"They who stand with aching hearts around this little grave need have no fear. The larger and the nobler faith in all that is and is to be tells us that death, even at its worst, is only perfect rest. We know that through the common wants of life—the needs and duties of each hour—their griefs will lessen day by day, until at last this grave will be to them a place of rest and peace—almost of joy. There is for them this consolation. The dead do not suffer. And if they live again, their lives will surely be as good as ours. We have no fear. We are all children of the same mother, and the same fate awaits us all.
"We, too, have our religion, and it is this: Help for the living, hope forthe dead."ROBERT G. INGERSOLL, "Address over a Little Boy's Grave."
I have not attempted in this chapter to give elaborate illustrations of the varieties of rhyme and stanza in English poetry. Full illustrations will be found in Alden'sEnglish Verse. A clear statement of the fundamental principles involved is given in W. H. Carruth'sVerse Writing.
Free verse is suggestively discussed by Lowes,Convention and Revolt, chapters 6 and 7, and by Andrews,Writing and Reading of Verse, chapters 5 and 19. Miss Amy Lowell has written fully about it in the Prefaces toSword Blades and Poppy SeedandCan Grande's Castle, in the final chapter ofTendencies in Modern American Poetry, in the Prefaces toSome Imagist Poets, and in theNorth American Reviewfor January, 1917. Mr. Braithwaite's annualAnthologies of American Versegive a full bibliography of special articles upon this topic.
An interesting classroom test of the difference between prose rhythm and verse rhythm with strongly marked metre and rhyme may be found in comparing Emerson's original prose draft of his "Two Rivers," as found in volume 9 of his Journal, with three of the stanzas of the finished poem:
"Thy voice is sweet, Musketaquid, and repeats the music of the ram, but sweeter is the silent stream which flows even through thee, as thou through the land.
"Thou art shut in thy banks, but the stream I love flows in thy water, and flows through rocks and through the air and through rays of light as well, and through darkness, and through men and women.
"I hear and see the inundation and the eternal spending of the stream in winter and in summer, in men and animals, in passion and thought. Happy are they who can hear it."
"Thy summer voice, Musketaquit,Repeats the music of the rain;But sweeter rivers pulsing flitThrough thee, as thou through Concord plain.
"Thou in thy narrow banks are pent;The stream I love unbounded goesThrough flood and sea and firmament;Through light, through life, it forward flows.
"I see the inundation sweet,I hear the spending of the streamThrough years, through men, through nature fleet,Through love and thought, through power and dream."
I also suggest for classroom discussion the following brief passages from recent verse, printed without the authors' names:
1. "The milkman never argues; he works alone and no one speaks to him; the city is asleep when he is on his job; he puts a bottle on six hundred porches and calls it a day's work; he climbs two hundred wooden stairways; two horses are company for him; he never argues."
2. "Sometimes I have nervous moments— there is a girl who looks at me strangely as much as to say, You are a young man, and I am a young woman, and what are you going to do about it? And I look at her as much as to say, I am going to keep the teacher's desk between us, my dear, as long as I can."
3. "I hold her hands and press her to my breast.
"I try to fill my arms with her loveliness, to plunder her sweet smile with kisses, to drink her dark glances with my eyes.
"Ah, but where is it? Who can strain the blue from the sky?
"I try to grasp the beauty; it eludes me, leaving only the body in my hands.
"Baffled and weary, I came back. How can the body touch the flower which only the spirit may touch?"
4. "Child, I smelt the flowers,The golden flowers … hiding in crowds like fairies at my feet,And as I smelt them the endless smile of the infinite broke over me,and I knew that they and you and I were one.They and you and I, the cowherds and the cows, the jewels and thepotter's wheel, the mothers and the light in baby's eyes.For the sempstress when she takes one stitch may make nine unnecessary;And the smooth and shining stone that rolls and rolls like the greatriver may gain no moss,And it is extraordinary what a lot you can do with a platitude when youdress it up in Blank Prose.Child, I smelt the flowers."
Recent criticism has been rich in its discussions of the lyric. John Drinkwater's little volume onThe Lyricis suggestive. See also C. E. Whitmore's article in thePub. Mod. Lang. Ass., December, 1918. Rhys'sLyric Poetry, Schelling'sEnglish Lyric, Reed'sEnglish Lyrical Poetrycover the whole field of the historical English lyric. A few books on special periods are indicated in the "Notes" to chapter ix.
An appreciation of the lyric mood can be helped greatly by adequate oral reading in the classroom. For teachers who need suggestions as to oral interpretation, Professor Walter Barnes's edition of Palgrave'sGolden Treasury(Row, Petersen & Co., Chicago) is to be commended.
The student's ability to analyse a lyric poem should be tested by frequent written exercises. The method of criticism may be worked out by the individual teacher, but I have found it useful to ask students to test a poem by some or all of the following questions:
(a) What kind of experience, thought or emotion furnishes the basis for this lyric? What kind or degree of sensitiveness to the facts of nature? What sort of inner mood or passion? Is the "motive" of this lyric purely personal? If not, what other relationships or associations are involved?
(b) What sort of imaginative transformation of the material furnished by the senses? What kind of imagery? Is it true poetry or only verse?
(c) What degree of technical mastery of lyric structure? Subordination of material to unity of "tone"? What devices of rhythm or sound to heighten the intended effect? Noticeable words or phrases? Does the author's power of artistic expression keep pace with his feeling and imagination?
For a discussion of narrative verse in general, see Gummere'sPoeticsandOldest English Epic, Hart'sEpic and Ballad, Council'sStudy of Poetry, and Matthew Arnold's essay "On Translating Homer."
For the further study of ballads, note G. L. Kittredge's one volume edition of Child'sEnglish and Scottish Popular Ballads, Gummere'sPopular Ballad, G. H. Stempel'sBook of Ballads, J. A. Lomax'sCowboy Songs and other Frontier Ballads, and Hart's summary of Child's views inPub. Mod. Lang. Ass., vol. 21, 1906. TheOxford Book of English Verse, Nos. 367-389, gives excellent specimens.
All handbooks onPoeticsdiscuss the Ode. Gosse'sEnglish OdesandWilliam Sharp'sGreat Odesare good collections.
For the sonnet, note Corson's chapter in hisPrimer of English Verse, and the Introduction to Miss Lockwood's collection. There are other well-known collections by Leigh Hunt, Hall Caine and William Sharp. Special articles on the sonnet are noted in Poole'sIndex.
The dramatic monologue is well discussed by Claude Howard,The DramaticMonologue, and by S. S. Curry,The Dramatic Monologue in Tennyson andBrowning.
The various periods of English lyric poetry are covered, as has been already noted, by the general treatises of Rhys, Reed and Schelling. Old English lyrics are well translated by Cook and Tinker, and by Pancoast and Spaeth. W. P. Ker'sEnglish Literature; Mediaevalis excellent, as is C. S. Baldwin'sEnglish Mediaeval Literature. John Erskine'sElizabethan Lyricis a valuable study. Schelling's introduction to his Selections from the Elizabethan Lyric should also be noted, as well as his similar book on the Seventeenth-Century Lyric. Bernbaum'sEnglish Poets of the Eighteenth Centuryis a careful selection, with a scholarly introduction. Studies of the English poetry of the Romantic period are very numerous: Oliver Elton'sSurvey of English Literature, 1780-1830, is one of the best. Courthope'sHistory of English Poetryand Saintsbury'sHistory of Criticismare full of material bearing upon the questions discussed in this chapter.
Professor Legouis's account of the change in atmosphere as one passes from Old English to Old French poetry is so delightful that I refrain from spoiling it by a translation:
"En quittantBeowulfou laBataille de Maldonpour leRoland, on a l'impression de sortir d'un lieu sombre pour entrer dans la lumière. Cette impression vous vient de tous les côtés à la fois, des lieux décrits, des sujets, de la manière de raconter, de l'esprit qui anime, de l'intelligence qui ordonne, mais, d'une façon encore plus immédiate et plus diffuse, de la différence des deux langues. On reconnaît sans doute généralement à nos vieux écrivains ce mérite d'être clairs, mais on est trop habitué à ne voir dans ce don que ce qui découle des tendances analytiques et des aptitudes logiques de leurs esprit. Aussi plusieurs critiques, quelques-uns français, ont-ils fait de cet attribut une manière de prétexte pour leur assigner en partage la prose et pour leur retirer la faculté poétique. Il n'en est pas ainsi. Cette clarté n'est pas purement abstraite. Elle est une véritable lumière qui rayonne même des voyelles et dans laquelle les meilleurs vers des trouvères—les seuls qui comptent—sont baignés. Comment dire l'éblouissement des yeux longtemps retenus dans la pénombre duCodex Exoniensiset devant qui passent soudain avec leurs brillantes syllables 'Halte-Clerc,' l'épée d'Olivier, 'Joyeuse' celle de Charlemagne, 'Monjoie' l'étendard des Francs? Avant toute description on est saisi comme par un brusque lever de soleil. Il est tels vers de nos vieilles romances d'où la lumière ruisselle sans même qu'on ait besoin de prendre garde à leur sens:
"'Bele Erembors a la fenestre au jorSor ses genolz tient paile de color,'[Footnote: "Fair Erembor at her window in daylightHolds a coloured silk stuff on her knees."]
ou bien
"'Bele Yolanz en chambre coieSor ses genolz pailes desploieCoust un fil d'or, l'autre de soie…."[Footnote: "Fair Yoland in her quiet bowerUnfolds silk stuffs on her kneesSewing now a thread of gold, now one of silk."]
C'est plus que de la lumière qui s'échappe de ces mots, c'est de la couleur et de la plus riche." [Footnote: Emile Legouis,Défense de la Poésie Française, p. 44.]
While this chapter does not attempt to comment upon the work of living American authors, except as illustrating certain general tendencies of the lyric, I think that teachers of poetry should avail themselves of the present interest in contemporary verse. Students of a carefully chosen volume of selections, like theOxford Book, should be competent to pass some judgment upon strictly contemporary poetry, and I have found them keenly interested in criticizing the work that is appearing, month by month, in the magazines. The temperament and taste of the individual teacher must determine the relative amount of attention that can be given to our generation, as compared with the many generations of the past.
Believing as I do that a study of the complete work of some modern poet should accompany, if possible, every course in the general theory of poetry, I venture to print here an outline of topical work upon the poetry of Tennyson. Tennyson's variety of poetic achievement is so great, and his technical resources are so remarkable, that he rewards the closest study, even on the part of those young Americans who cannot forget that he was a "Victorian":
[The scheme here suggested for the study of poetry is based upon the methods followed in this book. The student is advised to select some one poem, and to analyse its content and form as carefully as possible, in accordance with the outline printed below. The thought and feeling of the poem should be thoroughly comprehended as a whole before the work of analysis is begun; and after the analysis is completed, the student should endeavor again to regard the poem synthetically, i. e., in its total appeal to the aesthetic judgment, rather than mechanically and part by part.]
Of Nature.What sort of observation of natural phenomena is revealed in this poem? Impressions of movement, form, color, sound, hours of the day or night, seasons of the year; knowledge of scientific facts, etc.?
Of Man.What evidence of the poet's direct knowledge of men? Of knowledge of man gained through acquaintance with Biblical, classical, foreign or English literature? Self-knowledge?
Of God.Perception of spiritual laws? Religious attitude? Is this poem consistent with his other poems?
Does the "raw material" presented by "sense impressions" undergo a real "change in kind" as it passes through the mind of the poet?
Do you feel in this poem the presence of a creative personality?
What evidence of poetic instinct in the selection of characteristic traits? In power of representation through images? In idealization?
What is to be said of the range and character of the poet's vocabulary?Employment of figurative language? Selection of metre? Use of rhymes?Modification of rhythm and sound to suggest the idea conveyed? Imitativeeffects?
In general, is there harmony between form and content, or is there evidence of the artist's caring for one rather than the other?
[Write a criticism of the distinctively lyrical work of Tennyson, based upon an investigation at first hand of the topics suggested below. Do not deal with any poems in which the narrative or dramatic element seems to you the predominant one, as those forms of expression will be made the subject of subsequent papers.]
A. "IMPRESSION" (i. e., experience, thought, emotion).
General Characteristics.
Does the freshness of the lyric mood seem in Tennyson's case dependent upon any philosophical position? Upon sensitiveness to successive experiences?
Is his lyric egoism a noble one? How far does he identify himself with his race? With humanity?
Is his lyric passion always genuine? If not, give examples of lyrics that are deficient in sincerity. Is the lyric passion sustained as the poet grows old?
Of Nature.
What part does the observation of natural phenomena—such as form, color, sound, hours of the day or night, seasons, the sky, the sea—play in these poems? To what extent is the lyrical emotion called forth by the details of nature? By her composite effects? Give instances of the poetic use of scientific facts.
Of Man.
What human relationships furnish the themes for his lyrics? In the love- lyrics, what different relationships of men and women? To what extent does he find a lyric motive in friendship? In patriotism? How much of his lyric poetry seems to spring from direct contact with men? From introspection? From contact with men through the medium of books? How clearly do his lyrics reflect the social problems of his own time? In his later lyrics are there traces of deeper or shallower interest in men and women? Of greater or less faith in the progress of society?
Of God.
Mention lyrics whose themes are based in such conceptions as freedom, duty, moral responsibility. Does Tennyson's lyric poetry reveal a sense of spiritual law? Is the poet's own attitude clearly evident?
What evidence of poetic instinct in the selection of characteristic traits? In power of representation through images? Distinguish between lyrics that owe their poetic quality to the Imagination, and those created by the Fancy. (Note Alden's discussion of this point; "Introduction to Poetry," pp. 102-112.) How far is Tennyson's personality indicated by these instinctive processes through which his poetical material is transformed?
What may be said in general of his handling of the lyric form: as to unity, brevity, simplicity of structure? Occasional use of presentative rather than representative language? Choice of metres? Use of rhymes? Modification of rhythm and sound to suit the idea conveyed? Evidence of the artist's caring for either form or content to the neglect of the other? Note whatever differences may be traced, in all these respects, between Tennyson's earlier and later lyrics.
[Write a criticism of the distinctively narrative work of Tennyson, based upon the questions suggested below.]
A. "IMPRESSION" (i. e., experience, thought, emotion).
General Characteristics.
After classifying Tennyson's narrative poetry, how many of his themes seem to you to be of his own invention? Name those based, ostensibly at least, upon the poet's own experience. To what extent do you find his narrative work purely objective, i. e., without admixture of reflective or didactic elements? What themes are of mythical or legendary origin? Of those having a historical basis, how many are drawn from English sources? Does his use of narrative material ever show a deficiency of emotion; i. e., could the story have been better told in prose? Has he the story-telling gift?
Of Nature.
How far does the description of natural phenomena, as outlined in Topic II, A, enter into Tennyson's narrative poetry? Does it always have a subordinate place, as a part of the setting of the story? Does it overlay the story with too ornate detail? Does it ever retard the movement unduly?
Of Man.(Note that some of the points mentioned underGeneral Characteristicsapply here.)
What can you say of Tennyson's power of observing character? Of conceiving characters in complication and collision with one another or with circumstances? Give illustrations of the range of human relationships touched upon in these poems. Do the later narratives show an increased proportion of tragic situations? Does Tennyson's narrative poetry throw any light upon his attitude towards contemporary English society?
Of God.(See Topic II, A.)
Adjust the questions already suggested under Topic II, B, to narrative poetry. Note especially the revelation of Tennyson's personality through the instinctive processes by which his narrative material is transformed.
What may be said in general of his handling of the narrative form, i. e., his management of the setting, the characters and the plot in relation to one another? Have his longer poems, like the "Idylls," and "The Princess," the unity, breadth, and sustained elevation of style that are usually associated with epic poetry? What can you say of Tennyson's mastery of distinctly narrative metres? Of his technical skill in suiting rhythm and sound to the requirements of his story?
[Reference books for the study of the technique of the drama are easily available. As preparatory work it will be well to make a careful study of Tennyson's dramatic monologues, both in the earlier and later periods. These throw a good deal of light upon his skill in making characters delineate themselves, and they reveal incidentally some of his methods of dramatic narrative. For this paper, however, please confine your criticism to "Queen Mary," "Harold," "Becket," "The Cup," "The Falcon," "The Promise of May," and "The Foresters." In studying "Becket," compare Irving's stage version of the play (Macmillan).]
A. Classify the themes of Tennyson's dramas. Do you think that these themes offer promising dramatic material? Do you regard Tennyson's previous literary experience as a help or a hindrance to success in the drama?
Nature.Apply what is suggested under this head in Topics I, II, and III, to drama.
Man.Apply to the dramas what is suggested under this head in Topics II and III, especially as regards the observation of character, the conception of characters in collision, and the sense of the variety of human relationships. Do these plays give evidence of a genuine comic sense? What tragic forces seem to have made the most impression upon Tennyson? Give illustrations, from the plays, of the conflict of the individual with institutions.
God.Comment upon Tennyson's doctrine of necessity and retribution. Does his allotment of poetic justice show a sympathy with the moral order of the world? Are these plays in harmony with Tennyson's theology, as indicated elsewhere in his work? Do they contain any clear exposition of the problems of the religious life?
B. Compare Topic II, B. In the historical dramas, can you trace the influence of the poet's own personality in giving color to historical personages? Compare Tennyson's delineation of any of these personages with that of other poets, novelists, or historians. Do you think he has the power of creating a character, in the same sense as Shakespeare had it? How much of his dramatic work do you consider purely objective, i. e., untinged by what was called the lyric egoism?
C. What may be said in general of Tennyson's handling of the dramatic form? Has he "the dramatic sense"? Of his management of the web of circumstance in which the characters are involved and brought into conflict? Comment upon his technical skill as displayed in the different "parts" and "moments" of his dramas. Does his exhibition of action fulfill dramatic requirements? Is his vocabulary suited to stage purposes? Give instances of his purely lyric and narrative gifts as incidentally illustrated in his dramas. Instance passages that cannot in your opinion be successfully acted. In your reading of these plays, or observation of any of them that you have seen acted, are you conscious of the absence of any quality or qualities that would heighten the pleasure they yield you? Taken as a whole, is the form of the various plays artistically in harmony with the themes employed?
This list includes the more important books and articles in English which have been discussed or referred to in the text. There is an excellent bibliography in Alden'sIntroduction to Poetry, and Patterson'sRhythm in Prosecontains a full list of the more technical articles dealing with rhythms in prose and verse.
ALDEN, RAYMOND M.English Verse. New York, 1903.An Introduction to Poetry. New York, 1909. "The Mental Side of Metrical Form," inMod. Lang. Review, July, 1914.
ALEXANDER, HARTLEY B.Poetry and the Individual. New York, 1906.
ANDREWS, C. E.The Writing and Reading of Verse. New York, 1918.
ARISTOTLE.Theory of Poetry and Fine Art, edited by S. H. Butcher. New York,1902.On the Art of Poetry, edited by Lane Cooper. Boston, 1913.
BABBITT, IRVING.The New Laokoon. Boston and New York, 1910.
BERNBAUM, ERNEST,editor.English Poets of the 18th Century. New York, 1918.
BOSANQUET, BERNARD.A History of Aesthetic. New York, 1892.Three Lectures on Aesthetic. London, 1915.
BRADLEY, A. C.Oxford Lectures on Poetry. London, 1909.
BRAITHWAITE, WILLIAM S.,editor.The Book of Elizabethan Verse. Boston, 1907.Anthology of Magazine Verse 1913-19. New York, 1915.
BRIDGES, ROBERT.Ibant Obscurae. New York, 1917.
BUTCHER, S. H.(See Aristotle.)
CHILD, F. G.English and Scottish Popular Ballads, 5 vols., 1882-1898.
CLARK, A. C.Prose Rhythm in English. Oxford, 1913.
COLERIDGE, S. T.Biographia Literaria. Everyman edition.
CONNELL, F. M.A Text-Book for the Study of Poetry. Boston, 1913.
COOK, ALBERT S.,editor.The Art of Poetry. Boston, 1892.
COOK, A. S.,andTINKER, C. B.Select Translations from Old English Poetry. Boston, 1902.
CORSON, HIRAM.A Primer of English Verse. Boston, 1892.
COURTHOPE, WILLIAM J.A History of English Poetry. London, 1895.Life in Poetry: Law in Taste. London, 1901.
COWL, R. P.The Theory of Poetry in England. London, 1914.
CROCE, B.Aesthetics. London, 1909.
CROLL, MORRIS W."The Cadence of English Oratorical Prose," inStudies in Philology,January, 1919.See also Croll and Clemons, Preface toLyly's Euphues. New York, 1916.
DRINKWATER, JOHN.The Lyric. New York (n.d.).
EASTMAN, MAX.Enjoyment of Poetry. New York, 1913.
ELTON, OLIVER W."English Prose Numbers," inEssays and Studies, by members of theEnglish Association, 4th Series. Oxford, 1913.
ERSKINE, JOHN.The Elizabethan Lyric. New York, 1916.
FAIRCHILD, ARTHUR H. R.The Making of Poetry. New York, 1912.
GARDINER, J. H.The Bible as English Literature. New York, 1906.
GATES, LEWIS E.Studies and Appreciations. New York, 1900.
GAYLEY, C. M.,andSCOTT, F. N.Methods and Materials of Literary Criticism. Boston, 1899.
GORDON, K.Aesthetics. New York, 1909.
GOSSE, EDMUND W.English Odes. London, 1881.
GUMMERE, FRANCIS B.A Handbook of Poetics. Boston, 1885.The Beginnings of Poetry. New York, 1901.The Popular Ballad. Boston and New York, 1907.Democracy and Poetry. Boston and New York, 1911.
HART, WALTER M.Epic and Ballad. Harvard Studies, etc., vol. 11, 1907.See his summary of Child's views inPub. Mod. Lang. Ass., 21, 1906.
HAYES, ALFRED."Relation of Music to Poetry," inAtlantic, January, 1914.
HEARN, LAFCADIO.Kwaidan. Boston and New York, 1904.
HOLMES, EDMOND.What is Poetry?New York, 1900.
HUNT, LEIGH.What is Poetry?edited by Albert S. Cook. Boston, 1893.
JAMES, WILLIAM.Psychology.New York, 1909.
KITTREDGE, G. L.,editor.English and Scottish Popular Ballads. Boston, 1904.
LA FARGE, JOHN.Considerations on Painting. New York, 1895.
LANIER, SIDNEY.Science of English Verse. New York, 1880.Poem Outlines. New York, 1908.
LEGOUIS, ÉMILE.Défense de la Poésie Française. London, 1912.
LEWIS, CHARLTON M.The Foreign Sources of Modern English Versification, Halle, 1898.The Principles of English Verse. New York, 1906.
LIDDELL, M. H.Introduction to Scientific Study of English Poetry. New York, 1912.
LOCKWOOD, LAURA E.,editor.English Sonnets. Boston and New York, 1916.
LOMAX, JOHN A.Cowboy Songs and Other Frontier Ballads. New York, 1916.
LOWELL, AMY.Tendencies in Modern American Poetry. New York, 1917.Men, Women and Ghosts. New York, 1916.Can Grande's Castle. New York, 1918.
LOWES, JOHN L.Convention and Revolt in Poetry. Boston and New York, 1919.
LYLY, JOHN.Euphues, edited by Croll, M. W., and Clemons, H. New York, 1916.
MACKAIL, J. W.The Springs of Helicon. New York, 1909.
MARSHALL, HENRY R.Aesthetic Principles. New York, 1895.
MAYOR, J. B.Chapters on English Metre. London, 1886.
MILL, J. S."Thoughts on Poetry," inDissertations, vol. 1.
MOORE, J. ROBERT."The Songs in the English Drama" (Harvard Dissertation, unpublished).
MORSE, LEWIS K.,editor.Melodies of English Verse. Boston and New York, 1910.
NEILSON, WILLIAM A.Essentials of Poetry. Boston and New York, 1912.
NEWBOLT, SIR HENRY.A New Study of English Poetry. New York, 1919.
OMOND, T. S.A Study of Metre. London, 1903.
PALGRAVE, FRANCIS T.The Golden Treasury. London, 1882.
PANCOAST, H. S. and SPAETH, J. D.Early English Poems. New York, 1911.
PATTERSON, WILLIAM M.The Rhythm of Prose. New York, 1916.
PATTISON, MARK,editor.Milton's Sonnets. New York, 1883.
PHELPS, WILLIAM L.The Beginnings of the English Romantic Movement. Boston, 1893.
POUND, LOUISE."The Ballad and the Dance,"Pub. Mod. Lang. Ass., September, 1919.
QUILLER-COUCH, A. T.,editor.The Oxford Book of English Verse. Oxford, 1907.
RALEIGH, WALTER.Wordsworth. London, 1903.
RAYMOND, GEORGE L.Poetry as a Representative Art. New York, 1886.The Genesis of Art-Form. New York, 1893.Rhythm and Harmony in Poetry and Music. New York, 1895.
REED, EDWARD B.English Lyrical Poetry. New Haven, 1912.
RHYS, ERNEST.Lyric Poetry. New York, 1913.
RHYS, ERNEST,editor.The New Golden Treasury of Songs and Lyrics. New York (n.d.).
RIBOT, T.Essay on the Creative Imagination. Chicago, 1906.
RUSSELL, C. E."Swinburne and Music," inNorth American Review, November, 1907.
SAINTSBURY, GEORGE.History of English Prosody. London, 1906-10.History of English Prose Rhythm. London, 1912.
SANTAYANA, GEORGE.The Sense of Beauty. New York, 1896.Interpretation of Poetry and Religion. New York, 1900.
SCHEMING, F. E.,editor.A Book of Elizabethan Lyrics. Boston, 1895.Seventeenth Century Lyrics. Boston, 1899.
SCHELLING, F. E.The English Lyric. Boston and New York, 1913.
SHACKFORD, MARTHA H.A First Book of Poetics. Boston, 1906.
SHELLEY, PERCY B.A Defense of Poetry, edited by Albert S. Cook. Boston, 1891.
SHERMAN, L. A.Analytics of Literature. Boston, 1893.
SHERMAN, STUART P.Contemporary Literature. New York, 1917.
SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP.The Defense of Poesy, edited by Albert S. Cook. Boston, 1890.
SNELL, ADA F."Syllabic Quantity in English Verse," inPub. Mod. Lang. Ass.,September, 1918.
SPINGARN, J. E.Creative Criticism. New York, 1917.
STEDMAN, EDMUND C.The Nature and Elements of Poetry. Boston and New York, 1892.
STEMPEL, G. H.A Book of Ballads. New York, 1917.
STEWART, J. A.The Myths of Plato. London, 1905.
SYMONS, ARTHUR.The Seven Arts. London, 1906.
TAYLOR, HENRY O.The Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages. New York, 1901.
TOLMAN, A. H.Hamlet and Other Essays. Boston, 1904.
TOLSTOY, L.What is Art? New York (n.d.).
UNTERMEYER, LOUIS.The New Era in American Poetry. New York, 1919.
WATTS-DUNTON, THEODORE.Poetry and the Renascence of Wonder. New York, (n.d.).
WELLS, CAROLYN.A Parody Anthology. New York, 1904.
WHITMORE, C. E.Article on the Lyric inPub. Mod. Lang. Ass., December, 1918.
WHITNEY, W. D.Language and the Study of Language. New York, 1867.
WILKINSON, MARGUERITE.The New Voices., New York, 1919.
Abercrombie, LascellesAccentAdams, F. P., free verse parody byAesthetics, and poetryAlden, R. M.Introduction to PoetryAldington, RichardAlexander, Hartley B.Poetry and the IndividualAlliterationAndrews, C. E.Writing and Reading of VerseAngellier, AugusteAnglo-Saxon lyrical verseAristotlePoeticsdefinition of TragedyArnold, Matthew"The Strayed Reveller"Artistic imaginationArtistic productionthe impulse toAsbury, SamuelAssonance
Babbitt, IrvingNew LaokoonBallad, the Baumgarten, A. G. Beauty Beddoes, Thomas Lovell Blake, William Blunt, Wilfrid sonnet on Gibraltar BoethiusDe Consolatione PhilosophiaeBosanquet, BernardHistory of AEstheticBradley, A. C. Bridges, Robert Brooke, Stopford Brownell, Baker Browning, RobertThe Ring and the BookBryant, F. E. Burns, Robert Butcher, S. H.Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and Fine ArtBynner, Witter Byron "ottava rima"
Calverley, C. S.parody of BrowningCampion, ThomasCarlyle, ThomasChase, W. M.Chaucer, GeoffreyChaucerian stanza, theChild, F. J.English and Scottish Popular BalladsChinese lyricsChopin, FrédéricChurch musicClark, A. C.Prose Rhythm in EnglishCleghorn, Sarah N."Come, Captain Age"Colcord, LincolnColeridge, S. T.Biographia LiterariaKubla KhanChristabelColvin, Sidney, "The Fine Arts,"Content and formCoquelin, E. H. A.Corson, HiramCounsel upon the Reading of BooksCourthope, W. J.,History of English PoetryCowley, Abraham, Pindaric ode in EnglishCranmer-Byng, L.,The Lute of JadeCreative imaginationCroce, B.Croll, Morris W.
Dances and poetryDaniel, SamuelDebussy, ClaudeDickens, CharlesDickinson, EmilyDolmetsch, ArnoldDramalyrical element indramatic monologueDrinkwater, JohnDryden, JohnDuran, Carolus
Ear, the, appeal toEastman, Max,Enjoyment of PoetryElizabethan lyric, theElton, Oliver W.Emerson, R. W.Enjoyment of VerseErskine, JohnEuphuism"Eye-minded" or "ear-minded,"
Fairchild, A. H. R.,Making of PoetryFeeling, and imaginationconveyed by wordsFeet, in verseFeminine rhymesFigures of speechFine arts"form" and "signficance" inthe man inFirkins, O. W.FitzGerald, EdwardFletcher, John GouldForm, in the artsFort, PaulFree versefour types ofFrench song in EnglandFromentin, E.Frost, RobertFuturist poets
Gardiner, J. H.Gates, Lewis E.Genius and inspirationGiovanitti, ArturoGluck, C. W., operaGoetheGoodell, T. D.Gosse, Edmund, definition of the odeGraphic arts and the lyricGray, ThomasGreek poetryGummere, F. B.,Handbook of Poetics
Hamilton, Sir W. R., quaternionsHamletHardy, ThomasHawthorne, NathanielWonder-BookScarlet LetterHearn, LafcadioHebrew lyric, theHebrew poetryHenley, W. E.Herford, C. H.HexametersEnglishHolmes, Edmond,What is Poetry?Holmes, Justice Oliver WendellHoraceHoratian ode, EnglishHudson, W. H.Hugo, Victor
Images, verbalselection and control ofvisualauditorytactilemotorImagination, or imaginationsthe poet'sand feelingcreative and artisticpoeticlyricImagist poetsImagist verseIn Memoriamstanza, theIndividualism in poetryIngersoll, Robert G.Inspiration
James, HenryJames, Williaman illustration fromJapanese lyricsJapanese printsJohnson, SamuelJonson, Ben
Keats, JohnKipling, Rudyard
La Farge, John,Considerations on PaintingLamb, Charles Landor, Walter Savage Lang, Andrew Lanier, Sidney, musical theory of versePoem OutlinesLatin poets Lee-Hamilton, Eugene Legouis, Emile, _Défense de la Poésie Française Leighton, Sir Frederick Lessing,LaokoonLewis, C. M. Lindsay, Vachel "The Congo," "Literary" language Locke, John Lockwood, Laura E. Lopere, Frederic A. Lowell, Amy Lowes, J. L. Lyric, the field of classification definitions general characteristics objects of the lyric vision imagination expression relationships and types of lyrical element in drama and narrative and graphic arts Japanese and Chinese decay and survival Hebrew Greek and Roman of Western Europe the Elizabethan the Romantic present status of objections to Macaulay, T. B. Marinetti, F. T. Marquis, Don Masculine rhymes Masefield, John Masters, Edgar Lee Matthews, Brander Meredith, George Metre, and rhythmMidsummer Night's DreamMill, John Stuart Millet, J. F. Milton, John Monroe, Harriet Moody, William Vaughn Moore, J. Robert Morris, William Moving picture Murray, Gilbert Music and poetry
Narrative poetryNeilson, W. A.Newbolt, Sir HenryNonsense-verse
Ode, theOmond, T. S.Orpheus and Eurydice, myth of
Page, Walter H. Palgrave, F. T. "Parallelogram of Forces, The" Pattern-instinct, the Patterson, W. M.,Rhythm of ProsePattison, Mark Peacock, Thomas Love Persian carpet theory of painting Pindaric ode, English Plato Play-instinct, the Poe, Edgar Allan "Poet, the" and other men his imagination his words Poetry some potencies of nature of and aesthetics an art the province of imagist Hebrew Greek and music three main types and dances of alien racesSee alsoLyric. Polyphonic prose Pope, Alexander Pound, Louise Prosody and enjoyment Puttenham, George,Arte of English Poesie
Quantity
Racial differencesRaleigh, Prof. WalterRaymond, G. L.Real effectsReed, E. B.,English Lyrical PoetryRenan, ErnestRhyme, as a form of rhythmRhys, ErnestRhythm, and metrenature ofmeasurement ofof proserhyme andRibot, Th.,Essay on the Creative ImaginationRipley, W. Z.Robinson, Edwin ArlingtonRomantic lyric, theRoyce, JosiahRuskin, JohnRussell, C. E., "Swinburne and Music,"
Saintsbury, George,History of English Prose RhythmSantayana, GeorgeSchelling, F. E.Scherer, EdmondScott, Sir WalterSea, a quiet, in the artsShackford, M. H.Shakspere, WilliamShelley, Percy ByssheSherman, Stuart P.Sidney, Sir PhilipSignificance, in the artsSize of poetic thoughtsSmith, L. W.Snell, Ada F.Sonnet, thePetrarchanShakspereanSouth, RobertSpace-artsSpaced proseSpectra hoax, theSpencer, HerbertSpenser, Edmund, the "poet's poet"Spenserian stanza, theStanzaStanzaic lawStedman, E. C.Stevenson, R. L.Stewart, J. A.,The Myths of PlatoStory, W. W.Stress, in verse"Stressers,"Subjectivity and the lyricSwinburne, A. S.Syllabic principle of versification
Taine, H. A.TassoTaylor, Henry OsbornTeasdale, SaraTechniqueTennyson, AlfredThinking without wordsThompson, FrancisThoreau, H. D.Time-arts"Timers"Tolman, A. H.TolstoyTone-colorTone-feelingTynan, Katharine, "Planting Bulbs"
Verbal imagesVoice-waves, photographs of
Walton, Isaac Watts, G. F. Watts-Dunton, Theodore Wells, Carolyn Whistler, James Whitefield, George Whitman, Walt Whitmore, C. E. Whitney, W. D. Whittling Wilkinson, Florence,New VoicesWords, the poet's how they convey feeling as current coin an imperfect medium unpoetic embodiment of poetic feeling sound-values and meaning-values Wordsworth, William Wyatt, Edith