected with the expenditure of 176 miles of new cable, and, after a lapse of 251 days, 103 being spent in actual work, which for the remainder of the time was interrupted by the monsoon. A repair of the Lisbon Porthcarrow cable broken in the Bay of Biscay in 2,700 fathoms, eleven years after the cable was laid, took 215 days with an expenditure of three hundred miles of cable.All interruptions are not so costly, for in shallow waters, with favorable conditions of weather, a repair may be only a matter of a few hours, and it is in such waters that the majority of breaks occur, but still a large reserve fund must be laid aside for the purpose.As an ordinary instance it has been stated that the cost of repairing the direct United States cable up to 1900 from its submergence in 1874 averages £8,000 per annum.Nearly all the cable companies possess their own steamers of sufficient dimensions, and specially equipped for making ordinary repairs, but for exceptional cases where a considerable quantity of newcable may have to be inserted, it may be necessary to charter the service of one of the larger vessels owned by a cable manufacturing company at a certain sum per day, which may well reach £200 to £300.This fleet of cable ships now number forty, ranging in size from vessels of 300 tons to 10,000 tons’ carrying capacity.The life of a cable is usually considered to continue until it is no longer capable of being lifted for repair, but, in some cases the duration and frequency of interruptions as affecting public convenience with the loss of revenue and cost of repairs, must together decide the question of either making very extensive renewals or even abandoning the whole cable. It is a well ascertained fact that the insulator—gutta percha—is, when kept under water, practically imperishable, so that it is only the original strength of the sheathing wires and the deterioration allowable in them that have to be considered.Cables have frequently been picked up, showing after many years of submergences, no appreciable deterioration in this respect, while in other cases ends have been picked up which in the course of twelve years had been corroded to needle points, the result, no doubt, of metalliferous deposits in the locality.The experience gained in the earlier days of ocean telegraphy from the failure and abandonment of nearly 50 per cent. of the deep-sea cables within the first twelve years, placed the probable life of a cableas low as fifteen years, but the weeding out of unserviceable types of construction and the general improvement in materials, have, by degrees, extended that first estimate until now the limit may be safely placed at not less than forty years.In depths beyond the reach of wave motion and apart from the suspension across a submarine gully which will sooner or later result in a rupture of the cable, the most frequent cause of interruption is seismic or other shifting of the ocean bed, while in shallower waters and near the shore the dragging of anchors or fishing trawls have been mostly responsible.Since by international agreement the wilful damage of a cable has been constituted a criminal offence and the cables have avoided crossing the fishing banks or have adopted the wise policy of refunding the value of anchors lost on their cables, the number of such fractures have been greatly diminished.Cable Instruments.The apparatus in use on land lines are not adapted for cables except for comparatively short distances not exceeding four or five hundred miles.When the Atlantic cable was laid a special instrument had to be devised to transmit signals to the distant end. The man to accomplish this was Professor Thomson (now Lord Kelvin), who invented the mirror system. A beam of light was thrown on a minute mirror an eighth of an inch in diameter and the light reflected on to a scale by means of which the signal was interpreted into letters. This necessitated one person constantly scanning the spot of light as it moved to the right and to the left of the scale and calling out the individual letters, which were taken down by another person. This tedious and trying method of receiving signals was superceded by another device of Lord Kelvin, the siphon recorder.The siphon, by which the cable signals are automatically recorded, is a thin glass tube, about the thickness of a strong linen thread, and quite flexible. It is suspended in a frame and attached by a single silk fibre to one side of a rectangular coil of fine insulated wire, moving about a soft iron bar fixed in the magnetic field of two large permanentmagnets. The coil is held down at the lower end by a silk thread, fastened to an adjustable spring, to regulate or confine the lateral motion of the siphon, the magnets are placed vertically and are two inches apart, one end of the siphon is twice bent at right angles, and dips into an ink well filled with filtered aniline ink. The other end has a minute thread or short piece of soft iron cemented longitudinally to it, and sways in close proximity to a narrow fillet of paper five-eighths of an inch wide, which is drawn along by a small motor. The small motors by which the paper is drawn along receive their current generally from lead-lined trays, 18 by 20 inches, at the bottom of which is placed a copper sheet, the zinc is wrapped in stout manilla paper which serves the purpose of a porous cup for the sulphate of copper. The cable current passes through the small rectangular coil, which is about two inches long, as both positive and negative currents are sent into the condensers, and thereby disturb the static electricity of the cable. The coil is deflected to the right and left respectively, tending to place itself at right angles to the lines of magnetic force between the fixed bar magnets and which lines of force are concentrated by the small bar above mentioned of the best soft iron within the coil. The siphon has, therefore, a corresponding motion to the coil. As the mechanical force of the suspended coil is very small in deflecting, it is necessary that the siphonbe not in continuous contact with the fillet of paper otherwise its motion would cease. The difficulty of obtaining a record is overcome in an ingenious manner. The siphon is made to vibrate by means of a local battery on the principle of the push button electric bell by the breaking of the circuit—the vibration is communicated to the siphon by the interposition of another electro-magnet in the local circuit and placed underneath the fillet of paper, the small thread of iron on the tip of the siphon acts as the armature to the latter electro-magnet. The number of vibrations made in a second depends on the siphon, different siphons having different periods or inherent notes, but 55 is about the number of vibrations a second, every pulsation of the siphon deposits a drop of ink on the paper, and, as the paper is moving at the rate of over half an inch a second, an apparently continuous line is drawn.From the description of the working of the siphon—of its lateral movements—it will be evident that the cablegram, as shown on the fillet of paper, will look like the contour line across the Rocky Mountains. The undulations made by the siphon correspond to the clicking we hear in the ordinary telegraph instruments. A cable office is very quiet compared to the bewildering clatter in a large telegraph office.It was found that on the Atlantic (and shorter cables) a greater speed of signals was possible than could be sent through by hand with the doublekey. This called forth the invention of the so-called automatic transmitter.For this purpose the messages are in the first place punched into a strip of oiled and prepared paper, the characters on the strip are represented by holes at varying distances on each side of a central line. This strip of continuous paper is then fed into the transmitter, in which metallic points slide along the under side of the strip. Wherever a hole is encountered electric contact is made and a signal sent. The speed of running the strip through the transmitter can be regulated as desired.The “auto” can easily keep two men busy punching.Within recent years an improvement has been effected for transmitting signals or messages automatically from one cable to another. Formerly it was necessary after receiving the signals from one cable to transmit them by hand to the connecting cable at the station. Now, however, this can be done automatically by means of Taylor, Brown and Dearlove’s Translator. The siphon in it instead of carrying ink contains a metallic thread which rests, instead of on the fillet of paper, on a rapidly, revolving, perfectly, smooth, small wheel, in which the surface of the circumference is divided into three parts, the central one known as “no man’s land” being a non-conductor such as glass, while the outer ones are of silver. As the siphon sways to one side or theother it makes metallic contact, which is communicated by means of “brushes” which press against each side of the wheel to the outgoing cable.This translator simplifies the work and reduces the office staff which would be otherwise necessary.At the present time nearly all cables use the duplex system, that is, messages can be sent and received at the same time on one wire.The speed of a cable is given in words per minute, the conventional number of five letters per word being understood, though in actual practice, owing to the extensive use of special codes, the number of letters per word is really between eight and nine, and this forms a considerable factor in the earning capacity of the cable, but the speed depends upon the length of the cable and the experience of the operator. Tests made over the Vancouver and Fanning Island section of the Pacific cable give 85 letters per minute with hand working and 100 letters a minute with automatic curb working, and approximately 168 letters a minute (84 letters each way) with duplex and curbed automatic working. This section of the cable is 3,455 nautical miles in length, the longest cable that has ever been laid, and about twice the length of the Atlantic cables. On shorter cables a greater speed can be attained.CYRUS W. FIELD.Cyrus W. Field.Born in 1819, at Stockbridge, Mass., at the age of fifteen, he left home and became a clerk in a leading house in New York. At twenty-one he married and settled down in life as a wholesale paper merchant. Having been very successful he wished to retire, but yielded to the wishes of his junior partner and allowed his name to remain as the head of the firm. He withdrew, however, so far as to make a six months’ tour to South America, returning in 1853.He was led to turn his attention to ocean telegraphy through an interview with Mr. Gisborne, who was then engaged in constructing a telegraph line across the Island of Newfoundland, and laying a submarine cable from there to Nova Scotia, in connection with a projected line of steamships to Ireland. It struck him that if a cable of such length could be laid there was nothing to hinder a still longer being carried from one side of the Atlantic to the other. Turning over this thought in his mind he consulted with Professor Morse and Lieutenant Maury, and receiving encouragement from them he devoted his energies in the enterprise in conjunction with his brother Dudley.Other friends joined him, and the first Atlantic Telegraph Company was organized with a favorable charter, granting them the sole right for fifty years of landing a telegraph cable on Newfoundland and with a subsidy as soon as the line was completed.The first thing was to connect the Continent with Newfoundland. This part of the scheme was successfully accomplished in 1856.The next step was the formation of the Atlantic Telegraph Company and the sounding the way for the cable which was undertaken by both the British and American Governments separately. The British Government gave every encouragement to the projectors by promising £14,000 a year for the transmission of its messages and the use of the ships of its navy to lay the cable.£350,000 was asked for and in a short time subscribed, Mr. Field taking 80 shares of £1,000 each.In 1857 the first attempt to lay the cable proved a failure, but in the following year (1858) a second attempt was made, but a terrific storm met the vessels in the middle of the Atlantic, the cable broke again and the expedition returned to England once more. A third effort met with better success, and on the 5th of August, 1858, the two ends were safely landed, one in Valentia Bay, Ireland, the other in Trinity Bay, Newfoundland.The first message sent from the Old World to the New was worthy the occasion.“Glory to God in the highest, on earth peace and good-will to men.”A few weeks later the cable ceased to act, but a new cable was prepared and the “Great Eastern” was sent out with it, only, however, to lose it also when 1,200 miles from Ireland.It seemed a hopeless dream to bind the two worlds by electric wire, but Mr. Field did not despair. A better cable was once more made; another company was formed with a capital of £600,000.In 1866 the “Great Eastern” again sailed, and this time carried the thin thread triumphantly from shore to shore, not only so, but fished up the broken cable from the abysses of the ocean, united it and joined England and America by two telegraphic wires.The moving spirit throughout was Mr. Field, who spent some thirteen years of his life and made forty trips across the Atlantic, imperilling his health and means in pursuit of this great enterprise before his efforts were crowned with success.He died on the 12th day of July, 1892.MICHAEL FARADAY.Michael Farady.The pupil of Sir Humphrey Davy, and himself the greatest philosophical chemist of his time, was born on the 22nd of September, 1791. The son of a smith, who was unable to give him any better education than that afforded by a common day-school in the neighborhood, reading, writing and arithmetic embraced all his training for life, so far as schools were concerned; but he had that within him which from these poor beginnings made a magnificent end. A fondness for reading filled his mind with miscellaneous knowledge and paved the way for all that followed.At thirteen he was apprenticed to a bookseller and binder, but his heart was even thus early in science rather than trade, and he paid more attention to rude experiments than to his immediate calling. A gentleman having taken him to hear some of Sir Humphrey Davy’s last lectures at the Royal Institution, Faraday wrote out the notes he had taken in a quarto volume, and sent them to Sir Humphrey Davy, with a letter asking that, if he could, would he give him a chance of escaping from trade to philosophy. The result was his employment as an assistant in the laboratory of the Royal Institutionin 1813, at the age of 22, after he had been a bookseller for nine years.From this time Faraday’s progress was rapid. In 1820 his name was first made prominent for chemical discoveries, and from that date every year recorded some new research and new triumph, till in 1832 his eminence was so thoroughly felt that the University of Oxford made him a D. C. L., and in 1835 Lord Melbourne’s Government gave him a pension of £300 a year. Honours meanwhile were showered upon him; he became one of eight foreign associates of the Imperial Academy of Science at Paris, a commander of the Legion of Honour, a knight of the Prussian Order of Merit and member of numerous scientific bodies in Europe and America.The secret of his success, apart from his genius, lay in his wonderful industry and calm and careful attention to every detail of what he essayed.In electricity and magnetism his researches made him one of the foremost; his language in lecturing was always simple; his experiments convincing, and his enthusiasms so catching, that every one felt engrossed by subjects which so absorbed the lecturer.He was a true philosopher, taking nothing for granted, and thinking nothing too insignificant to follow out to the utmost. Many books have been written on his discoveries, and several on his life and character, but it is felt that no one who did not know him could realize the man as he was.With a European fame his was modest as a child. The greatest authority in his day on natural science, he was a humble Christian.Faraday never married. When he died in 1867 his pension was continued to his maiden sister, who survived him.In Faraday, as in others, genius seemed largely to be what Carlyle calls it, only a faculty of infinite labor.LORD KELVIN.Lord Kelvin.Born at Belfast, Ireland, 26th June, 1824, his father being then teacher of mathematics in the Royal Academical Institution. In 1832 James Thomson accepted the chair of mathematics at Glasgow and migrated there with his two sons, James and William, who in 1834 matriculated in that University, William being little more than ten years of age, and having acquired all his education through his father’s instruction.In 1841 William Thomson entered Cambridge; in 1845 took his degrees, second wrangler, to which honour he added that of the first Smith’s prize.At that time there was few facilities for the study of experimental science in Great Britain. At the Royal Institution Faraday held a unique position, and was feeling his way almost alone.In Cambridge science had progressed little since the days of Newton. Thomson, therefore had recourse to Paris and for a year worked in the laboratory of Regnault, who was engaged in his classical researches on the thermal properties of steam; but his stay in Paris was comparatively short, for in 1846, when only twenty-two years of age, he accepted the chair of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow, which he filled for fifty-three years, attaininguniversal recognition as one of the greatest physicists of his time.The Glasgow chair was a source of inspiration to scientific men for half a century, and many of the most advanced researches grew out of the suggestions which Thomson scattered as sparks from the anvil.Although his contributions to thermo-dynamics may properly be regarded as his most scientific work, it is in the field of electricity, especially in its application to submarine telegraphy, that Lord Kelvin is best known.From 1854 he is most prominent among telegraphists. The stranded form of the conductor was due to his suggestion, but it was in the letters which he addressed in November and December of that year to Prof. Stokes, and which were published in the proceedings of the Royal Society for 1855 that he discussed the mathematical theory of signalling through submarine cables, and enunciated the conclusion that in long cables retardation due to capacity must render the speed of signalling inversely proportional to the square of the cable’s length.Some held that if this were true ocean telegraphy would be impossible, and sought in consequence to disprove Thomson’s conclusions. Thomson on the other hand set to work to overcome the difficulty by improvement in the manufacture of the cables, and first of all the production of copper of high conductivity,and the construction of apparatus which would readily respond to the slightest variation of the current in the cable.The mirror galvanometer and the siphon recorder, which was patented in 1867, were the outcome of these researches, but the scientific value of the mirror galvanometer is independent of its use in telegraphy, and the siphon recorder is the direct precursor of one form of galvanometer (d’arsnovals), now commonly used in electric laboratories.Thomson’s work in connection with telegraphy led to the production in rapid succession of instruments adapted to the requirements of the time, for measurements of every electrical quantity, and when electric lighting came to the front, a new set of instruments was produced to meet the needs of the electrical engineer.His industry is universal, and he seems to take rest by turning from one difficulty to another, difficulties that would appal most men, and be taken as an enjoyment by no one else.This life of unwearied industry and of universal honour has left Lord Kelvin with a lovable nature, and charms all with whom he comes in contact.In 1866 he received the honour of knighthood in acknowledgment of his services to transatlantic telegraphy, and in 1892 he was raised to the peerage, with the title of Baron Kelvin of Largs.John Watkins Brett.Telegraph engineer, was the son of a cabinet-maker, William Brett, of Bristol, England, and was born in that city in 1805.Brett has been styled, and with apparent justice, the founder of submarine telegraphy.The idea of sending electricity through submerged cables originated with him and his brother; after some years in perfecting his plans, he sought and obtained permission from Louis Phillipe in 1847 to establish telegraphic communication with France and England, but the project did not receive public attention, being regarded as too hazardous for general support.The attempt was, however, made in 1850, and met with success, and the construction of numerous other submarine lines followed.Brett always expressed confidence in the ultimate union of England and America by means of electricity, but did not live to see its final success.He died on 3rd December, 1863, at the age of 58.Brett published a book of 104 pages on the origin and progress of oceanic telegraphy. He also contributed several papers on the same subject to the Institute of Civil Engineers, of which he was a member.A list of these contributions will be found in the index of the Proceedings of the Society.
When the electric telegraph had been successfully established in Great Britain, the public soon became alive to the necessity of extending its operations beyond the confines of the United Kingdom.
As early as 1840 Professor Charles Wheatstone, of England, suggested the practicability of connecting Dover and Calais, in France, by an electric wire, but it was ten years later before a submarine line was laid. This first attempt proved a failure, owing to the wires being imperfectly insulated.
In 1851 a second cable, containing four copper wires insulated with gutta percha and surrounded by tarred hemp and protected by ten galvanized iron wires wound round spirally, was laid connecting England and France. This proved successful. All submarine cables thereafter were made on this pattern.
It was now evident that the sea offered no barrier to international telegraphic communication.
In the same year (1851) a submarine cable ten miles in length was laid connecting Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick.
In 1852 six submarine lines were laid connecting England with Ireland, Scotland and the continent, the longest of which was one about one hundrednautical miles, and in 1854 five additional cables were laid in European waters.
In 1856 Newfoundland and Cape Breton was connected by submarine wire, the distances being some eighty-five miles. The successful laying of this cable led to the more gigantic undertaking, viz., to connecting the old and the new worlds electrically. There are three names prominently connected with the origination of the idea, Bishop Mulock, of Newfoundland, Frederick Gisborne and Cyrus W. Field.
The following interesting remarks of Mr. Mackay, of Newfoundland, is worth producing.
In a speech he made at a banquet given by the old-time Telegraphers’ Association, held at the Windsor Hotel in the summer of 1901, he said; “If you please, I shall now refer to a matter that I think may be far more interesting to you all than anything I have said thus far. I mean to refer to the matter of the Atlantic telegraph, as it is a subject that must always occupy a large share of the attention of the telegraph world, because at the present time telegraphing by cable is one of the most important factors in the whole service that makes the telegraphy of the world as valuable as it is. The subject that I wanted to mention to you is the question as to who was the person that initiated or gave birth to the idea of an Atlantic telegraph, which, of course, gave birth to all deep-sea and long-distance telegraphy.
“As a matter of fact, in Newfoundland, where this subject has been given considerable attention, it is stated that the Right Rev. Dr. Mulock, Roman Catholic Bishop of Newfoundland, was one of the parties. Others contend that the late F. N. Gisborne is the person, others that Cyrus W. Field is the person.
“I would like to refer to those gentlemen, beginning first with Dr. Mulock.
“I trust you will pardon me for saying that I consider my opinion on the matter is worth something, inasmuch as I think I am the only man of those that were connected with the Atlantic telegraph at the time of its inception, in an executive capacity, all the others having gone before, as far as I know.
“Now with regard to Dr. Mulock, I think there is not the least doubt he got his information from Mr. Gisborne in regard to the Atlantic telegraph, and that his only connection with it was the expression of his belief in the possibility of its establishment, just as a man might say, for instance, we will in the next generation fly in the air; but he contributed nothing towards the direct accomplishment of the object. There is not the least doubt in my mind, therefore, that it lies between Mr. F. N. Gisborne and Cyrus W. Field.
“Mr. Gisborne’s friends contend now that he was unjustly treated by Field, and that he really had advised Mr. Field of the possibility of accomplishingthis great work. Mr. Gisborne did not make this contention in his lifetime.
“I had the privilege of seeing him some years before he died, long subsequent to the establishment of the Atlantic telegraph, and he said that on his meeting Cyrus W. Field, in the month of January, 1854, whilst foreshadowing the possibility and the desirability of establishing Atlantic communication between Newfoundland and the Continent of America, he did not refer to the possibility of a cable to England, but only relied on the success of that enterprise by contributing to its coffers messages obtained from steamers arriving in Newfoundland and transmitted from thence by carrier pigeons, and ultimately by telegraphic cable.
“Mr. Gisborne made that statement, and he admitted that he did not, in his first interview with Cyrus W. Field, foreshadow the possibility of the Atlantic telegraph.
“Now Mr. Field on being questioned in regard to that interview which took place in Mr. Field’s house in January, 1854, said exactly the same thing.
“He only contended for the pigeons in the first place and the possibility of a cable to Cape Breton in the second place, and the clever far-seeing commercial man, as he was considered, said that there was no possibility of such a scheme ever paying, and, therefore, he would not have anything to do with it; but on seeing Gisborne, he turned over the Globe, and, inturning it over, seeing that Cape Breton was only an inch or two on the Globe from Newfoundland, and that Ireland was only six inches, with his shrewdness and cleverness he said at once, ‘If a cable can be laid to Cape Breton, why can’t it be laid to Ireland?’ and the next morning he wrote a letter to Professor Morse and asked him if a cable could be laid to Ireland and whether it could be worked. He also wrote a letter to Lieutenant Maury, of the United States Navy, and asked him whether it would be possible to lay a cable to Ireland. Satisfactory answers being obtained to these two questions, he at once embarked in the enterprise and threw his whole influence (rich man that he was at that time) into the work of laying the Atlantic cable. You will see, therefore, that Mr. Gisborne did not communicate the idea of the Atlantic cable, but he communicatedthe idea of a cablethat was quite enough for a man of Cyrus W. Field’s foresight and ingenuity to suggest the possibility of an Atlantic cable, so that there is really no difference as to credit due these two gentlemen for the initiation of the project, and I can assure you it is most satisfactory to me because I have always been a warm friend of both gentlemen (applause). I think I am the only living witness to these facts I have related, and I am glad to have this opportunity to state it publicly. I know it is a matter of interest to all telegraph men. Now the question comes to my mind, Who then was the author of the first idea of the Atlantic cable.
“In this connection I will go back to the year 1850. In 1854 the New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company obtained a charter which gave them exclusive rights to land a cable in Newfoundland for fifty years. This charter terminates in 1904, and I hope to live to see that charter expire. I am confident it will never be renewed, because the British Government would never consent, now that deep-sea telegraphy is an assured fact, to exclusive rights, of that nature being conferred on anybody or corporation. (Applause.)
“We will now go back to, Who was the first man that started the idea of the Atlantic cable? and I find no difficulty in naming the man, as far as my opinion goes.
“In 1850, whilst studying telegraphy with Mr. Gisborne in Halifax, he was very communicative in all his methods and actions, and he showed me letters at that time from Mr. Brett. There were two Bretts. I think the first was John and the second Jacob, but it was the elder Brett who was in communication with him then by letter, and he had given birth to the idea of a cable. He not only gave birth to it in 1850, but in 1852 he laid the cable from Dover in England to France, and that cable was working until within a few years of the present time. He, therefore, not only gave birth to the idea, but he gave actual presence to the cable, and I think it is not unlikely, and I find it easy for me to say,that there never was an inventor who was wont to appreciate his own invention. I think it is not unlikely that Brett, when he had the idea of a cable at all, although only twenty-one miles in length, that he had within his vision thousands of miles, covering all bays, all waters and all seas (applause); that is my idea that John Brett was the originator and inventor of the submarine cable.”
Mr. Mackay, whose testimony we have given, was the superintendent of telegraphs for the Anglo-American Telegraph and Cable Company for the Island of Newfoundland and held this position for many years.
The circumstances which brought Gisborne and Field together was as follows: The former had planned a line of telegraph from St. John’s, Nfld., through four hundred miles of dense wilderness and forest to Cape Ray, there to connect by steamers or by carrier pigeons or by cable.
To enable him to carry out this project the Legislature of Newfoundland granted £500 for a survey of the route.
An Act was also passed incorporating the Newfoundland Telegraph Company with an exclusive right of way for thirty years, including amongst other privileges valuable concessions of public lands. Having thus laid the groundwork of his scheme Gisborne immediately left for New York to raise capital; in this he was successful. Horace B.Tebbets and D. H. Holbrook were among the more prominent to join him, and a company was organized under the charter which had been granted. Soon after the formation of the Company Mr. Gisborne left for England, to purchase a submarine cable to connect Cape Ray and Cape Breton.
In 1852 thirty miles of the land line had been completed, and Mr. Gisborne had skilfully and successfully laid the first submarine cable of any considerable length in America between Cape Ray and Cape Breton and Cape Tormentine and Cape Traverse in Northumberland Straits.
In 1853, however, the cable gave out, about the same time the New York stockholders withheld their support; this caused the work to be suspended and the Company became bankrupt. Mr. Gisborne, finding himself unable to proceed, gave up all he possessed to pay the accrued debts, and for a time abandoned the enterprise.
Under such circumstances and with renewed courage Mr. Gisborne in 1854 returned to New York, to try, if possible, to resuscitate interest in his work. Among others to whom he now found access was Mr. Matthew D. Field, a New York Engineer, to whom he communicated his position and plans. Mr. Field, however, declined to interest himself, but politely offered to introduce him to his brother, Cyrus W. Field, at that time retired from active business. This led to several interviews, which hadthe effect of exciting a general interest in telegraph affairs in Mr. Field’s mind. Standing one evening over a large globe after one of these interviews with Mr. Gisborne, and tracing the lines overland to St. John’s, Nfld., an idea dawned on his mind which gradually strengthened its hold upon his imagination and soon absorbed his whole heart and life.
While following with his finger the track of the inland lines to the ocean, it was natural to traverse also the course of the steamships across the Northern Atlantic. It was but a step further to plant his finger on London and to feel that to reach the centre of English commercial life by telegraph, were this practicable, would be an achievement worth striving for.
Mr. Field, thus aroused to a comprehension of a possible opportunity to embark in a grand enterprise worthy of the age, began to make enquiry respecting the project of laying a cable on the bed of the Atlantic. He found that a recent survey of the Northern Atlantic, under the direction of Lieutenant Maury, had been made, and a plateau extending from Newfoundland to Ireland had been discovered, forming a safe and easy pathway for a submarine wire.
Professor Morse also assured Mr. Field that the project was entirely feasible, and warmly encouraged him in it, and asserted the certainty of its ultimate accomplishment.
Being now thoroughly convinced Mr. Field communicated with some of his intimate friends, amongst whom were Peter Cooper, Moses Taylor, Marshall O. Roberts and Chandler White, names familiar in the history of American enterprise. The scheme met with earnest attention and ready response. Mutual consultations resulted soon after in the organization of a company with a capital of one million and a half dollars to carry out the project and the immediate purchase of the Gisborne charter, it resulted also in the generous enlargement of the franchises granted by the colony of Newfoundland, the exclusive right to land ocean cables during fifty years, £50,000 to aid the work and fifty square miles of land when the cable was successfully laid was granted.
The Government of Prince Edward Island also made liberal grants of money and land. With these important arrangements completed on May 6, 1854, a company was formally organized under the corporate name of the New York, Newfoundland and London Electric Telegraph Company.
Peter Cooper was elected President.
Chandler White, Vice-President.
Moses Taylor, Treasurer.
Professor Morse, Electrician.
Matthew D. Field, Engineer.
The latter immediately proceeded to Newfoundland to begin operations, first honorably paying the debts due to workmen under Mr. Gisborne.
Mr. Field, with six hundred men, pushed the work of construction through the vast forests of Newfoundland until the wires were erected between St. John’s and Cape Ray. Meanwhile, Cyrus W. Field made his first voyage to England to contract for a new cable to connect Newfoundland with Nova Scotia, and to continue his enquiries into the scientific obstacles to the laying and operating a cable between the shores of the Old World and the New.
In England Mr. Field met Mr. John W. Brett, the originator and inventor of submarine cables, who gave every encouragement to Mr. Field in the Atlantic cable project, and to show his faith in its success Mr. Brett purchased a considerable number of shares in the concern.
In 1855 the cable for Cape Ray was shipped from England. It weighed 400 tons, and was manufactured by W. Kupert & Co., London. The steamer, “James Adger,” was chartered by Mr. Field, to convey a large party to Newfoundland to witness the submergence.
Among these were Peter Cooper, Robert W. Lowber, Professor Morse, Rev. H. M. Field, Rev. Gardiner Spring, Rev. J. M. Sherwood, Dr. James A. Sayre, Bayard Taylor, Fitzjames O’Brien and John Mullarky.
The cable had arrived in an English brig, which had to be towed by the steamer from shore to shore.Everything seemed favorable. A hawser was thrown from the steamer to the brig and the cable began to find its way to its appointed bed. Unfortunately, while yet in mid-channel, a furious gale set in when the overloaded brig became unmanageable, and, fearing destruction, the cable was cut and the work for the time abandoned.
In 1856 a steamer amply provided for the purpose was chartered, by which after lading the cable it was easily and successfully submerged without a hitch.
The line was now finished. Although it had to wait during many years for the completion of the great work for which it was a link, it ultimately showed the wisdom of its construction and became of much value to its projectors; it had cost so far $1,000,000.
On the formation of the Atlantic Telegraph Company, the charter of the New York, Newfoundland and London Telegraph Company, conferring the exclusive right for fifty years to land cables on the Island of Newfoundland, was made over to the new Company.
In 1855 Chandler White died; on his death, Wilson G. Hunt, a name well-known among merchant princes of New York, took his place as director, and gave the company during its existence the benefit of his able counsel and active and intelligent support. Mr. Cyrus W. Field was at the same timeelected vice-president and Robt. W. Lowder, secretary.
In 1857 the first attempt was made to lay a cable across the Atlantic, the length of which was 2,500 miles. After paying out 255 miles the cable broke, and the work was given up for that year.
In 1858 another attempt was made, the British naval ship “Agamemnon” and the United States frigate “Niagara,” each carrying one-half of the cable, proceeded to mid-ocean, spliced the ends, and going in opposite directions reached Newfoundland and Ireland the same day, August 5, after each having successfully accomplished the submergence. There was great rejoicing on both sides of the Atlantic over the event, but disappointment soon followed. On the 1st of September, the cable ceased working and the project for a time was abandoned. Seven years after another attempt was made, a new cable had been prepared and stowed in the hold of the “Great Eastern.” The big ship, lightly carrying her great burden, steamed out to sea paying out the cable as she proceeded. Half the Atlantic was passed over in safety when the cable broke and the “Great Eastern” returned to her moorings. Such, however, had been the indications of success in laying the cable in 1865, that in 1866 the Anglo-American Telegraph Company was organized with a new capital, and the “Great Eastern” once more started across the deep, when the great work was at last accomplished.Universal joy followed the announcement that the cable was successfully laid, not only so, but the lost cable of the previous year was, to the general wonder, found, picked up and spliced and continued to the American shore.
The cable was thrown open for public traffic August 26, 1866. A large and remunerative business followed, which has continued unbroken ever since.
There are now fourteen cables spanning the bed of the Atlantic between Europe and America, the total length of these being 40,000 miles.
In the present year (1902) the total length of submarine cables in the world is about 200,000 miles, all but 20,000 of which are owned by commercial concerns and the remainder by different Governments.
The amount of capital invested in cables is estimated at about $210,000,000.
The cost of the cable before laying depends upon the dimensions of the cars, or conducting wire, which is copper; gutta percha, which still forms the only trustworthy insulating material, constituting the principal item of expense.
For an Atlantic cable of the most recent construction, the cost may be taken at £250 to £300 per nautical mile.
The system of submarine cables originating in Great Britain has continued to develop in her hands, until the world has been covered with a veritable networkof cables, which has hitherto done much to prevent the decline of her commercial supremacy. During the last few years, however, other maritime nations in Europe have begun to realize the importance of submarine cable enterprise in this respect, and France and Germany have made some progress towards freeing themselves from British monopoly; both are now connected with America by cables which are owned in their respective countries, though their manufacture and submergence was effected by an English Company.
This spread of the cable system has naturally followed trade routes, and thus, with the exception of the cables to America, their trend has been eastwards as far as Australia and Japan. During the year 1902 the Dominion of Canada was connected by cable with New Zealand and Australia, the total length of cable, 8,272 miles, and cost £1,795,000.
An agreement was entered into between the Imperial Government and the Governments of Canada, Victoria, New South Wales, New Zealand and Queensland, and it was through the persistent efforts and advocacy of Sir Sandford Fleming that this great work was accomplished.
Owing to the experience gained with many thousand miles in all depths and under varying conditions of weather and climate, the risks, and, consequently, the cost of laying, has been greatly reduced, but the cost of effecting a repair still remainsa very uncertain quantity, success being dependent on quiet conditions of sea and weather.
Themodus operandiis briefly as follows: The position of the fracture is determined by electrical tests from both ends with more or less accuracy depending on the nature of the fault, but it can be located within a few miles. The repair steamer, on reaching the given position, lowers one or perhaps two mark buoys, mooring them by mushroom anchors, chain and rope, using these buoys to guide the direction of tow. Grapnel, a species of five pronged anchors attached to a strong compound rope formed of strands of steel and manilla, is lowered to the bottom and dragged at a slow speed, as it were ploughing a furrow in the sea-bottom in a line at right angles to the cable route until the behavior of the dynamometer shows that the cable is hooked. The ship is then stopped and the cable gradually hove up towards the surface; but in deep water, unless it has been caught near a loose end, the cable will break on the grapnel before it reaches the surface, as the catenary strain on the bight will be greater than it will stand. Another buoy is put down marking this position, fixing at the same time the actual line of the cable. Grappling will then be recommenced so as to hook the cable near enough to the end to allow of its being hove to the surface. When this has been done an electrical test is applied, and, if the original fracture is between the shipand shore, the heaving in of the cable will continue until the end comes on board. Another buoy is then lowered to mark the spot, and the cable on the other side of the fracture grappled for brought to the surface, and, if communication is found perfect with the shore, buoyed with sufficient chain and rope attached to allow of the cable itself reaching the bottom. The ship now returns to the position of original attack and by similar operations brings on board the end which secures communication with the shore. The gap between the two ends has now been closed by splicing on new cable and paying out until the buoyed end is reached, which is then hove up and brought on board. After the “final splice,” as it is termed, between these ends has been made, the bight made fast to a rope is lowered overboard, the slip rope cut and the cable allowed to sink by its own weight to its resting place on the sea-bed. The repairs being thus completed the various mark buoys are picked up and the ship returns to her usual station.
The grappling of the cable and raising it to the surface from a depth of 2,000 fathoms seldom occupies less than twenty-four hours, and, since any extra strain due to the pitching of the vessel must be avoided, it is clear that the state of the sea and weather is the predominating factor in the time necessary for effecting the long series of operations which, under the most favorable circumstances, arerequired for a repair. In addition the intervention of heavy weather may mar all the work already accomplished and require the whole series of operations to be undertakende novo.
As to cost, one transatlantic cable repair cost £75,000.
The repair of the Aden Bombay cable, broken in a depth of 1,900 fathoms, was effected with the expenditure of 176 miles of new cable, and, after a lapse of 251 days, 103 being spent in actual work, which for the remainder of the time was interrupted by the monsoon. A repair of the Lisbon Porthcarrow cable broken in the Bay of Biscay in 2,700 fathoms, eleven years after the cable was laid, took 215 days with an expenditure of three hundred miles of cable.
All interruptions are not so costly, for in shallow waters, with favorable conditions of weather, a repair may be only a matter of a few hours, and it is in such waters that the majority of breaks occur, but still a large reserve fund must be laid aside for the purpose.
As an ordinary instance it has been stated that the cost of repairing the direct United States cable up to 1900 from its submergence in 1874 averages £8,000 per annum.
Nearly all the cable companies possess their own steamers of sufficient dimensions, and specially equipped for making ordinary repairs, but for exceptional cases where a considerable quantity of newcable may have to be inserted, it may be necessary to charter the service of one of the larger vessels owned by a cable manufacturing company at a certain sum per day, which may well reach £200 to £300.
This fleet of cable ships now number forty, ranging in size from vessels of 300 tons to 10,000 tons’ carrying capacity.
The life of a cable is usually considered to continue until it is no longer capable of being lifted for repair, but, in some cases the duration and frequency of interruptions as affecting public convenience with the loss of revenue and cost of repairs, must together decide the question of either making very extensive renewals or even abandoning the whole cable. It is a well ascertained fact that the insulator—gutta percha—is, when kept under water, practically imperishable, so that it is only the original strength of the sheathing wires and the deterioration allowable in them that have to be considered.
Cables have frequently been picked up, showing after many years of submergences, no appreciable deterioration in this respect, while in other cases ends have been picked up which in the course of twelve years had been corroded to needle points, the result, no doubt, of metalliferous deposits in the locality.
The experience gained in the earlier days of ocean telegraphy from the failure and abandonment of nearly 50 per cent. of the deep-sea cables within the first twelve years, placed the probable life of a cableas low as fifteen years, but the weeding out of unserviceable types of construction and the general improvement in materials, have, by degrees, extended that first estimate until now the limit may be safely placed at not less than forty years.
In depths beyond the reach of wave motion and apart from the suspension across a submarine gully which will sooner or later result in a rupture of the cable, the most frequent cause of interruption is seismic or other shifting of the ocean bed, while in shallower waters and near the shore the dragging of anchors or fishing trawls have been mostly responsible.
Since by international agreement the wilful damage of a cable has been constituted a criminal offence and the cables have avoided crossing the fishing banks or have adopted the wise policy of refunding the value of anchors lost on their cables, the number of such fractures have been greatly diminished.
The apparatus in use on land lines are not adapted for cables except for comparatively short distances not exceeding four or five hundred miles.
When the Atlantic cable was laid a special instrument had to be devised to transmit signals to the distant end. The man to accomplish this was Professor Thomson (now Lord Kelvin), who invented the mirror system. A beam of light was thrown on a minute mirror an eighth of an inch in diameter and the light reflected on to a scale by means of which the signal was interpreted into letters. This necessitated one person constantly scanning the spot of light as it moved to the right and to the left of the scale and calling out the individual letters, which were taken down by another person. This tedious and trying method of receiving signals was superceded by another device of Lord Kelvin, the siphon recorder.
The siphon, by which the cable signals are automatically recorded, is a thin glass tube, about the thickness of a strong linen thread, and quite flexible. It is suspended in a frame and attached by a single silk fibre to one side of a rectangular coil of fine insulated wire, moving about a soft iron bar fixed in the magnetic field of two large permanentmagnets. The coil is held down at the lower end by a silk thread, fastened to an adjustable spring, to regulate or confine the lateral motion of the siphon, the magnets are placed vertically and are two inches apart, one end of the siphon is twice bent at right angles, and dips into an ink well filled with filtered aniline ink. The other end has a minute thread or short piece of soft iron cemented longitudinally to it, and sways in close proximity to a narrow fillet of paper five-eighths of an inch wide, which is drawn along by a small motor. The small motors by which the paper is drawn along receive their current generally from lead-lined trays, 18 by 20 inches, at the bottom of which is placed a copper sheet, the zinc is wrapped in stout manilla paper which serves the purpose of a porous cup for the sulphate of copper. The cable current passes through the small rectangular coil, which is about two inches long, as both positive and negative currents are sent into the condensers, and thereby disturb the static electricity of the cable. The coil is deflected to the right and left respectively, tending to place itself at right angles to the lines of magnetic force between the fixed bar magnets and which lines of force are concentrated by the small bar above mentioned of the best soft iron within the coil. The siphon has, therefore, a corresponding motion to the coil. As the mechanical force of the suspended coil is very small in deflecting, it is necessary that the siphonbe not in continuous contact with the fillet of paper otherwise its motion would cease. The difficulty of obtaining a record is overcome in an ingenious manner. The siphon is made to vibrate by means of a local battery on the principle of the push button electric bell by the breaking of the circuit—the vibration is communicated to the siphon by the interposition of another electro-magnet in the local circuit and placed underneath the fillet of paper, the small thread of iron on the tip of the siphon acts as the armature to the latter electro-magnet. The number of vibrations made in a second depends on the siphon, different siphons having different periods or inherent notes, but 55 is about the number of vibrations a second, every pulsation of the siphon deposits a drop of ink on the paper, and, as the paper is moving at the rate of over half an inch a second, an apparently continuous line is drawn.
From the description of the working of the siphon—of its lateral movements—it will be evident that the cablegram, as shown on the fillet of paper, will look like the contour line across the Rocky Mountains. The undulations made by the siphon correspond to the clicking we hear in the ordinary telegraph instruments. A cable office is very quiet compared to the bewildering clatter in a large telegraph office.
It was found that on the Atlantic (and shorter cables) a greater speed of signals was possible than could be sent through by hand with the doublekey. This called forth the invention of the so-called automatic transmitter.
For this purpose the messages are in the first place punched into a strip of oiled and prepared paper, the characters on the strip are represented by holes at varying distances on each side of a central line. This strip of continuous paper is then fed into the transmitter, in which metallic points slide along the under side of the strip. Wherever a hole is encountered electric contact is made and a signal sent. The speed of running the strip through the transmitter can be regulated as desired.
The “auto” can easily keep two men busy punching.
Within recent years an improvement has been effected for transmitting signals or messages automatically from one cable to another. Formerly it was necessary after receiving the signals from one cable to transmit them by hand to the connecting cable at the station. Now, however, this can be done automatically by means of Taylor, Brown and Dearlove’s Translator. The siphon in it instead of carrying ink contains a metallic thread which rests, instead of on the fillet of paper, on a rapidly, revolving, perfectly, smooth, small wheel, in which the surface of the circumference is divided into three parts, the central one known as “no man’s land” being a non-conductor such as glass, while the outer ones are of silver. As the siphon sways to one side or theother it makes metallic contact, which is communicated by means of “brushes” which press against each side of the wheel to the outgoing cable.
This translator simplifies the work and reduces the office staff which would be otherwise necessary.
At the present time nearly all cables use the duplex system, that is, messages can be sent and received at the same time on one wire.
The speed of a cable is given in words per minute, the conventional number of five letters per word being understood, though in actual practice, owing to the extensive use of special codes, the number of letters per word is really between eight and nine, and this forms a considerable factor in the earning capacity of the cable, but the speed depends upon the length of the cable and the experience of the operator. Tests made over the Vancouver and Fanning Island section of the Pacific cable give 85 letters per minute with hand working and 100 letters a minute with automatic curb working, and approximately 168 letters a minute (84 letters each way) with duplex and curbed automatic working. This section of the cable is 3,455 nautical miles in length, the longest cable that has ever been laid, and about twice the length of the Atlantic cables. On shorter cables a greater speed can be attained.
CYRUS W. FIELD.
CYRUS W. FIELD.
Born in 1819, at Stockbridge, Mass., at the age of fifteen, he left home and became a clerk in a leading house in New York. At twenty-one he married and settled down in life as a wholesale paper merchant. Having been very successful he wished to retire, but yielded to the wishes of his junior partner and allowed his name to remain as the head of the firm. He withdrew, however, so far as to make a six months’ tour to South America, returning in 1853.
He was led to turn his attention to ocean telegraphy through an interview with Mr. Gisborne, who was then engaged in constructing a telegraph line across the Island of Newfoundland, and laying a submarine cable from there to Nova Scotia, in connection with a projected line of steamships to Ireland. It struck him that if a cable of such length could be laid there was nothing to hinder a still longer being carried from one side of the Atlantic to the other. Turning over this thought in his mind he consulted with Professor Morse and Lieutenant Maury, and receiving encouragement from them he devoted his energies in the enterprise in conjunction with his brother Dudley.
Other friends joined him, and the first Atlantic Telegraph Company was organized with a favorable charter, granting them the sole right for fifty years of landing a telegraph cable on Newfoundland and with a subsidy as soon as the line was completed.
The first thing was to connect the Continent with Newfoundland. This part of the scheme was successfully accomplished in 1856.
The next step was the formation of the Atlantic Telegraph Company and the sounding the way for the cable which was undertaken by both the British and American Governments separately. The British Government gave every encouragement to the projectors by promising £14,000 a year for the transmission of its messages and the use of the ships of its navy to lay the cable.
£350,000 was asked for and in a short time subscribed, Mr. Field taking 80 shares of £1,000 each.
In 1857 the first attempt to lay the cable proved a failure, but in the following year (1858) a second attempt was made, but a terrific storm met the vessels in the middle of the Atlantic, the cable broke again and the expedition returned to England once more. A third effort met with better success, and on the 5th of August, 1858, the two ends were safely landed, one in Valentia Bay, Ireland, the other in Trinity Bay, Newfoundland.
The first message sent from the Old World to the New was worthy the occasion.
“Glory to God in the highest, on earth peace and good-will to men.”
A few weeks later the cable ceased to act, but a new cable was prepared and the “Great Eastern” was sent out with it, only, however, to lose it also when 1,200 miles from Ireland.
It seemed a hopeless dream to bind the two worlds by electric wire, but Mr. Field did not despair. A better cable was once more made; another company was formed with a capital of £600,000.
In 1866 the “Great Eastern” again sailed, and this time carried the thin thread triumphantly from shore to shore, not only so, but fished up the broken cable from the abysses of the ocean, united it and joined England and America by two telegraphic wires.
The moving spirit throughout was Mr. Field, who spent some thirteen years of his life and made forty trips across the Atlantic, imperilling his health and means in pursuit of this great enterprise before his efforts were crowned with success.
He died on the 12th day of July, 1892.
MICHAEL FARADAY.
MICHAEL FARADAY.
The pupil of Sir Humphrey Davy, and himself the greatest philosophical chemist of his time, was born on the 22nd of September, 1791. The son of a smith, who was unable to give him any better education than that afforded by a common day-school in the neighborhood, reading, writing and arithmetic embraced all his training for life, so far as schools were concerned; but he had that within him which from these poor beginnings made a magnificent end. A fondness for reading filled his mind with miscellaneous knowledge and paved the way for all that followed.
At thirteen he was apprenticed to a bookseller and binder, but his heart was even thus early in science rather than trade, and he paid more attention to rude experiments than to his immediate calling. A gentleman having taken him to hear some of Sir Humphrey Davy’s last lectures at the Royal Institution, Faraday wrote out the notes he had taken in a quarto volume, and sent them to Sir Humphrey Davy, with a letter asking that, if he could, would he give him a chance of escaping from trade to philosophy. The result was his employment as an assistant in the laboratory of the Royal Institutionin 1813, at the age of 22, after he had been a bookseller for nine years.
From this time Faraday’s progress was rapid. In 1820 his name was first made prominent for chemical discoveries, and from that date every year recorded some new research and new triumph, till in 1832 his eminence was so thoroughly felt that the University of Oxford made him a D. C. L., and in 1835 Lord Melbourne’s Government gave him a pension of £300 a year. Honours meanwhile were showered upon him; he became one of eight foreign associates of the Imperial Academy of Science at Paris, a commander of the Legion of Honour, a knight of the Prussian Order of Merit and member of numerous scientific bodies in Europe and America.
The secret of his success, apart from his genius, lay in his wonderful industry and calm and careful attention to every detail of what he essayed.
In electricity and magnetism his researches made him one of the foremost; his language in lecturing was always simple; his experiments convincing, and his enthusiasms so catching, that every one felt engrossed by subjects which so absorbed the lecturer.
He was a true philosopher, taking nothing for granted, and thinking nothing too insignificant to follow out to the utmost. Many books have been written on his discoveries, and several on his life and character, but it is felt that no one who did not know him could realize the man as he was.
With a European fame his was modest as a child. The greatest authority in his day on natural science, he was a humble Christian.
Faraday never married. When he died in 1867 his pension was continued to his maiden sister, who survived him.
In Faraday, as in others, genius seemed largely to be what Carlyle calls it, only a faculty of infinite labor.
LORD KELVIN.
LORD KELVIN.
Born at Belfast, Ireland, 26th June, 1824, his father being then teacher of mathematics in the Royal Academical Institution. In 1832 James Thomson accepted the chair of mathematics at Glasgow and migrated there with his two sons, James and William, who in 1834 matriculated in that University, William being little more than ten years of age, and having acquired all his education through his father’s instruction.
In 1841 William Thomson entered Cambridge; in 1845 took his degrees, second wrangler, to which honour he added that of the first Smith’s prize.
At that time there was few facilities for the study of experimental science in Great Britain. At the Royal Institution Faraday held a unique position, and was feeling his way almost alone.
In Cambridge science had progressed little since the days of Newton. Thomson, therefore had recourse to Paris and for a year worked in the laboratory of Regnault, who was engaged in his classical researches on the thermal properties of steam; but his stay in Paris was comparatively short, for in 1846, when only twenty-two years of age, he accepted the chair of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow, which he filled for fifty-three years, attaininguniversal recognition as one of the greatest physicists of his time.
The Glasgow chair was a source of inspiration to scientific men for half a century, and many of the most advanced researches grew out of the suggestions which Thomson scattered as sparks from the anvil.
Although his contributions to thermo-dynamics may properly be regarded as his most scientific work, it is in the field of electricity, especially in its application to submarine telegraphy, that Lord Kelvin is best known.
From 1854 he is most prominent among telegraphists. The stranded form of the conductor was due to his suggestion, but it was in the letters which he addressed in November and December of that year to Prof. Stokes, and which were published in the proceedings of the Royal Society for 1855 that he discussed the mathematical theory of signalling through submarine cables, and enunciated the conclusion that in long cables retardation due to capacity must render the speed of signalling inversely proportional to the square of the cable’s length.
Some held that if this were true ocean telegraphy would be impossible, and sought in consequence to disprove Thomson’s conclusions. Thomson on the other hand set to work to overcome the difficulty by improvement in the manufacture of the cables, and first of all the production of copper of high conductivity,and the construction of apparatus which would readily respond to the slightest variation of the current in the cable.
The mirror galvanometer and the siphon recorder, which was patented in 1867, were the outcome of these researches, but the scientific value of the mirror galvanometer is independent of its use in telegraphy, and the siphon recorder is the direct precursor of one form of galvanometer (d’arsnovals), now commonly used in electric laboratories.
Thomson’s work in connection with telegraphy led to the production in rapid succession of instruments adapted to the requirements of the time, for measurements of every electrical quantity, and when electric lighting came to the front, a new set of instruments was produced to meet the needs of the electrical engineer.
His industry is universal, and he seems to take rest by turning from one difficulty to another, difficulties that would appal most men, and be taken as an enjoyment by no one else.
This life of unwearied industry and of universal honour has left Lord Kelvin with a lovable nature, and charms all with whom he comes in contact.
In 1866 he received the honour of knighthood in acknowledgment of his services to transatlantic telegraphy, and in 1892 he was raised to the peerage, with the title of Baron Kelvin of Largs.
Telegraph engineer, was the son of a cabinet-maker, William Brett, of Bristol, England, and was born in that city in 1805.
Brett has been styled, and with apparent justice, the founder of submarine telegraphy.
The idea of sending electricity through submerged cables originated with him and his brother; after some years in perfecting his plans, he sought and obtained permission from Louis Phillipe in 1847 to establish telegraphic communication with France and England, but the project did not receive public attention, being regarded as too hazardous for general support.
The attempt was, however, made in 1850, and met with success, and the construction of numerous other submarine lines followed.
Brett always expressed confidence in the ultimate union of England and America by means of electricity, but did not live to see its final success.
He died on 3rd December, 1863, at the age of 58.
Brett published a book of 104 pages on the origin and progress of oceanic telegraphy. He also contributed several papers on the same subject to the Institute of Civil Engineers, of which he was a member.
A list of these contributions will be found in the index of the Proceedings of the Society.