PHYSIOLOGY,ANDHYGIENE.CHAPTER I.The Framework of the Body.The Bones—Their Form and Composition—The Properties of Bone—The Skeleton—The Joints—The Spinal Column—The Growth of Bone—The Repair of Bone.1.The framework of the body? The superstructure? Softness and delicacy of the organs? How protected?1. The Bones.—The framework which sustains the human body is composed of theBones. The superstructure consists of the various organs on which the processes of life depend. These organs are soft and delicately formed, and, if unprotected, would, in most cases, rapidly be destroyed when subjected to violence, however slight. The bones, having great strength and power of resistance, afford the protection required.2.The more delicate the organ? Example in relation to the brain? The eye? The lungs? The services performed by the bones?2.The more delicate the organ, the more completely does Nature shield it. For example: the brain, which is soft in structure, is enclosed on all sides by a complete box of bone; the eye, though it must be near the surface of the body to command an extensive view, is sheltered from injury within a deep recess of bone; the lungs, requiring freedom of motion as well as protection, are surrounded by a large case of bone and muscle. The bones serve other useful purposes. They give permanence of form to the body, byholding the softer parts in their proper places. They assist in movement, by affording points of attachment to those organs which have power of motion—the muscles.3.Their shape and size? Of what composed? Possibility of being separated? Effect of fire? Of dilute acid?3. The Form and Composition of the Bones.—Their shape and size vary greatly in different parts of the body, but generally they are arranged in pairs, one bone for each side of the body. They are composed of both mineral and animal substances, united in the proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter; and we may separate each of these substances from the other for examination. First, if we expose a bone to the action of fire, the animal substance is driven off, or "burned out." We now find that, though the shape of the bone is perfectly retained, what is left is no longer tough, and does not sustain weight as before. Again, we may remove the mineral portion, which is a form of lime, by placing a bone into a dilute acid. The lime will be dissolved out, and the shape of the bone remain as before; but now its firmness has disappeared, and it may be bent without breaking.4.Effect of deficiency of ingredient? Usefulness of the lime? Of the animal substance? Effect of their union? Condition, in youth? Old age?4.If, for any reason, either of these ingredients is disproportionate in the bone during life, the body is in danger. The lime is useful in giving rigidity of form, while the animal substance insures toughness and elasticity. By their union, we are able to withstand greater shocks and heavier falls than would be possible with either alone. In youth, the period of greatest activity, the animal constituent is in excess: a bone then does not break so readily, but, when broken, unites with great rapidity and strength. On the other hand, the bones of old persons are more easily broken, and in some cases fail to unite. The mineral matter being then in excess, indicates that the period of active exertion is drawing to a close.Fig. 1.--Section of BoneFig. 1.—Section of Bone.Fig. 2.--Structure of bone enlargedFig. 2.Structure of bone enlarged.5.In what respect admirably fashioned? Its formation? Microscopic examination? The inference? "Line of beauty?"5. The Structure of the Bones.—If we examine one of the long bones, which has been sawn through lengthwise, we observe that it is admirably fashioned for affording lightness as well as strength (Fig. 1). Its exterior is hard and resisting, but it is porous at the broad extremities, while through the central portion there is a cavity or canal which contains an oily substance, calledmarrow. Let us now take a thin section of bone, and examine it under the microscope; we discover that it is pierced by numerous fine tubes (Fig. 2), about which layers of bone-substance are arranged. Accordingly, though a bone be as hard as stone externally, it is by no means as heavy as stone, by reason of its light interior texture. Another element of power is found in the curved outline of the bones. The curved line is said to be "the line of beauty," as it certainly is the line of strength, and is uniformly employed in the bones whose position exposes them to accident.Fig. 3.--The SkeletonFig. 3.—The Skeleton6.Number of bones? Skeleton? The skull? Chest? The trunk? The trunk and skull, how maintained? What of the arms? Legs?6. The Skeleton.—The number of bones in the human body exceeds two hundred. When these are joined together in the proper places, they form what is termed theSkeleton(Fig. 3). It embraces three important cavities. The first, surmounting the frame, is a box of bone, called theskull;below this, is a bony case, or "chest;" and lower down is a bony basin, called thepelvis. The two latter compose the trunk. The trunk and skull are maintained in their proper relations by the "spinal column." Branching from the trunk are two sets of limbs: the arms, which are attached to the chest by means of the "collar-bone" and "shoulder-blade;" and the legs, directly joined to the lower part of the trunk.7.Design of the cavities? Give the examples.7.The cavities of which we have spoken, are designed for the lodgment and protection of the more delicate and perishable parts of the system. Thus, the skull, together with the bones of the face, shelters the brain and the organs of four senses—sight, hearing, smell, and taste. The chest contains the heart, lungs, and great blood-vessels, while the lower part of the trunk sustains the liver, stomach, and other organs.8.Joint or articulation? Movable joints, how compacted? The ligaments of the movable joints? What is a sprain? Consequence of a serious sprain?8. The Joints.—The point of union of two or more bones forms a joint orarticulation, the connection being made in various ways according to the kind and amount of motion desired. The movable joints are compacted together by certain strong fibrous bands, called ligaments. These ligaments are of a shining, silvery whiteness, and very unyielding; so much so, that when sudden violence is brought to bear in the vicinity of a joint, the bone to which a ligament is attached may be broken, while the ligament itself remains uninjured. When this connecting material of the joints is strained or lacerated by anaccident, a "sprain" is the consequence. An injury of this sort may be, and frequently is, quite as serious as the breaking of a bone.Fig. 4.--Cells of Cartilage.Fig. 4.—Cells of Cartilage.9.Office of the ligament? What must it have? How accomplished? Describe it. Synovia?9.The ligament, then, secures firmness to the joint; it must also have flexibility and smoothness of motion. This is accomplished by a beautiful mechanism the perfection of which is only feebly imitated by the most ingenious contrivance of man. The ends of the bones are covered by a thin layer ofcartilage, which being smooth and elastic, renders all the movements of the joint very easy. In addition to this, there is an arrangement introduced for "lubricating" the joint, by means of a delicate sac containing fluid. This fluid is constantly supplied in small quantities, but only so fast as it is used up in exercise. In appearance, it is not unlike the white of an egg, and hence its namesynovia, or egg-like.10.What do we observe as regards the composition of a joint? The ligament and cartilage? What varies? Example of the skull? Other examples? The ball-and-socket joint?10.Thus, we observe, that two very different substances enter into the composition of a joint. The ligament, very unyielding, affords strength, while the cartilage, elastic and moist, gives ease and smoothness of motion. The amount of motion provided for varies greatly in different joints. In some there is none at all, as in the skull, where one bone is dove-tailed into another by what are termedsutures. Others have a hinge-like motion, such as those of the elbow, wrist, ankle, and knee; the most complete of these being the elbow-joint (Fig. 5). Belonging to another class, theball-and-socket joint, is that at the shoulder, possessing a freedom of motion greater than any other in the body.Fig. 5.--Elbow Joint.Fig. 5.—Elbow Joint.A, Bone of the arm; B, C, Bones of the fore-arm.11.What is the spinal column? What does it connect and form? Joints of the vertebræ? Amount of motion? Result?11. The Spinal Column.—The spinal column is often spoken of as the "back-bone," as if it were a single bone, while, in reality, it is composed of a chain of twenty-six small bones, calledvertebræ. The spinal column is a wonderful piece of mechanism. It not only connects the important cavities of the body, as has already been shown, but, also, itself forms a canal, which contains the spinal cord. The joints of the vertebræ are remarkable for the thick layers of cartilage which separate the adjacent surfaces of bone. The amount of motion between any two of these bones is not great; but these little movements, taken together, admit of very considerable flexibility, in several directions, without endangering the supporting power of the column.12.Elasticity of the frame? Protection of the brain from shocks? Tallness of persons? Effects of reclining?Fig. 6--The Spinal Column.Fig. 6—The Spinal Column.12.The abundant supply of intervertebral cartilage has another important use, namely, it adds greatly to the elasticity of the frame. It is due, in part, to this elastic material, and in part to the frequent curves of the spine, that the brain and other delicate organs are protected from the shock of sudden falls or jars. During the day, the constant pressure upon these joints, while the body is erect, diminishes the thickness of the cartilages; so that a person is not so tall in the evening as in the morning. The effects of this compression pass away when the body reclines in a horizontal position.13.Change in bone? Example—animal and madder. Rapidity of change in color? Waste and repair?13. The Growth of Bone.—Bone, like all the other tissues of the body, is constantly undergoing change, old material being withdrawn, and new particles taking their place. This has been shown conclusively by experiments. If an animal be fed with madder—a red coloring matter—for a day or two, the bones soon become tinged; then, if the madder be discontinued for a few days, the original color returns. If, however, this material be alternately given and withheld, at short intervals, the bone will be marked by a succession of red and white rings. In very young animals, all the bones become colored in a single day; in older ones, a longer time is required. The process of waste and repair, therefore, is constantly taking place in this hard substance, and with astonishing rapidity.14. The Repair of Bone.—Nature's provision for uniting broken bones is very complete. At first, blood is poured out around the ends of the bone, as a result of the injury. This is gradually absorbed, and gives place to a watery fluid, which, thickening from day to day, acquires, at the end of two weeks, the consistency of jelly. This begins to harden, by a deposit of new bone-substance, until, at the expiration of five or six weeks, the broken bone may be said to be united. It is, however, still fragile, and must be used carefully a few weeks longer. The process of hardening continues, and months must pass before the union can be said to be complete.QUESTIONS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW.PAGE1. What useful purposes do the bones serve?15,162. State what you can of the composition of the bones.163. Of the usefulness of lime in the bones.164. Of the usefulness of animal substance in the bones.165. State what you can of the structure of the bones.176. Of the strength belonging to the bones.15,16,177. What is meant by the human skeleton?198. Give a description of its construction.199. What is meant by a joint in the human frame?1910. State what you can of the movable joints.19,2011. What office is performed by the ligaments of the joints?19,2012. What by the cartilage at the joints?2013. What movable joints are there?20,2114. Describe the construction of the spinal column.2115. What properties and powers does the spinal column possess?21,2216. When is a person taller than at other times?2217. Give the reason for this.2218. What can you state of the growth of bone?2219. Describe the process by which a broken bone is repaired.23Fig. 7.--The Muscles.Fig. 7.—The Muscles.CHAPTER II.The Muscles.The Muscles—Flexion and Extension—The Tendons—Contraction—Physical Strength—Necessity for Exercise—Its Effects—Forms of Exercise—Walking—Riding—Gymnastics—Open-air Exercise—Sleep—Recreation.1.What are the muscles? Their number? The design of most of them? Of a few?1. The Muscles.— The great mass of the body external to the skeleton, is composed of the flesh, orMuscles, which largely determines its outline and weight. The muscles are the organs of motion. Their number is about four hundred, and to each of them is assigned a separate and distinct office. They have all been studied, one by one, and a name given to each, by the anatomist. Each is attached to bones which it is designed to move. A few are circular in form, and enclose cavities, the size of which they diminish by contraction.Fig. 8.--Muscular Tissue.Fig. 8.—Muscular Tissue.a,b, Striped muscular fibres:c, The same more highly magnified.2.The structure of flesh? Its color, etc.? The composition of the fibres? How marked?2.If we examine a piece of flesh, we observe that it is soft, and of a deep red color. Its structure appears to be composed of layers and bundles of small fibres. Let us further examine these fibres under the microscope. We now discover that they are, in turn, made up of still finer fibres, offibrillæ: these are seen in Fig. 8. The fibres are beautifullymarked by parallel wavy lines, about ten thousand to an inch, which give the fibre its name of thestripedmuscular fibre. All of the voluntary muscles present this appearance.3.Arrangement of the muscles? Their action? Flexion and extension? Action of the muscles when we stand erect?3. Flexion and Extension.—The muscles are, for the most part, so arranged in pairs, or corresponding sets, that when motion is produced in one direction by one set, there is, opposite to it, another muscle, or group of muscles, which brings the limb back to its place. When they act alternately, a to-and-fro movement results. When a joint is bent, the motion is calledflexion; and when it is made straight again, it is calledextension. When both sets act equally, and at the same moment, no motion is produced, but the body or limb is maintained in a fixed position: this occurs when we stand erect. The muscles which produce extension are more powerful than those opposite to them.Fig. 9.--Biceps muscle of the arm.Fig. 9.—A, Biceps muscle of the arm: B, C, Its tendons.4.Kinds of muscles? The voluntary? Involuntary? The heart? Give the example. The hand? Arm?4.The muscles are also distinguished, on the other hand, as the voluntary and involuntary muscles, according as they are, or are not, under the control of the will. The heart is an example of the involuntary variety. We cannot change its action in the least by an effort of the will. When we sleep, and the will ceases to act, the heart continues to beat without cessation. The voluntary muscles, on the other hand, are such as are used only when we wish orwillto use them—as the muscles of the hand or arm (Fig. 9).5.What are the tendons or sinews? Their strength? Color? Location? Tendon of Achilles? The fable? Muscles of the leg?5. The Tendons.—Tendons, or sinews, are the extremities of muscles, and are compactly fastened upon bone. They are very strong, and of a silvery whiteness. They may be felt just beneath the skin, in certain parts of the body, when the muscles are being used, as at the bend of the elbow or knee. The largest tendon of the body is that which is inserted into the heel, called the tendon of Achilles, after the hero of the Grecian poet, the fable relating that it was at this point that he received his death-wound, no other part of his body being vulnerable. The muscles which extend into the leg unite to form a single and very powerful tendon, and enclose a small bone called the knee-pan, which, acting like a pulley, greatly increases their power, and at the same time protects the front of the knee-joint (Fig. 10).Fig. 10.--View of Knee-joint.Fig. 10.—View of Knee-joint.A, Thigh bone: B, Knee-pan: C, D, Leg bones.6.Contraction of the muscles? Bending of the arm or finger? Other agencies? Automatic movements? In cold-blooded animals?6. Muscular Contraction.—The muscles, when acted upon by the appropriate stimulus, contract, or so changetheir shape, that their extremities are brought nearer together. The bending of the arm, or of a finger, is effected in this manner, by the will; but the will is not the only means of producing this effect. Electricity, a sharp blow over a muscle, and other stimuli, also cause it. Contraction does not always cease with life. In man, after death from cholera, automatic movements of hands and feet have been observed, lasting not less than an hour. In certain cold-blooded animals, as the turtle, contraction has been known to take place for several days after the head has been cut off.7.Contractility? Give the illustration. What was supposed? What is the case?7.The property which, in muscle, enables these movements to take place is calledcontractility. If we grasp a muscle while in exercise (for example, the large muscle in the front of the arm), we notice the alternate swelling and decrease of the muscle, as we move the forearm to and fro. It was at one time supposed that the muscle actually increased in volume during contraction. This, however, is not the case; for the muscle, while gaining in thickness, loses in length in the same proportion; and thus, the volume remains the same in action and at rest.8.What further in relation to contraction? Weariness of a muscle? Beating of the heart? Standing and walking?8.Contraction is not the permanent, or normal, state of a muscle. It cannot long remain contracted, but after a shorter or longer time, it wearies and is obliged to relax. After a short rest, it can then again contract. It is for this reason that the heart can beat all through life, night and day, by having, as we shall hereafter see, a brief interval of rest between successive pulsations. For the same reason, it is more fatiguing to stand for any great length of time in one position, than to be walking the same period.9.Muscular power of animals? How tested? Man's power? Horse's? The comparison?9. Relative Strength of Animals.—The amount of muscular power which different animals can exert, hasbeen tested by experiment. By determining the number of pounds which an animal can drag upon a level surface, and afterward comparing that with its own weight, we can judge of its muscular force. It is found that man is able to drag a little less than his own weight. A draught-horse can exert a force equal to about two-thirds of his weight. The horse, therefore, though vastly heavier than man, is relatively not so powerful.10.Power of insects? Beetles? Give the conclusion.10.Insects are remarkable for their power of carrying objects larger and heavier than themselves. Many of them can drag ten, and even twenty times their weight. Some of the beetles have been known to move bodies more than forty times their own weight. So far, therefore, from it being a fact that animals have strength in proportion to their weight and bulk, the reverse of that statement seems to be the law.11.Difference in strength of individuals? How caused?11. Physical Strength.—The difference in strength, as seen in different individuals, is not due to any original difference in their muscles. Nature gives essentially the same kind and amount of muscles to each person, and the power of one, or the weakness of another, arises, in great part, from the manner in which these organs are used or disused.12.Complaint in relation to degeneracy? How true? How determined by armor? The fair supposition?12.Many authors complain of the physical degeneracy of men at the present day, as compared with past generations. There is room for doubt as to the correctness of this statement. Certain experiments have recently been made with the metallic armor worn seven hundred years ago, by which it is found that any man, of ordinary height and muscular development, can carry the armor and wield the weapons of an age supposed to be greatly our superior in strength. When we consider that in those days, only very strong men could endure the hardships of soldier-life,it is fair to suppose that our age has not so greatly degenerated in respect to physical strength.13Action? Use of organs? Training of the mind? The child's brain? Education of the body?13. Importance of Exercise.—Action is the law of the living body. Every organ demands use to preserve it in full vigor, and to obtain from it its best services. The value of that training of the mind, which we call education, is everywhere recognized. The child is early put to school, and for many years continues to study, in order that his brain, which is the great centre of mental power, may act healthfully and with force. It is important that the body, also, should receive its education by exercise. This is especially true of persons belonging to certain classes of society, whose occupation confines them within doors, and requires chiefly brain-work.14Work in the open air? A perfect business? The consequence of universal perfect business? Occupation of children?14.Persons who are engaged in manual labor in the open air obtain all the exercise necessary for bodily health in their regular business: their need is more likely to be a discipline or exercise of the mind. A perfect business of life, therefore, would be one which would combine both physical and mental labor in their proper proportions. If such a business were possible for all the human race, life would thereby be vastly prolonged. Such is, in fact, to a large extent, the occupation pertaining to one period of life—childhood. A part of the time is spent by the child in improving his mind by study, and another part of the time he has physical exercise in his games and sports.15In what does exercise consist? Effects of it?15. The Effects of Exercise.—Exercise consists in a well-regulated use of the voluntary muscular system. The effects, however, are not limited to the parts used. Other organs, which are not under the control of the will, are indirectly influenced by it. For instance, the heart beats more rapidly, the skin acts more freely, andbecomes hotter, as well as the parts beneath it, and the appetite and power of digestion are increased. An increased exhalation from the lungs and skin purifies the current of the circulation, and the body as a whole thrives under its influence.16.General effect upon the muscles? Special effect? Effects of inaction? Of excessive exercise?16.The immediate effect of exercise, however, is upon the muscles themselves; for by use they become firm and large, and increase in power. If we examine a muscle thus improved by exercise, we find that its fibres have become larger and more closely blended together, that its color is of a darker red, and that the supply of blood-vessels has increased. Without exercise the muscle appears thin, flabby, and pale. On the other hand, excessive exercise, without sufficient relaxation, produces in the muscle a condition not very different from that which follows disuse. The muscle is worn out faster than nature builds it up, and it becomes flabby, pale, and weak.17.Of violent and spasmodic efforts? Strength, how attained? Give the particulars.17.Violent exercise is not beneficial; and spasmodic efforts to increase the muscular strength are not calculated to secure such a result. Strength is the result of a gradual growth, and is most surely acquired if the exercise be carried to a point short of fatigue, and after an adequate interval of rest. To gain the most beneficial results, the exercise should be at regular hours, and during a regular period. The activity of the exercise, and the time devoted to it must vary, of course, with the strength of the individual, and should be carefully measured by it.18.What may walking be called? What further is said of walking?18. Different Modes of Exercise.—There are very few who have not the power to walk. There is required for it no expensive apparatus, nor does it demand a period of preliminary training.Walking may be called the universal exercise.With certain foreign nations, the Englishespecially, it is a very popular exercise, and is practised habitually by almost every class of society; by the wealthy as well as by those who have no carriages; by women as well as by men.19.What is said of running, and other like movements? What, as related to childhood? What instances are alluded to? Example?19.Running, leaping, and certain other more rapid and violent movements, are the forms of exercise that are most enjoyed in childhood. For the child, they are not too severe, but they may be so prolonged as to become injurious. Instances have been recorded where sudden death has resulted after violent playing, from overtaxing the heart: for example, we have the case of a young girl who, while skipping the rope, and endeavoring to excel her playmates by jumping the greatest number of times, fell dead from rupture of the heart.20.Carriage-riding? Horseback-riding?20.Carriage-riding, as a means of passive exercise, is particularly well suited to invalids, and persons advanced in life. Horseback exercise brings into use a greater number of muscles than any other one exercise, and with it there is an exhilaration of feeling which refreshes the mind at the same time. It is one of the manliest of exercises, but not less suitable for women than for men. To be skilful in riding, it is best to begin its practice in youth; but there are very few kinds of exercise of which the same is not equally true.21.Boating, swimming, and skating?21.For those who live near streams or bodies of water, there are the delightful recreations of boating, swimming, and skating. Certain of these exercises have a practical importance aside from and above their use in increasing the physical vigor. This is especially true of boating and swimming, since they are often the means of saving life. Practice in these exercises also teaches self-reliance, courage, and presence of mind. Persons who have become proficient in these vigorous exercises are generally the ones,who, in times of danger, are the quickest to act and the most certain to do so with judgment.22.What kind of exercise yields the best results? What advice is given?22. Physical Culture.—That form of exercise which interests and excites the mind, will yield the best results; but to some persons no kind of exertion whatever is, at first, agreeable. They should, nevertheless, make a trial of some exercise, in the expectation that, as they become proficient in it, it will become more pleasant. In exercise, as many sets of muscles should be employed as possible, open-air exercise being the best. Parlor gymnastics, and the discipline of the gymnasium are desirable, but they should not be the sole reliance for physical culture. No in-door exercise, however excellent in itself, can fill the place of hearty and vigorous activity in the open air.23.Physical culture among the ancients? In Greece? In schools and colleges at the present time? Result to the body and mind?23. Gymnastic Exercises for Schools and Colleges.—In the system of education among the ancients, physical culture predominated. In ancient Greece, physical exercises in schools were prescribed and regulated by law, and hence these schools were calledgymnasia. At the present time, on the contrary, this culture is almost wholly unknown, as a part of the course of education, in our schools and colleges. In a few of our institutions of learning, however, physical exercises have been introduced, with manifest advantage to the students, and they form a part of the regular curriculum of exercises,—as much so as the recitations in geography, grammar, or Greek. The good effect of the experiments, as shown in improved scholarship as well as increased bodily vigor, in the institutions where the plan has been tried, will, it is hoped, lead to its universal adoption. We should then hear less frequently of parents being obliged to withdraw their children from school, because they become exhaustedor, perchance, have lost their health from intense and protracted mental application.24.The result of gymnastics in our colleges and other institutions of learning?24.Were gymnastics more common in our educational institutions we should not so often witness the sad spectacle of young men and women leaving our colleges and seminaries, with finished educations it may be, but with constitutions so impaired, that the life which should be devoted to the accomplishment of noble purposes must be spent in search of health. Spinal curvatures, which, according to the experience of physicians, are now extremely frequent, especially among ladies, would give place to the steady gait and erect carriage which God designed his human creatures should maintain.25.All the exercises necessary for the proper development of the body may be obtained from the use of a few simple contrivances that every one can have at home, at little cost—less by far than is spent for useless toys. Many of these may be made available in the parlor or chamber, though all exercises are far more useful in the open air. A small portion of the day thus spent will afford agreeable recreation as well as useful exercise. The Indian club, the wand, the ring, and the dumb-bells answer ordinary purposes very well. Illustrations are here introduced of a few simple contrivances that may be useful for general exercises, and are specially suitable for persons withweak spines, or with spines that are the subject of lateral curvature.26.One of the simplest appliances for strengthening the muscles of the spine, designed chiefly to exercise the muscles on either side of the spine, consists of two wooden handles attached to india-rubber cords, one of which is attached to a hook made fast in the ceiling, or in the top of the door-case; and the other to another hook fastened in the wall, door-post, or window-casing, about the heightof the shoulder. When traction is made with the left hand, it exercises the muscles on the left side of the spine, while those on the opposite side are left almost at rest, owing to the oblique direction given to the shoulders when the right hand grasps the horizontal cord. (This appliance will be understood by referring to Fig. 13.)Fig. 11.--Appliance for strengthening the muscles.Fig. 11.Fig. 12.--Appliance for strengthening the muscles.Fig. 12.27.Fig. 11 shows an appliance consisting of two strong elastic cords, with handles, secured to a hook in the floor, so arranged that the patient has to stoop forward to reach them. On raising the body the spinal muscles are powerfully exercised. Fig. 12 shows other modes of using the elastic cords for strengthening the spine and chest.Fig. 13.--Parlor gymnasium.Fig. 13.28.These various appliances have been combined so as to form a system of gymnastics suitable for parlor use; other appliances have been added by which the muscles ofthe legs may be called into action as well as those of the spine and upper part of the body (Fig. 13). Combinations of cords suitable for particular cases may also be made, and by using one or several cords on the same hook, their power may be adapted to the strength of the most robust as well as to that of the invalid, or of the most delicate child. The entire apparatus is quite simple in its construction and inexpensive, requiring but little space, and at the same time affording a great variety of exercises.Exercises that may be Practised on this Apparatus.Exercise I.(Fig. 13).—Stand erect under the cords and place the heels together. Grasp the handles firmly, keeping the knees and elbows stiff, and pull downward and forward until the fingers nearly touch the toes. Return slowly to the erect position. Repeat.Exercise II.(Fig. 13).—Stand erect, and having grasped the handles overhead firmly, separate them and bring them down slowly until they touch the sides: then return them slowly to the original position. Repeat.Exercise III.(Fig. 13).—Stand erect, heels together, grasp the handles overhead, and charge forward with the right foot. Return to first position, and then charge with the left. Repeat, using the right and left foot alternately.Exercise IV.(Fig. 13).—Stand erect, heels together. Grasp the handle overhead, and charge forward with the right foot, knee bent. Remain in this position and bring the arms down to the sides so that the arm and fore-arm may form a right angle. Still holding the handles, thrust forward, first the right hand and then the left, until the arm is straight. Repeat. Return to first position, then charge forward with the left foot, performing the same movements as before.Exercise V.(Fig. 13).—In this exercise we change to the pulleys leading from the side posts, which can be used in several different ways. 1st. Stand erect, heels together, facing one of the posts, grasp the handle with the right hand, the arm being extended, then flex the fore-arm on the arm. Repeat. Perform the same movements with the left hand. 2d. Stand with back to the post; grasp the pulley behind with the right hand, then gradually bring the hand forward until it is extended in a straight line in front. Repeat. Perform the same exercise with the left hand.Exercise VI.(Fig. 13).—This exercise is especially adapted to the legs. Stirrups are so arranged that they can be attached to the pulleys overhead, and can hang down to within three or four feet of the floor. Place the foot in the stirrup, and then press down until it touches the floor. Repeat. Exercise the left foot in the same way.Exercise VII.(Fig. 13.)—This exercise requires a little attention in the adjustment of the apparatus. Under the pulleys in the floor are passed ropes which can be attached to the snap-hooks that hold the handles overhead. Stoop forward with the knees stiff, and take hold of the handles, and then raise the body to the erect position. Repeat.Exercise VIII.(Fig. 13).—Sit on the floor or on a seat three or four inches high; bend forward, take hold of the handles, and perform the same movements that you would in rowing a boat.Exercise IX.(Fig. 13).—The trapeze can now be let down; take hold of it with both hands, sustaining the weight of the body with the arms, then rotate the body first from right to left, then from left to right alternately. This exercise is especially suitable for females.Exercise X.(Fig. 13).—Grasp the trapeze as before, bearing all the weight with the arms: then draw the body up slowly until you can place the chin over the bars. This requires strength of muscle, and might strain if done too violently; if slowly performed there is no danger.These are but a few of the exercises that can be practised with this apparatus. As these become familiar they can easily be modified, and new ones can be arranged to meet the requirements of particular cases. Most of the exercises described can be practised with one hand so as to strengthen the muscles on one side.
AND
CHAPTER I.
The Bones—Their Form and Composition—The Properties of Bone—The Skeleton—The Joints—The Spinal Column—The Growth of Bone—The Repair of Bone.
1.The framework of the body? The superstructure? Softness and delicacy of the organs? How protected?
1. The Bones.—The framework which sustains the human body is composed of theBones. The superstructure consists of the various organs on which the processes of life depend. These organs are soft and delicately formed, and, if unprotected, would, in most cases, rapidly be destroyed when subjected to violence, however slight. The bones, having great strength and power of resistance, afford the protection required.
2.The more delicate the organ? Example in relation to the brain? The eye? The lungs? The services performed by the bones?
2.The more delicate the organ, the more completely does Nature shield it. For example: the brain, which is soft in structure, is enclosed on all sides by a complete box of bone; the eye, though it must be near the surface of the body to command an extensive view, is sheltered from injury within a deep recess of bone; the lungs, requiring freedom of motion as well as protection, are surrounded by a large case of bone and muscle. The bones serve other useful purposes. They give permanence of form to the body, byholding the softer parts in their proper places. They assist in movement, by affording points of attachment to those organs which have power of motion—the muscles.
3.Their shape and size? Of what composed? Possibility of being separated? Effect of fire? Of dilute acid?
3. The Form and Composition of the Bones.—Their shape and size vary greatly in different parts of the body, but generally they are arranged in pairs, one bone for each side of the body. They are composed of both mineral and animal substances, united in the proportion of two parts of the former to one of the latter; and we may separate each of these substances from the other for examination. First, if we expose a bone to the action of fire, the animal substance is driven off, or "burned out." We now find that, though the shape of the bone is perfectly retained, what is left is no longer tough, and does not sustain weight as before. Again, we may remove the mineral portion, which is a form of lime, by placing a bone into a dilute acid. The lime will be dissolved out, and the shape of the bone remain as before; but now its firmness has disappeared, and it may be bent without breaking.
4.Effect of deficiency of ingredient? Usefulness of the lime? Of the animal substance? Effect of their union? Condition, in youth? Old age?
4.If, for any reason, either of these ingredients is disproportionate in the bone during life, the body is in danger. The lime is useful in giving rigidity of form, while the animal substance insures toughness and elasticity. By their union, we are able to withstand greater shocks and heavier falls than would be possible with either alone. In youth, the period of greatest activity, the animal constituent is in excess: a bone then does not break so readily, but, when broken, unites with great rapidity and strength. On the other hand, the bones of old persons are more easily broken, and in some cases fail to unite. The mineral matter being then in excess, indicates that the period of active exertion is drawing to a close.
Fig. 1.--Section of BoneFig. 1.—Section of Bone.
Fig. 2.--Structure of bone enlargedFig. 2.Structure of bone enlarged.
Structure of bone enlarged.
5.In what respect admirably fashioned? Its formation? Microscopic examination? The inference? "Line of beauty?"
5. The Structure of the Bones.—If we examine one of the long bones, which has been sawn through lengthwise, we observe that it is admirably fashioned for affording lightness as well as strength (Fig. 1). Its exterior is hard and resisting, but it is porous at the broad extremities, while through the central portion there is a cavity or canal which contains an oily substance, calledmarrow. Let us now take a thin section of bone, and examine it under the microscope; we discover that it is pierced by numerous fine tubes (Fig. 2), about which layers of bone-substance are arranged. Accordingly, though a bone be as hard as stone externally, it is by no means as heavy as stone, by reason of its light interior texture. Another element of power is found in the curved outline of the bones. The curved line is said to be "the line of beauty," as it certainly is the line of strength, and is uniformly employed in the bones whose position exposes them to accident.
Fig. 3.--The SkeletonFig. 3.—The Skeleton
6.Number of bones? Skeleton? The skull? Chest? The trunk? The trunk and skull, how maintained? What of the arms? Legs?
6. The Skeleton.—The number of bones in the human body exceeds two hundred. When these are joined together in the proper places, they form what is termed theSkeleton(Fig. 3). It embraces three important cavities. The first, surmounting the frame, is a box of bone, called theskull;below this, is a bony case, or "chest;" and lower down is a bony basin, called thepelvis. The two latter compose the trunk. The trunk and skull are maintained in their proper relations by the "spinal column." Branching from the trunk are two sets of limbs: the arms, which are attached to the chest by means of the "collar-bone" and "shoulder-blade;" and the legs, directly joined to the lower part of the trunk.
7.Design of the cavities? Give the examples.
7.The cavities of which we have spoken, are designed for the lodgment and protection of the more delicate and perishable parts of the system. Thus, the skull, together with the bones of the face, shelters the brain and the organs of four senses—sight, hearing, smell, and taste. The chest contains the heart, lungs, and great blood-vessels, while the lower part of the trunk sustains the liver, stomach, and other organs.
8.Joint or articulation? Movable joints, how compacted? The ligaments of the movable joints? What is a sprain? Consequence of a serious sprain?
8. The Joints.—The point of union of two or more bones forms a joint orarticulation, the connection being made in various ways according to the kind and amount of motion desired. The movable joints are compacted together by certain strong fibrous bands, called ligaments. These ligaments are of a shining, silvery whiteness, and very unyielding; so much so, that when sudden violence is brought to bear in the vicinity of a joint, the bone to which a ligament is attached may be broken, while the ligament itself remains uninjured. When this connecting material of the joints is strained or lacerated by anaccident, a "sprain" is the consequence. An injury of this sort may be, and frequently is, quite as serious as the breaking of a bone.
Fig. 4.--Cells of Cartilage.Fig. 4.—Cells of Cartilage.
9.Office of the ligament? What must it have? How accomplished? Describe it. Synovia?
9.The ligament, then, secures firmness to the joint; it must also have flexibility and smoothness of motion. This is accomplished by a beautiful mechanism the perfection of which is only feebly imitated by the most ingenious contrivance of man. The ends of the bones are covered by a thin layer ofcartilage, which being smooth and elastic, renders all the movements of the joint very easy. In addition to this, there is an arrangement introduced for "lubricating" the joint, by means of a delicate sac containing fluid. This fluid is constantly supplied in small quantities, but only so fast as it is used up in exercise. In appearance, it is not unlike the white of an egg, and hence its namesynovia, or egg-like.
10.What do we observe as regards the composition of a joint? The ligament and cartilage? What varies? Example of the skull? Other examples? The ball-and-socket joint?
10.Thus, we observe, that two very different substances enter into the composition of a joint. The ligament, very unyielding, affords strength, while the cartilage, elastic and moist, gives ease and smoothness of motion. The amount of motion provided for varies greatly in different joints. In some there is none at all, as in the skull, where one bone is dove-tailed into another by what are termedsutures. Others have a hinge-like motion, such as those of the elbow, wrist, ankle, and knee; the most complete of these being the elbow-joint (Fig. 5). Belonging to another class, theball-and-socket joint, is that at the shoulder, possessing a freedom of motion greater than any other in the body.
Fig. 5.--Elbow Joint.Fig. 5.—Elbow Joint.A, Bone of the arm; B, C, Bones of the fore-arm.
11.What is the spinal column? What does it connect and form? Joints of the vertebræ? Amount of motion? Result?
11. The Spinal Column.—The spinal column is often spoken of as the "back-bone," as if it were a single bone, while, in reality, it is composed of a chain of twenty-six small bones, calledvertebræ. The spinal column is a wonderful piece of mechanism. It not only connects the important cavities of the body, as has already been shown, but, also, itself forms a canal, which contains the spinal cord. The joints of the vertebræ are remarkable for the thick layers of cartilage which separate the adjacent surfaces of bone. The amount of motion between any two of these bones is not great; but these little movements, taken together, admit of very considerable flexibility, in several directions, without endangering the supporting power of the column.
12.Elasticity of the frame? Protection of the brain from shocks? Tallness of persons? Effects of reclining?
Fig. 6--The Spinal Column.Fig. 6—The Spinal Column.
12.The abundant supply of intervertebral cartilage has another important use, namely, it adds greatly to the elasticity of the frame. It is due, in part, to this elastic material, and in part to the frequent curves of the spine, that the brain and other delicate organs are protected from the shock of sudden falls or jars. During the day, the constant pressure upon these joints, while the body is erect, diminishes the thickness of the cartilages; so that a person is not so tall in the evening as in the morning. The effects of this compression pass away when the body reclines in a horizontal position.
13.Change in bone? Example—animal and madder. Rapidity of change in color? Waste and repair?
13. The Growth of Bone.—Bone, like all the other tissues of the body, is constantly undergoing change, old material being withdrawn, and new particles taking their place. This has been shown conclusively by experiments. If an animal be fed with madder—a red coloring matter—for a day or two, the bones soon become tinged; then, if the madder be discontinued for a few days, the original color returns. If, however, this material be alternately given and withheld, at short intervals, the bone will be marked by a succession of red and white rings. In very young animals, all the bones become colored in a single day; in older ones, a longer time is required. The process of waste and repair, therefore, is constantly taking place in this hard substance, and with astonishing rapidity.
14. The Repair of Bone.—Nature's provision for uniting broken bones is very complete. At first, blood is poured out around the ends of the bone, as a result of the injury. This is gradually absorbed, and gives place to a watery fluid, which, thickening from day to day, acquires, at the end of two weeks, the consistency of jelly. This begins to harden, by a deposit of new bone-substance, until, at the expiration of five or six weeks, the broken bone may be said to be united. It is, however, still fragile, and must be used carefully a few weeks longer. The process of hardening continues, and months must pass before the union can be said to be complete.
QUESTIONS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW.
Fig. 7.--The Muscles.Fig. 7.—The Muscles.
CHAPTER II.
The Muscles—Flexion and Extension—The Tendons—Contraction—Physical Strength—Necessity for Exercise—Its Effects—Forms of Exercise—Walking—Riding—Gymnastics—Open-air Exercise—Sleep—Recreation.
1.What are the muscles? Their number? The design of most of them? Of a few?
1. The Muscles.— The great mass of the body external to the skeleton, is composed of the flesh, orMuscles, which largely determines its outline and weight. The muscles are the organs of motion. Their number is about four hundred, and to each of them is assigned a separate and distinct office. They have all been studied, one by one, and a name given to each, by the anatomist. Each is attached to bones which it is designed to move. A few are circular in form, and enclose cavities, the size of which they diminish by contraction.
Fig. 8.--Muscular Tissue.Fig. 8.—Muscular Tissue.a,b, Striped muscular fibres:c, The same more highly magnified.
a,b, Striped muscular fibres:c, The same more highly magnified.
2.The structure of flesh? Its color, etc.? The composition of the fibres? How marked?
2.If we examine a piece of flesh, we observe that it is soft, and of a deep red color. Its structure appears to be composed of layers and bundles of small fibres. Let us further examine these fibres under the microscope. We now discover that they are, in turn, made up of still finer fibres, offibrillæ: these are seen in Fig. 8. The fibres are beautifullymarked by parallel wavy lines, about ten thousand to an inch, which give the fibre its name of thestripedmuscular fibre. All of the voluntary muscles present this appearance.
3.Arrangement of the muscles? Their action? Flexion and extension? Action of the muscles when we stand erect?
3. Flexion and Extension.—The muscles are, for the most part, so arranged in pairs, or corresponding sets, that when motion is produced in one direction by one set, there is, opposite to it, another muscle, or group of muscles, which brings the limb back to its place. When they act alternately, a to-and-fro movement results. When a joint is bent, the motion is calledflexion; and when it is made straight again, it is calledextension. When both sets act equally, and at the same moment, no motion is produced, but the body or limb is maintained in a fixed position: this occurs when we stand erect. The muscles which produce extension are more powerful than those opposite to them.
Fig. 9.--Biceps muscle of the arm.Fig. 9.—A, Biceps muscle of the arm: B, C, Its tendons.
4.Kinds of muscles? The voluntary? Involuntary? The heart? Give the example. The hand? Arm?
4.The muscles are also distinguished, on the other hand, as the voluntary and involuntary muscles, according as they are, or are not, under the control of the will. The heart is an example of the involuntary variety. We cannot change its action in the least by an effort of the will. When we sleep, and the will ceases to act, the heart continues to beat without cessation. The voluntary muscles, on the other hand, are such as are used only when we wish orwillto use them—as the muscles of the hand or arm (Fig. 9).
5.What are the tendons or sinews? Their strength? Color? Location? Tendon of Achilles? The fable? Muscles of the leg?
5. The Tendons.—Tendons, or sinews, are the extremities of muscles, and are compactly fastened upon bone. They are very strong, and of a silvery whiteness. They may be felt just beneath the skin, in certain parts of the body, when the muscles are being used, as at the bend of the elbow or knee. The largest tendon of the body is that which is inserted into the heel, called the tendon of Achilles, after the hero of the Grecian poet, the fable relating that it was at this point that he received his death-wound, no other part of his body being vulnerable. The muscles which extend into the leg unite to form a single and very powerful tendon, and enclose a small bone called the knee-pan, which, acting like a pulley, greatly increases their power, and at the same time protects the front of the knee-joint (Fig. 10).
Fig. 10.--View of Knee-joint.Fig. 10.—View of Knee-joint.A, Thigh bone: B, Knee-pan: C, D, Leg bones.
6.Contraction of the muscles? Bending of the arm or finger? Other agencies? Automatic movements? In cold-blooded animals?
6. Muscular Contraction.—The muscles, when acted upon by the appropriate stimulus, contract, or so changetheir shape, that their extremities are brought nearer together. The bending of the arm, or of a finger, is effected in this manner, by the will; but the will is not the only means of producing this effect. Electricity, a sharp blow over a muscle, and other stimuli, also cause it. Contraction does not always cease with life. In man, after death from cholera, automatic movements of hands and feet have been observed, lasting not less than an hour. In certain cold-blooded animals, as the turtle, contraction has been known to take place for several days after the head has been cut off.
7.Contractility? Give the illustration. What was supposed? What is the case?
7.The property which, in muscle, enables these movements to take place is calledcontractility. If we grasp a muscle while in exercise (for example, the large muscle in the front of the arm), we notice the alternate swelling and decrease of the muscle, as we move the forearm to and fro. It was at one time supposed that the muscle actually increased in volume during contraction. This, however, is not the case; for the muscle, while gaining in thickness, loses in length in the same proportion; and thus, the volume remains the same in action and at rest.
8.What further in relation to contraction? Weariness of a muscle? Beating of the heart? Standing and walking?
8.Contraction is not the permanent, or normal, state of a muscle. It cannot long remain contracted, but after a shorter or longer time, it wearies and is obliged to relax. After a short rest, it can then again contract. It is for this reason that the heart can beat all through life, night and day, by having, as we shall hereafter see, a brief interval of rest between successive pulsations. For the same reason, it is more fatiguing to stand for any great length of time in one position, than to be walking the same period.
9.Muscular power of animals? How tested? Man's power? Horse's? The comparison?
9. Relative Strength of Animals.—The amount of muscular power which different animals can exert, hasbeen tested by experiment. By determining the number of pounds which an animal can drag upon a level surface, and afterward comparing that with its own weight, we can judge of its muscular force. It is found that man is able to drag a little less than his own weight. A draught-horse can exert a force equal to about two-thirds of his weight. The horse, therefore, though vastly heavier than man, is relatively not so powerful.
10.Power of insects? Beetles? Give the conclusion.
10.Insects are remarkable for their power of carrying objects larger and heavier than themselves. Many of them can drag ten, and even twenty times their weight. Some of the beetles have been known to move bodies more than forty times their own weight. So far, therefore, from it being a fact that animals have strength in proportion to their weight and bulk, the reverse of that statement seems to be the law.
11.Difference in strength of individuals? How caused?
11. Physical Strength.—The difference in strength, as seen in different individuals, is not due to any original difference in their muscles. Nature gives essentially the same kind and amount of muscles to each person, and the power of one, or the weakness of another, arises, in great part, from the manner in which these organs are used or disused.
12.Complaint in relation to degeneracy? How true? How determined by armor? The fair supposition?
12.Many authors complain of the physical degeneracy of men at the present day, as compared with past generations. There is room for doubt as to the correctness of this statement. Certain experiments have recently been made with the metallic armor worn seven hundred years ago, by which it is found that any man, of ordinary height and muscular development, can carry the armor and wield the weapons of an age supposed to be greatly our superior in strength. When we consider that in those days, only very strong men could endure the hardships of soldier-life,it is fair to suppose that our age has not so greatly degenerated in respect to physical strength.
13Action? Use of organs? Training of the mind? The child's brain? Education of the body?
13. Importance of Exercise.—Action is the law of the living body. Every organ demands use to preserve it in full vigor, and to obtain from it its best services. The value of that training of the mind, which we call education, is everywhere recognized. The child is early put to school, and for many years continues to study, in order that his brain, which is the great centre of mental power, may act healthfully and with force. It is important that the body, also, should receive its education by exercise. This is especially true of persons belonging to certain classes of society, whose occupation confines them within doors, and requires chiefly brain-work.
14Work in the open air? A perfect business? The consequence of universal perfect business? Occupation of children?
14.Persons who are engaged in manual labor in the open air obtain all the exercise necessary for bodily health in their regular business: their need is more likely to be a discipline or exercise of the mind. A perfect business of life, therefore, would be one which would combine both physical and mental labor in their proper proportions. If such a business were possible for all the human race, life would thereby be vastly prolonged. Such is, in fact, to a large extent, the occupation pertaining to one period of life—childhood. A part of the time is spent by the child in improving his mind by study, and another part of the time he has physical exercise in his games and sports.
15In what does exercise consist? Effects of it?
15. The Effects of Exercise.—Exercise consists in a well-regulated use of the voluntary muscular system. The effects, however, are not limited to the parts used. Other organs, which are not under the control of the will, are indirectly influenced by it. For instance, the heart beats more rapidly, the skin acts more freely, andbecomes hotter, as well as the parts beneath it, and the appetite and power of digestion are increased. An increased exhalation from the lungs and skin purifies the current of the circulation, and the body as a whole thrives under its influence.
16.General effect upon the muscles? Special effect? Effects of inaction? Of excessive exercise?
16.The immediate effect of exercise, however, is upon the muscles themselves; for by use they become firm and large, and increase in power. If we examine a muscle thus improved by exercise, we find that its fibres have become larger and more closely blended together, that its color is of a darker red, and that the supply of blood-vessels has increased. Without exercise the muscle appears thin, flabby, and pale. On the other hand, excessive exercise, without sufficient relaxation, produces in the muscle a condition not very different from that which follows disuse. The muscle is worn out faster than nature builds it up, and it becomes flabby, pale, and weak.
17.Of violent and spasmodic efforts? Strength, how attained? Give the particulars.
17.Violent exercise is not beneficial; and spasmodic efforts to increase the muscular strength are not calculated to secure such a result. Strength is the result of a gradual growth, and is most surely acquired if the exercise be carried to a point short of fatigue, and after an adequate interval of rest. To gain the most beneficial results, the exercise should be at regular hours, and during a regular period. The activity of the exercise, and the time devoted to it must vary, of course, with the strength of the individual, and should be carefully measured by it.
18.What may walking be called? What further is said of walking?
18. Different Modes of Exercise.—There are very few who have not the power to walk. There is required for it no expensive apparatus, nor does it demand a period of preliminary training.Walking may be called the universal exercise.With certain foreign nations, the Englishespecially, it is a very popular exercise, and is practised habitually by almost every class of society; by the wealthy as well as by those who have no carriages; by women as well as by men.
19.What is said of running, and other like movements? What, as related to childhood? What instances are alluded to? Example?
19.Running, leaping, and certain other more rapid and violent movements, are the forms of exercise that are most enjoyed in childhood. For the child, they are not too severe, but they may be so prolonged as to become injurious. Instances have been recorded where sudden death has resulted after violent playing, from overtaxing the heart: for example, we have the case of a young girl who, while skipping the rope, and endeavoring to excel her playmates by jumping the greatest number of times, fell dead from rupture of the heart.
20.Carriage-riding? Horseback-riding?
20.Carriage-riding, as a means of passive exercise, is particularly well suited to invalids, and persons advanced in life. Horseback exercise brings into use a greater number of muscles than any other one exercise, and with it there is an exhilaration of feeling which refreshes the mind at the same time. It is one of the manliest of exercises, but not less suitable for women than for men. To be skilful in riding, it is best to begin its practice in youth; but there are very few kinds of exercise of which the same is not equally true.
21.Boating, swimming, and skating?
21.For those who live near streams or bodies of water, there are the delightful recreations of boating, swimming, and skating. Certain of these exercises have a practical importance aside from and above their use in increasing the physical vigor. This is especially true of boating and swimming, since they are often the means of saving life. Practice in these exercises also teaches self-reliance, courage, and presence of mind. Persons who have become proficient in these vigorous exercises are generally the ones,who, in times of danger, are the quickest to act and the most certain to do so with judgment.
22.What kind of exercise yields the best results? What advice is given?
22. Physical Culture.—That form of exercise which interests and excites the mind, will yield the best results; but to some persons no kind of exertion whatever is, at first, agreeable. They should, nevertheless, make a trial of some exercise, in the expectation that, as they become proficient in it, it will become more pleasant. In exercise, as many sets of muscles should be employed as possible, open-air exercise being the best. Parlor gymnastics, and the discipline of the gymnasium are desirable, but they should not be the sole reliance for physical culture. No in-door exercise, however excellent in itself, can fill the place of hearty and vigorous activity in the open air.
23.Physical culture among the ancients? In Greece? In schools and colleges at the present time? Result to the body and mind?
23. Gymnastic Exercises for Schools and Colleges.—In the system of education among the ancients, physical culture predominated. In ancient Greece, physical exercises in schools were prescribed and regulated by law, and hence these schools were calledgymnasia. At the present time, on the contrary, this culture is almost wholly unknown, as a part of the course of education, in our schools and colleges. In a few of our institutions of learning, however, physical exercises have been introduced, with manifest advantage to the students, and they form a part of the regular curriculum of exercises,—as much so as the recitations in geography, grammar, or Greek. The good effect of the experiments, as shown in improved scholarship as well as increased bodily vigor, in the institutions where the plan has been tried, will, it is hoped, lead to its universal adoption. We should then hear less frequently of parents being obliged to withdraw their children from school, because they become exhaustedor, perchance, have lost their health from intense and protracted mental application.
24.The result of gymnastics in our colleges and other institutions of learning?
24.Were gymnastics more common in our educational institutions we should not so often witness the sad spectacle of young men and women leaving our colleges and seminaries, with finished educations it may be, but with constitutions so impaired, that the life which should be devoted to the accomplishment of noble purposes must be spent in search of health. Spinal curvatures, which, according to the experience of physicians, are now extremely frequent, especially among ladies, would give place to the steady gait and erect carriage which God designed his human creatures should maintain.
25.All the exercises necessary for the proper development of the body may be obtained from the use of a few simple contrivances that every one can have at home, at little cost—less by far than is spent for useless toys. Many of these may be made available in the parlor or chamber, though all exercises are far more useful in the open air. A small portion of the day thus spent will afford agreeable recreation as well as useful exercise. The Indian club, the wand, the ring, and the dumb-bells answer ordinary purposes very well. Illustrations are here introduced of a few simple contrivances that may be useful for general exercises, and are specially suitable for persons withweak spines, or with spines that are the subject of lateral curvature.
26.One of the simplest appliances for strengthening the muscles of the spine, designed chiefly to exercise the muscles on either side of the spine, consists of two wooden handles attached to india-rubber cords, one of which is attached to a hook made fast in the ceiling, or in the top of the door-case; and the other to another hook fastened in the wall, door-post, or window-casing, about the heightof the shoulder. When traction is made with the left hand, it exercises the muscles on the left side of the spine, while those on the opposite side are left almost at rest, owing to the oblique direction given to the shoulders when the right hand grasps the horizontal cord. (This appliance will be understood by referring to Fig. 13.)
Fig. 11.--Appliance for strengthening the muscles.Fig. 11.
Fig. 12.--Appliance for strengthening the muscles.Fig. 12.
27.Fig. 11 shows an appliance consisting of two strong elastic cords, with handles, secured to a hook in the floor, so arranged that the patient has to stoop forward to reach them. On raising the body the spinal muscles are powerfully exercised. Fig. 12 shows other modes of using the elastic cords for strengthening the spine and chest.
Fig. 13.--Parlor gymnasium.Fig. 13.
28.These various appliances have been combined so as to form a system of gymnastics suitable for parlor use; other appliances have been added by which the muscles ofthe legs may be called into action as well as those of the spine and upper part of the body (Fig. 13). Combinations of cords suitable for particular cases may also be made, and by using one or several cords on the same hook, their power may be adapted to the strength of the most robust as well as to that of the invalid, or of the most delicate child. The entire apparatus is quite simple in its construction and inexpensive, requiring but little space, and at the same time affording a great variety of exercises.
Exercises that may be Practised on this Apparatus.
Exercise I.(Fig. 13).—Stand erect under the cords and place the heels together. Grasp the handles firmly, keeping the knees and elbows stiff, and pull downward and forward until the fingers nearly touch the toes. Return slowly to the erect position. Repeat.Exercise II.(Fig. 13).—Stand erect, and having grasped the handles overhead firmly, separate them and bring them down slowly until they touch the sides: then return them slowly to the original position. Repeat.Exercise III.(Fig. 13).—Stand erect, heels together, grasp the handles overhead, and charge forward with the right foot. Return to first position, and then charge with the left. Repeat, using the right and left foot alternately.Exercise IV.(Fig. 13).—Stand erect, heels together. Grasp the handle overhead, and charge forward with the right foot, knee bent. Remain in this position and bring the arms down to the sides so that the arm and fore-arm may form a right angle. Still holding the handles, thrust forward, first the right hand and then the left, until the arm is straight. Repeat. Return to first position, then charge forward with the left foot, performing the same movements as before.Exercise V.(Fig. 13).—In this exercise we change to the pulleys leading from the side posts, which can be used in several different ways. 1st. Stand erect, heels together, facing one of the posts, grasp the handle with the right hand, the arm being extended, then flex the fore-arm on the arm. Repeat. Perform the same movements with the left hand. 2d. Stand with back to the post; grasp the pulley behind with the right hand, then gradually bring the hand forward until it is extended in a straight line in front. Repeat. Perform the same exercise with the left hand.Exercise VI.(Fig. 13).—This exercise is especially adapted to the legs. Stirrups are so arranged that they can be attached to the pulleys overhead, and can hang down to within three or four feet of the floor. Place the foot in the stirrup, and then press down until it touches the floor. Repeat. Exercise the left foot in the same way.Exercise VII.(Fig. 13.)—This exercise requires a little attention in the adjustment of the apparatus. Under the pulleys in the floor are passed ropes which can be attached to the snap-hooks that hold the handles overhead. Stoop forward with the knees stiff, and take hold of the handles, and then raise the body to the erect position. Repeat.Exercise VIII.(Fig. 13).—Sit on the floor or on a seat three or four inches high; bend forward, take hold of the handles, and perform the same movements that you would in rowing a boat.Exercise IX.(Fig. 13).—The trapeze can now be let down; take hold of it with both hands, sustaining the weight of the body with the arms, then rotate the body first from right to left, then from left to right alternately. This exercise is especially suitable for females.Exercise X.(Fig. 13).—Grasp the trapeze as before, bearing all the weight with the arms: then draw the body up slowly until you can place the chin over the bars. This requires strength of muscle, and might strain if done too violently; if slowly performed there is no danger.These are but a few of the exercises that can be practised with this apparatus. As these become familiar they can easily be modified, and new ones can be arranged to meet the requirements of particular cases. Most of the exercises described can be practised with one hand so as to strengthen the muscles on one side.
Exercise I.(Fig. 13).—Stand erect under the cords and place the heels together. Grasp the handles firmly, keeping the knees and elbows stiff, and pull downward and forward until the fingers nearly touch the toes. Return slowly to the erect position. Repeat.
Exercise II.(Fig. 13).—Stand erect, and having grasped the handles overhead firmly, separate them and bring them down slowly until they touch the sides: then return them slowly to the original position. Repeat.
Exercise III.(Fig. 13).—Stand erect, heels together, grasp the handles overhead, and charge forward with the right foot. Return to first position, and then charge with the left. Repeat, using the right and left foot alternately.
Exercise IV.(Fig. 13).—Stand erect, heels together. Grasp the handle overhead, and charge forward with the right foot, knee bent. Remain in this position and bring the arms down to the sides so that the arm and fore-arm may form a right angle. Still holding the handles, thrust forward, first the right hand and then the left, until the arm is straight. Repeat. Return to first position, then charge forward with the left foot, performing the same movements as before.
Exercise V.(Fig. 13).—In this exercise we change to the pulleys leading from the side posts, which can be used in several different ways. 1st. Stand erect, heels together, facing one of the posts, grasp the handle with the right hand, the arm being extended, then flex the fore-arm on the arm. Repeat. Perform the same movements with the left hand. 2d. Stand with back to the post; grasp the pulley behind with the right hand, then gradually bring the hand forward until it is extended in a straight line in front. Repeat. Perform the same exercise with the left hand.
Exercise VI.(Fig. 13).—This exercise is especially adapted to the legs. Stirrups are so arranged that they can be attached to the pulleys overhead, and can hang down to within three or four feet of the floor. Place the foot in the stirrup, and then press down until it touches the floor. Repeat. Exercise the left foot in the same way.
Exercise VII.(Fig. 13.)—This exercise requires a little attention in the adjustment of the apparatus. Under the pulleys in the floor are passed ropes which can be attached to the snap-hooks that hold the handles overhead. Stoop forward with the knees stiff, and take hold of the handles, and then raise the body to the erect position. Repeat.
Exercise VIII.(Fig. 13).—Sit on the floor or on a seat three or four inches high; bend forward, take hold of the handles, and perform the same movements that you would in rowing a boat.
Exercise IX.(Fig. 13).—The trapeze can now be let down; take hold of it with both hands, sustaining the weight of the body with the arms, then rotate the body first from right to left, then from left to right alternately. This exercise is especially suitable for females.
Exercise X.(Fig. 13).—Grasp the trapeze as before, bearing all the weight with the arms: then draw the body up slowly until you can place the chin over the bars. This requires strength of muscle, and might strain if done too violently; if slowly performed there is no danger.
These are but a few of the exercises that can be practised with this apparatus. As these become familiar they can easily be modified, and new ones can be arranged to meet the requirements of particular cases. Most of the exercises described can be practised with one hand so as to strengthen the muscles on one side.