11.What is worthy of remark? Coagulation of the blood of inferior animals? Of the blood of birds?11.It is worthy of remark that this peculiarity is early implanted in the blood, even before birth, and in advance of any existing necessity for it; thus anticipating and guarding against danger. But this is not all. Of most of the inferior animals, which, as compared with man, are quite helpless, the blood coagulates more rapidly, and in the case of the birds, almost instantly. The relative composition of fluid and coagulated blood may be thus represented:Fluid Blood.Coagulated Blood.Plasma----------Serum---------Serum\\--------Fibrin--------\\Corpuscles------Corpuscles-------Clot.12.The blood, as a provider and purifier? What uses does the blood subserve? Experiments? Transfusion?12. The Uses of the Blood.—The blood is the great provider and purifier of the body. It both carries new materials to all the tissues, and removes the worn out particles of matter. This is effected by the plasma. It both conveys oxygen and removes carbonic acid. This is done through the corpuscles. Some singular experiments havebeen tried to illustrate the life-giving power of the blood. An animal that has bled so freely as to be at the point of dying, is promptly brought back to life by an operation called transfusion, by which fresh blood from a living animal is injected into the blood-vessels of his body.13.The case of the deaf and feeble dog? Horse? Dead dog?13.It is related that a dog, deaf and feeble from age, had hearing and activity restored to him by the introduction into his veins of blood taken from a young dog; and, that a horse, twenty-six years old, having received the blood of four lambs acquired new vigor. And further, that a dog, just dead from an acute disease, was so far revived by transfusion, as to be able to stand and make a few movements.14.Transfusion, as a fashionable remedy? What further of transfusion?14.Transfusion has been practised upon man. At one time, shortly after Harvey's discovery of the "Circulation of the Blood," it became quite a fashionable remedy, it being thought possible by it to cure all forms of disease, and even to make the old young again. But these claims were soon found extravagant, and many unhappy accidents occurred in its practice; so that being forbidden by government and interdicted by the Pope, it rapidly fell into disuse. At the present time, however, it is sometimes resorted to in extreme cases, when there has been a great and rapid loss of blood; and there are upon record several instances where, other means having failed, life has been restored or prolonged by the operation of transfusion.15.The seat of the reviving power of the blood? What further is related?15.This reviving power of the blood seems to reside in the corpuscles; for transfusion, when attempted to be performed with the serum alone, has, in every case, proved fruitless. Now, though so much depends upon the blood and its corpuscles, it is a mistake to suppose that in them alone is the seat of life, or that they are, in an exclusive manner, alive. All the organs and parts of the body are mutually dependent one upon the other; and the complete usefulnessof the blood, or of any other part, flows out of the harmonious action of all the parts.16.Changes in the blood? What further is stated?16. Change of Color.—The blood undergoes a variety of changes in its journey through the system. As it visits the different organs it both gives out and takes up materials. In one place it is enriched, in another it is impoverished. By reason of these alterations in its composition, the blood also changes its color. In one part of the body it is bright red, or arterial; in another it is dark blue, or venous. In the former case it is pure and fit for the support of the tissues; in the latter, it is impure and charged with effete materials. (The details of the change from dark to bright will be given in the chapter on Respiration.)17.Motion of the blood? What is meant by the circulation of the blood? How confined? Discovery made by Harvey?17. Circulation.—The blood is in constant motion during life. From the heart, as a centre, a current is always setting toward the different organs; and from these organs a current is constantly returning to the heart. In this way a ceaseless circular movement is kept up, which is called the Circulation of the Blood. This stream of the vital fluid is confined to certain fixed channels, the blood-vessels. Those branching from the heart are the arteries; those converging to it are the veins. The true course of the blood was unknown before the beginning of the seventeenth century. In 1619 it was discovered by the illustrious William Harvey. Like many other great discoverers, he suffered persecution and loss, but unlike some of them, he was fortunate enough to conquer and survive opposition. He lived long enough to see his discovery universally accepted, and himself honored as a benefactor of mankind.Fig. 27.--The Organs of Circulation.Fig. 27.—The Organs of Circulation.Fig. 28.--The Heart and Large Vessels.Fig. 28.—The Heart and Large Vessels.A, Right Ventricle. B, Left Ventricle. C, Right Auricle. D, Left Auricle. E, Aorta. F, Pulmonary Artery.18.Office of the heart? Location of the heart? Its beat? Its shape? Protection to the heart? What else is said in relation to the heart?18. The Heart.—The heart is the central engine of the circulation. In this wonderful little organ, hardly larger than a man's fist, resides that sleepless force by which, during the whole of life, the current of the blood is kept in motion. It is placed in the middle and front part of the chest, inclining to the left side. The heartbeat may be felt and heard between the fifth and sixth ribs, near the breast-bone. The shape of the heart is conical, with the apex or point downward and in front. The base, which is upward, is attached so as to hold it securely in its place, while the apex is freely moveable. In order that loss of power from friction may be obviated, the heart is enclosed between two layers of serous membrane, which forms a kind of sac. This membrane is as smooth as satin, and itself secretes a fluid in sufficient quantities to keep it at all times well lubricated. The lining membrane of the heart, likewise, is extremely delicate and smooth.Fig. 29.--Section of the Heart.Fig. 29.—Section of the Heart.A, Right Ventricle. B, Left Ventricle. C, Right Auricle. D, Left Auricle. E, F, Inlets to the Ventricles. G, Pulmonary Artery. H, Aorta.19.Formation of the heart? Right and left heart?19. The Cavities of the Heart.—The heart is hollow, and so partitioned as to contain four chambers or cavities; two at the base, known as theauricles, from a fancied resemblance to the ear of a dog, and two at the apex or point, calledventricles. An auricle and a ventricle on the same side, communicate with each other, but there is no opening from side to side. It is customary to regard the heart as a double organ, and to speak of its division into the right and left heart. For while both halves act together in point of time, each half sustains an entirely distinct portion of the labor of the circulation. Thus, the right heart always carries the dark or venous blood, and the left always circulates the bright or arterial blood.20.Capacity of the chambers of the heart? What wise provision is mentioned? The auricles?20.If we examine the heart, we at once notice that though its various chambers have about the same capacity, the walls of the ventricles are thicker and stronger than those of the auricles. This is a wise provision, for it is by the powerful action of the former that the blood is forced to the most remote regions of the body. The auricles, on the contrary, need much less power, for they simply discharge their contents into the cavities of the heart near at hand and below them—into the ventricles.21.Substance of the heart? Its fibres? Its movements? The advantage of such movements? Action of the heart? Its period of repose?21. Action of the Heart.—The substance of the heart is of a deep red color, and its fibres resemble those of the voluntary muscles by which we move our bodies. But the heart's movements are entirely involuntary. The advantage of this is evident; for if it depended upon us to will each movement, our entire attention would be thus engaged, and we would find no time for study, pleasure, or even sleep. The action of the heart consists in alternate contractions and dilatations. During contraction the walls come forcibly together, and thus drive out the blood. In dilatation, they expand and receive a renewed supply. These movements are calledsystoleanddiastole. The latter may be called the heart's period of repose; and although it lasts only during two-fifths of a heart-beat, or about a third of a second, yet during the day it amounts to more than nine hours of total rest.22.Remarkable property of the tissue of the heart? How shown? How interesting? In cold-blooded animals? Heart of a turtle? Of a frog? Alligator?22.A remarkable property of the tissue of the heart is its intense vitality. For while it is more constantly active than any other organ of the body, it is the last to part with its vital energy. This is especially interesting in view of the fact that after life is apparently extinguished, as from drowning, or poisoning by chloroform, there yet lingers a spark of vitality in the heart, which, by continued effort, may be fanned into a flame so as to revivify the whole body. In cold-blooded animals this irritability of the heart is especially remarkable. The heart of a turtle will pulsate, and the blood circulate for a week after its head has been cut off; and the heart will throb regularly many hours after being cut out from the creature's chest. The heart of a frog or serpent, separated entirely from the body, will contract at the end of ten or twelve hours: that of an alligator has been known to beat twenty-eight hours after the death of the animal.23.Course of the blood through the heart? Course of heart-currents?23. Passage of the Blood through the Heart.—Let us now trace the course of the blood through the several cavities of the heart. In the first place, the venous blood, rendered dark and impure by contact with the changing tissues of the body, returns to the right heart by the veins. It enters and fills the right auricle during its dilatation: the auricle then contracts and fills the right ventricle. Almost instantly, the ventricle contracts forcibly and hurries the blood along the great artery of the lungs, to be purified in those organs. Secondly, having completed the circuit of the lungs, the pure and bright arterial blood enters the left auricle. This now contracts and fills the left ventricle, which cavity, in its turn, contracts and sends the blood forth on its journey again through the system. This general direction from right to left is the uniform and undeviating course of heart-currents.24.Openings of the ventricles? How guarded? How do the valves operate? The consequence? Heart-sounds?24.The mechanism which enforces and regulates it, is as simple as it is beautiful. Each ventricle has two openings, an inlet and an outlet, each of which is guarded by strong curtains, or valves. These valves open freely to admit the blood entering from the right, but close inflexibly against its return. Thus, when the auricle contracts, the inlet valve opens; but as soon as the ventricle begins to contract, it closes promptly. The contents are then, so to speak, cornered, and have but one avenue of escape, that through the outlet valve into the arteries beyond. As soon as the ventricle begins to dilate again, this valve shuts tightly and obstructs the passage. The closing of these valves occasions the two heart-sounds, which we hear at the front of the chest.25.Heart-beats? The heart as a susceptible organ? Heat, exercise, etc.? Posture?25. Frequency of the Heart's Action.—The alternation of contraction and dilation constitutes theheartbeats. These follow each other not only with great regularity, but with great rapidity. The average number in an adult man is about seventy-two in a minute. But the heart is a susceptible organ, and many circumstances affect its rate of action. Heat, exercise, and food will increase its action, as cold, fasting, and sleep will decrease it. Posture, too, has a curious influence; for if while sitting, the beats of the heart number seventy-one; standing erect will increase them to eighty-one, and lying down will lower them to sixty-six.26.Mental emotions? Sudden excitement? Excessive joy? The heart-beat rate? Bonaparte and Wellington?26.The modifying influence of mental emotions is very powerful. Sudden excitement of feeling will cause the heart to palpitate, or throb violently. Depressing emotions sometimes temporarily interrupt its movements, and the person faints in consequence. Excessive joy, grief, or fear, has occasionally suspended the heart's action entirely, and thus caused death. The rate of the heart-beat may be naturally above or below seventy-two. Thus it is stated that the pulse of the savage is always slower than that of the civilized man. Bonaparte and Wellington were very much alike in their heart's pulsations, which were less than fifty in the case of each.27.Average number of heart-beats? In one hour? Year? Lifetime?27. Activity of the Heart.—The average number of heart-beats during a lifetime may be considered as at the rate of seventy-two per minute, although this estimate is probably low; for during several years of early life the rate is above one hundred a minute. In one hour, then, the heart pulsates four thousand times; in a day, one hundred thousand times; and in a year, nearly thirty-eight million times. If we compute the number during a lifetime, thirty-nine years being the present average longevity of civilized mankind, we obtain as the vast aggregate, fourteen hundred millions of pulsations.28.Amount of blood expelled? Theories of the ancients?28.Again, if we estimate the amount of blood expelled by each contraction of the ventricles, at four ounces, then the weight of the blood moved during one minute will amount to eighteen pounds. In a day it will be about twelve tons; in a year, four thousand tons; and in the course of a lifetime, over one hundred and fifty thousand tons. These large figures indicate, in some measure, the immense labor necessary to carry on the interior and vital operations of our bodies. In this connection, we call to mind the fanciful theories of the ancients in reference to the uses of the heart. They regarded it as the abode of the soul, and the source of the nobler emotions—bravery, generosity, mercy, and love. The words courage and cordiality are derived from a Latin word signifying heart. Many other words and phrases, as hearty, heart-felt, to learn by heart, and large-hearted, show how tenaciously these exploded opinions have fastened themselves upon our language.29.The tendency at the present time? Why is this view inadequate?29.At the present time the tendency is to ascribe purely mechanical functions to the heart. This view, like the older one, is inadequate; for it expresses only a small part of our knowledge of this organ. The heart is unlike a simple machine, because its motive power is not applied from without, but resides in its own substance. Moreover, it repairs its own waste, it lubricates its own action, and it modifies its movements according to the varying needs of the system. It is more than a mere force-pump, just as the stomach is something more than a crucible, and the eye something more than an optical instrument.30.What are the arteries? Their walls? Their membrane?30. The Arteries.—The tube-like canals which carry the blood away from the heart are the arteries. Their walls are made of tough, fibrous materials, so that they sustain the mighty impulse of the heart, and are not ruptured. In common with the heart, the arteries have adelicately smooth lining membrane. They are also elastic, and thus re-enforce the action of the heart: they always remain open when cut across, and after death are always found empty.31.Early anatomists? The service of the illustration?31.The early anatomists observed this phenomenon, and supposing that the same condition existed during life, came to the conclusion that these tubes were designed to act as air-vessels, hence the name artery, from a Greek word which signifies containing air. This circumstance affords us an illustration of the confused notions of the ancients in reference to the internal operations of the body. Cicero speaks of the arteries as "conveying the breath to all parts of the body."32.The arterial system? The branches and sub-branches of the arteries?32.The arterial system springs from the heart by a single trunk, like a minute and hollow tree, with numberless branches. As these branches leave the heart they divide and subdivide, continually growing smaller and smaller, until they can no longer be traced with the naked eye. If, then, we continue the examination by the aid of a microscope, we see these small branches sending off still smaller ones, until all the organs of the body are penetrated by arteries.33.Successive undulations from the heart? Course of the arteries? Protection of the arteries? General location of the arteries?33. The Pulse.—With each contraction of the left heart, the impulse causes a wave-like motion to traverse the entire arterial system. If the arteries were exposed to view, we might see successive undulations speeding from the heart to the smallest of the branches, in about one-sixth part of a second. The general course of the arteries is as far as possible from the surface. This arrangement is certainly wise, as it renders them less liable to injury, the wounding of an artery being especially dangerous. It also protects the arteries from external and unequal pressure, by which the force of the heart would becounteracted and wasted. Accordingly, we generally find these vessels hugging close to the bones, or hiding behind the muscles and within the cavities of the body.34.Where do the arteries lie? If we apply the finger? Pulse? Where felt?34.In a few situations, however, the arteries lie near the surface; and if we apply the finger to any of these parts, we will distinctly feel the movement described, taking place in harmony with the heart-beat. This is part of the wave-motion just mentioned, and is known as the pulse. All are more familiar with the pulse at the wrist, in theradialartery; but the pulse is not peculiar to that position, for it may be felt in thecarotidof the neck, in thetemporalat the temple, and elsewhere, especially near the joints.Fig. 30.--The Form of the Pulse.Fig. 30.—The Form of the Pulse.35.The pulse as an index? Of what does it inform the physician? Instrument for recording pulsation?35.Since the heart-beat makes the pulse, whatever affects the former affects the latter also. Accordingly, the pulse is a good index of the state of the health, so far as the health depends upon the action of the heart. It informs the physician of the condition of the circulation in four particulars: its rate, regularity, force, and fullness; and nearly every disease modifies in some respect the condition of the pulse. A very ingenious instrument, known as the sphygmograph, or pulse-writer, has recently been invented, by the aid of which the pulse is made to write upon paper its own signature, or rather to sketch its own profile. This instrument shows with great accuracy the difference between the pulses of health and those of disease. In Fig. 30 is traced the form of the pulse in health, which should be read from left to right. That part of the tracewhich is nearly perpendicular coincides with the contraction of the ventricles; while the wavy portion marks their dilatation.36.What are the veins? How do they form? What do they resemble?36. The Veins.—The vessels which convey the blood on its return to the heart are the veins. They begin in the several organs of the body, and at first are extremely small; but uniting together as they advance, they constantly increase in size, reminding us of the way in which the fine rootlets of the plant join together to form the large roots, or of the rills and rivulets that flow together to form the large streams and rivers. In structure, the veins resemble the arteries, but their walls are comparatively inelastic. They are more numerous, and communicate with each other freely in their course, by means of interlacing branches.Fig. 31.--The Valves of the Veins.Fig. 31.—The Valves of the Veins.37.Valves in the veins? What are they? Their position? Experiment with the cord?37.But the chief point of distinction is in the presence of the valves in the veins. These are little folds of membrane, disposed in such a way, that they only open to receive blood flowing toward the heart, and close against a current in the opposite direction. Their position in the veins on the back of the hand may be readily observed, if we first obstruct the return of blood by a cord tied around the forearm or wrist. In a few minutes the veins will appear swollen, and upon them will be seen certain prominences, about an inch apart. These latter indicate the location of the valves, or, rather, they show that the vessels in front of the valves are distended by the blood, which cannot force a passage back through them.38.What will be proved by the experiment? What inference is drawn?38.This simple experiment proves that the true direction of the venous blood is toward the heart. That the colorof the blood is dark, will be evident, if we compare the hand thus bound by a cord with the hand not so bound. It also proves that the veins lie superficially, while the arteries are beneath the muscles, well protected from pressure; and that free communication exists from one vein to another. If now we test the temperature of the constricted member by means of a thermometer, we will find that it is colder than natural, although the amount of blood is larger than usual. From this fact we infer, that whatever impedes the venous circulation tends to diminish vitality; and hence, articles of clothing or constrained postures, that confine the body or limbs, and hinder the circulation of the blood, are to be avoided as injurious to the health.39.Capillaries? How regarded? Harvey?39. The Capillaries.—A third set of vessels completes the list of the organs of the circulation, namely, thecapillaryvessels, so called (from the Latin wordcapillaris, hair-like), because of their extreme fineness. They are, however, smaller than any hair, having a diameter of about 1/3000 of an inch, and can only be observed by the use of the microscope. These vessels may be regarded as the connecting link between the last of the arteries and the first of the veins. The existence of these vessels was unknown to Harvey, and was the one step wanting to complete his great work. The capillaries were not discovered until 1661, a short time after the invention of the microscope.40.The circulation of the blood in the web of a frog's foot? Describe it. How general is the existence of the tissues?40.The circulation of the blood, as seen under the microscope, in the transparent web of a frog's foot, is a spectacle of rare beauty, possessing more than ordinary interest, when we consider that something very similar is taking place in our own bodies, on a most magnificent scale. It is like opening a secret page in the history of our own frames. We there see distinctly the three classes of vessels with their moving contents; first, the artery,with its torrent of blood rushing down from the heart, secondly, the vein, with its slow, steady stream flowing in the opposite direction; and between them lies the network of capillaries, so fine that the corpuscles can only pass through "in single file." The current has here an uncertain or swaying motion, hurrying first in one direction, then hesitating, and then turning back in the opposite direction, and sometimes the capillaries contract so as to be entirely empty. Certain of the tissues are destitute of capillaries; such are cartilage, hair, and a few others on the exterior of the body. In all other structures, networks of these vessels are spread out in countless numbers: so abundant is the supply, that it is almost impossible to puncture any part with the point of a needle without lacerating tens, or even hundreds of these vessels.Fig. 33.--Margin of Frog's WebFig. 33.—Margin of Frog's Webmagnified 30 diameters.Fig. 32.--Web of a Frog's Foot.Fig. 32.—Web of a Frog's Foot, slightly magnified.41.Elasticity of the capillaries? Grain of sand in the eye? Blush? Other cases?41.The capillaries are elastic, and may so expand as to produce an effect visible to the naked eye. If a grain of sand, or some other foreign particle, lodge in the eye, it will become irritated, and in a short time the white of the eye will be "blood-shot." This appearance is due to anincrease in the size of these vessels. A blush is another example of this, but the excitement comes through the nervous system, and the cause is some transient emotion, either of pleasure or pain. Another example is sometimes seen in purplish faces of men addicted to drinking brandy; in them the condition is a congestion of the capillary circulation, and is permanent, the vessels having lost their power of elastic contraction.42.Show what time is required for a given portion of blood to travel once around the body.42. Rapidity of the Circulation.—That the blood moves with great rapidity is evident from the almost instant effects of certain poisons, as prussic acid, which act through the blood. Experiments upon the horse, dog, and other inferior animals, have been made to measure its velocity. If a substance, which is capable of a distinct chemical reaction (aspotassium ferrocyanide, orbarium nitrate), be introduced into a vein of a horse on one side, and blood be taken from a distant vein on the other side, its presence may be detected at the end of twenty or thirty-two seconds. In man, the blood moves with greater speed, and the circuit is completed in twenty-four seconds.43.Time required for all the blood to circulate completely around?43.What length of time is required for all the blood of the body to make a complete round of the circulation? This question cannot be answered with absolute accuracy, since the amount of the blood is subject to continual variations. But, if we assume this to be one-eighth of the weight of the body, about eighteen pounds, it will be sufficiently correct for our purpose. Now to complete the circuit, this blood must pass once through the left ventricle, the capacity of which is two ounces. Accordingly, we find that, under ordinary circumstances, all the blood makes one complete rotation every two minutes; passing successively through the heart, the capillaries of the lungs, the arteries, the capillaries of the extremities, and through the veins.44.What is meant by assimilation? What can you say of its use, etc.? Time?44. Assimilation.—The crowning act of the circulation, the furnishing of supplies to the different parts of the body, is effected by means of the capillaries. The organs have been wasted by use; the blood has been enriched by the products of digestion. Here, within the meshes of the capillary network, the needy tissues and the needed nutriment are brought together. By some mysterious chemistry, each tissue selects and withdraws from the blood the materials it requires, and converts them into a substance like itself. This conversion of lifeless food into living tissue is called assimilation. The process probably takes place at all times, but the period especially favorable for it is during sleep. Then the circulation is slower, and more regular, and most of the functions are at rest. The body is then like some trusty ship, which after a long voyage is "hauled up for repairs."45.What is stated of the injuries to the blood-vessels?45. Injuries to the Blood-vessels.—It is important to be able to discriminate between an artery and a vein, in the case of a wound, and if we remember the physiology of the circulation we may readily do so. For, as we have already seen, hæmorrhage from an artery is much more dangerous than that from a vein. The latter tends to cease spontaneously after a short time. The arterial blood flows away from the heart with considerable force, in jets; its color being bright scarlet. The venous blood flows toward the heart from that side of the wound furthest from the heart; its stream being continuous and sluggish; its color dark. In an injury to an artery, pressure should be made between the heart and the wound; and in the case of a vein that persistently bleeds, it should be made upon the vessel beyond its point of injury.QUESTIONS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW.PAGE1. In what organisms is the so-called circulatory fluid found?1012. How is it designated in the different organisms?1013. What can you state of the importance of blood to the body?101,1054. Of its great abundance, color, and composition?101,102,1075. Describe the corpuscles of the human blood.102,103,1046. What is said of them in comparison with those of the lower animals?1037. Of the importance of sometimes detecting human from other blood?1038. What means have we of detecting blood in spots or stains?103,1049. What is meant by coagulation of the blood?10410. What wisdom is there in the law of the blood's coagulation?104, 10511. How is this wisdom made manifest?10512. In what cases is the aid of the surgeon required?10513. What are the two great uses of the blood?10514. Through what mediums is the blood provided with new material and relieved of the old material?10515. What do you understand by the operation called transfusion?10616. What cases of transfusion are reported of the lower animals?10617. What can you state of transfusion as practised upon man?10618. What further can you say on the subject?106,10719. What changes take place in the color of the blood in its journey through the system?10720. State all you can in relation to the circulation of the blood.10721. All, in relation to the size, shape, and location of the heart.107,10922. How is the loss of power in the heart movements obviated?10923. Give a description of the formation of the heart.109,110,11124. What can you state of the ventricles and auricles of the heart?11025. Describe the action of the heart.11126. What special vitality does the tissue of the heart possess?11127. State all you can on the subject.11128. Describe the course of the blood through the cavities of the heart.11229. Describe the mechanism that regulates the heart-currents.11230. How do you account for the two heart-sounds at the front of the chest?11231. State what you can of the frequency of the heart's action.112,11332. Of the activity of the heart.113,11433. What do you understand by the arteries?114,11534. State what you can of the arteries and the arterial system.114,11535. What do you understand by the pulse?115,11636. In what part of the body may the pulse be felt?11637. What further can you state of the pulse?116,11738. What are the veins?11739. Where do they exist, and how are they formed?11740. Describe the valves of the veins and their uses.11741. Now give a full description of the construction of the veins.11742. What further can you state of the veins?117,11843. What do you understand by the capillaries?118,11944. What service do the capillaries perform?118,119,12145. Describe the circulation of the blood in the region of the heart.118,11946. What can you state of the rapidity of the blood's circulation?12047. Of the process known as assimilation?12148. Of injuries to the blood-vessels?121CHAPTER VIII.RESPIRATION.The Objects of Respiration—The Lungs—The Air-Passages—The Movements of Respiration—Expiration and Inspiration—The Frequency of Respiration—Capacity of the Lungs—The Air we breathe—Changes in the Air from Respiration—Changes in the Blood—Interchange of Gases in the Lungs—Comparison between Arterial and Venous Blood—Respiratory Labor—Impurities of the Air—Dust—Carbonic Acid—Effects of Impure Air—Nature's Provision for Purifying the Air—Ventilation—Animal Heat—Spontaneous Combustion.
11.What is worthy of remark? Coagulation of the blood of inferior animals? Of the blood of birds?
11.It is worthy of remark that this peculiarity is early implanted in the blood, even before birth, and in advance of any existing necessity for it; thus anticipating and guarding against danger. But this is not all. Of most of the inferior animals, which, as compared with man, are quite helpless, the blood coagulates more rapidly, and in the case of the birds, almost instantly. The relative composition of fluid and coagulated blood may be thus represented:
Fluid Blood.Coagulated Blood.Plasma----------Serum---------Serum\\--------Fibrin--------\\Corpuscles------Corpuscles-------Clot.
12.The blood, as a provider and purifier? What uses does the blood subserve? Experiments? Transfusion?
12. The Uses of the Blood.—The blood is the great provider and purifier of the body. It both carries new materials to all the tissues, and removes the worn out particles of matter. This is effected by the plasma. It both conveys oxygen and removes carbonic acid. This is done through the corpuscles. Some singular experiments havebeen tried to illustrate the life-giving power of the blood. An animal that has bled so freely as to be at the point of dying, is promptly brought back to life by an operation called transfusion, by which fresh blood from a living animal is injected into the blood-vessels of his body.
13.The case of the deaf and feeble dog? Horse? Dead dog?
13.It is related that a dog, deaf and feeble from age, had hearing and activity restored to him by the introduction into his veins of blood taken from a young dog; and, that a horse, twenty-six years old, having received the blood of four lambs acquired new vigor. And further, that a dog, just dead from an acute disease, was so far revived by transfusion, as to be able to stand and make a few movements.
14.Transfusion, as a fashionable remedy? What further of transfusion?
14.Transfusion has been practised upon man. At one time, shortly after Harvey's discovery of the "Circulation of the Blood," it became quite a fashionable remedy, it being thought possible by it to cure all forms of disease, and even to make the old young again. But these claims were soon found extravagant, and many unhappy accidents occurred in its practice; so that being forbidden by government and interdicted by the Pope, it rapidly fell into disuse. At the present time, however, it is sometimes resorted to in extreme cases, when there has been a great and rapid loss of blood; and there are upon record several instances where, other means having failed, life has been restored or prolonged by the operation of transfusion.
15.The seat of the reviving power of the blood? What further is related?
15.This reviving power of the blood seems to reside in the corpuscles; for transfusion, when attempted to be performed with the serum alone, has, in every case, proved fruitless. Now, though so much depends upon the blood and its corpuscles, it is a mistake to suppose that in them alone is the seat of life, or that they are, in an exclusive manner, alive. All the organs and parts of the body are mutually dependent one upon the other; and the complete usefulnessof the blood, or of any other part, flows out of the harmonious action of all the parts.
16.Changes in the blood? What further is stated?
16. Change of Color.—The blood undergoes a variety of changes in its journey through the system. As it visits the different organs it both gives out and takes up materials. In one place it is enriched, in another it is impoverished. By reason of these alterations in its composition, the blood also changes its color. In one part of the body it is bright red, or arterial; in another it is dark blue, or venous. In the former case it is pure and fit for the support of the tissues; in the latter, it is impure and charged with effete materials. (The details of the change from dark to bright will be given in the chapter on Respiration.)
17.Motion of the blood? What is meant by the circulation of the blood? How confined? Discovery made by Harvey?
17. Circulation.—The blood is in constant motion during life. From the heart, as a centre, a current is always setting toward the different organs; and from these organs a current is constantly returning to the heart. In this way a ceaseless circular movement is kept up, which is called the Circulation of the Blood. This stream of the vital fluid is confined to certain fixed channels, the blood-vessels. Those branching from the heart are the arteries; those converging to it are the veins. The true course of the blood was unknown before the beginning of the seventeenth century. In 1619 it was discovered by the illustrious William Harvey. Like many other great discoverers, he suffered persecution and loss, but unlike some of them, he was fortunate enough to conquer and survive opposition. He lived long enough to see his discovery universally accepted, and himself honored as a benefactor of mankind.
Fig. 27.--The Organs of Circulation.Fig. 27.—The Organs of Circulation.
Fig. 28.--The Heart and Large Vessels.Fig. 28.—The Heart and Large Vessels.A, Right Ventricle. B, Left Ventricle. C, Right Auricle. D, Left Auricle. E, Aorta. F, Pulmonary Artery.
A, Right Ventricle. B, Left Ventricle. C, Right Auricle. D, Left Auricle. E, Aorta. F, Pulmonary Artery.
18.Office of the heart? Location of the heart? Its beat? Its shape? Protection to the heart? What else is said in relation to the heart?
18. The Heart.—The heart is the central engine of the circulation. In this wonderful little organ, hardly larger than a man's fist, resides that sleepless force by which, during the whole of life, the current of the blood is kept in motion. It is placed in the middle and front part of the chest, inclining to the left side. The heartbeat may be felt and heard between the fifth and sixth ribs, near the breast-bone. The shape of the heart is conical, with the apex or point downward and in front. The base, which is upward, is attached so as to hold it securely in its place, while the apex is freely moveable. In order that loss of power from friction may be obviated, the heart is enclosed between two layers of serous membrane, which forms a kind of sac. This membrane is as smooth as satin, and itself secretes a fluid in sufficient quantities to keep it at all times well lubricated. The lining membrane of the heart, likewise, is extremely delicate and smooth.
Fig. 29.--Section of the Heart.Fig. 29.—Section of the Heart.A, Right Ventricle. B, Left Ventricle. C, Right Auricle. D, Left Auricle. E, F, Inlets to the Ventricles. G, Pulmonary Artery. H, Aorta.
A, Right Ventricle. B, Left Ventricle. C, Right Auricle. D, Left Auricle. E, F, Inlets to the Ventricles. G, Pulmonary Artery. H, Aorta.
19.Formation of the heart? Right and left heart?
19. The Cavities of the Heart.—The heart is hollow, and so partitioned as to contain four chambers or cavities; two at the base, known as theauricles, from a fancied resemblance to the ear of a dog, and two at the apex or point, calledventricles. An auricle and a ventricle on the same side, communicate with each other, but there is no opening from side to side. It is customary to regard the heart as a double organ, and to speak of its division into the right and left heart. For while both halves act together in point of time, each half sustains an entirely distinct portion of the labor of the circulation. Thus, the right heart always carries the dark or venous blood, and the left always circulates the bright or arterial blood.
20.Capacity of the chambers of the heart? What wise provision is mentioned? The auricles?
20.If we examine the heart, we at once notice that though its various chambers have about the same capacity, the walls of the ventricles are thicker and stronger than those of the auricles. This is a wise provision, for it is by the powerful action of the former that the blood is forced to the most remote regions of the body. The auricles, on the contrary, need much less power, for they simply discharge their contents into the cavities of the heart near at hand and below them—into the ventricles.
21.Substance of the heart? Its fibres? Its movements? The advantage of such movements? Action of the heart? Its period of repose?
21. Action of the Heart.—The substance of the heart is of a deep red color, and its fibres resemble those of the voluntary muscles by which we move our bodies. But the heart's movements are entirely involuntary. The advantage of this is evident; for if it depended upon us to will each movement, our entire attention would be thus engaged, and we would find no time for study, pleasure, or even sleep. The action of the heart consists in alternate contractions and dilatations. During contraction the walls come forcibly together, and thus drive out the blood. In dilatation, they expand and receive a renewed supply. These movements are calledsystoleanddiastole. The latter may be called the heart's period of repose; and although it lasts only during two-fifths of a heart-beat, or about a third of a second, yet during the day it amounts to more than nine hours of total rest.
22.Remarkable property of the tissue of the heart? How shown? How interesting? In cold-blooded animals? Heart of a turtle? Of a frog? Alligator?
22.A remarkable property of the tissue of the heart is its intense vitality. For while it is more constantly active than any other organ of the body, it is the last to part with its vital energy. This is especially interesting in view of the fact that after life is apparently extinguished, as from drowning, or poisoning by chloroform, there yet lingers a spark of vitality in the heart, which, by continued effort, may be fanned into a flame so as to revivify the whole body. In cold-blooded animals this irritability of the heart is especially remarkable. The heart of a turtle will pulsate, and the blood circulate for a week after its head has been cut off; and the heart will throb regularly many hours after being cut out from the creature's chest. The heart of a frog or serpent, separated entirely from the body, will contract at the end of ten or twelve hours: that of an alligator has been known to beat twenty-eight hours after the death of the animal.
23.Course of the blood through the heart? Course of heart-currents?
23. Passage of the Blood through the Heart.—Let us now trace the course of the blood through the several cavities of the heart. In the first place, the venous blood, rendered dark and impure by contact with the changing tissues of the body, returns to the right heart by the veins. It enters and fills the right auricle during its dilatation: the auricle then contracts and fills the right ventricle. Almost instantly, the ventricle contracts forcibly and hurries the blood along the great artery of the lungs, to be purified in those organs. Secondly, having completed the circuit of the lungs, the pure and bright arterial blood enters the left auricle. This now contracts and fills the left ventricle, which cavity, in its turn, contracts and sends the blood forth on its journey again through the system. This general direction from right to left is the uniform and undeviating course of heart-currents.
24.Openings of the ventricles? How guarded? How do the valves operate? The consequence? Heart-sounds?
24.The mechanism which enforces and regulates it, is as simple as it is beautiful. Each ventricle has two openings, an inlet and an outlet, each of which is guarded by strong curtains, or valves. These valves open freely to admit the blood entering from the right, but close inflexibly against its return. Thus, when the auricle contracts, the inlet valve opens; but as soon as the ventricle begins to contract, it closes promptly. The contents are then, so to speak, cornered, and have but one avenue of escape, that through the outlet valve into the arteries beyond. As soon as the ventricle begins to dilate again, this valve shuts tightly and obstructs the passage. The closing of these valves occasions the two heart-sounds, which we hear at the front of the chest.
25.Heart-beats? The heart as a susceptible organ? Heat, exercise, etc.? Posture?
25. Frequency of the Heart's Action.—The alternation of contraction and dilation constitutes theheartbeats. These follow each other not only with great regularity, but with great rapidity. The average number in an adult man is about seventy-two in a minute. But the heart is a susceptible organ, and many circumstances affect its rate of action. Heat, exercise, and food will increase its action, as cold, fasting, and sleep will decrease it. Posture, too, has a curious influence; for if while sitting, the beats of the heart number seventy-one; standing erect will increase them to eighty-one, and lying down will lower them to sixty-six.
26.Mental emotions? Sudden excitement? Excessive joy? The heart-beat rate? Bonaparte and Wellington?
26.The modifying influence of mental emotions is very powerful. Sudden excitement of feeling will cause the heart to palpitate, or throb violently. Depressing emotions sometimes temporarily interrupt its movements, and the person faints in consequence. Excessive joy, grief, or fear, has occasionally suspended the heart's action entirely, and thus caused death. The rate of the heart-beat may be naturally above or below seventy-two. Thus it is stated that the pulse of the savage is always slower than that of the civilized man. Bonaparte and Wellington were very much alike in their heart's pulsations, which were less than fifty in the case of each.
27.Average number of heart-beats? In one hour? Year? Lifetime?
27. Activity of the Heart.—The average number of heart-beats during a lifetime may be considered as at the rate of seventy-two per minute, although this estimate is probably low; for during several years of early life the rate is above one hundred a minute. In one hour, then, the heart pulsates four thousand times; in a day, one hundred thousand times; and in a year, nearly thirty-eight million times. If we compute the number during a lifetime, thirty-nine years being the present average longevity of civilized mankind, we obtain as the vast aggregate, fourteen hundred millions of pulsations.
28.Amount of blood expelled? Theories of the ancients?
28.Again, if we estimate the amount of blood expelled by each contraction of the ventricles, at four ounces, then the weight of the blood moved during one minute will amount to eighteen pounds. In a day it will be about twelve tons; in a year, four thousand tons; and in the course of a lifetime, over one hundred and fifty thousand tons. These large figures indicate, in some measure, the immense labor necessary to carry on the interior and vital operations of our bodies. In this connection, we call to mind the fanciful theories of the ancients in reference to the uses of the heart. They regarded it as the abode of the soul, and the source of the nobler emotions—bravery, generosity, mercy, and love. The words courage and cordiality are derived from a Latin word signifying heart. Many other words and phrases, as hearty, heart-felt, to learn by heart, and large-hearted, show how tenaciously these exploded opinions have fastened themselves upon our language.
29.The tendency at the present time? Why is this view inadequate?
29.At the present time the tendency is to ascribe purely mechanical functions to the heart. This view, like the older one, is inadequate; for it expresses only a small part of our knowledge of this organ. The heart is unlike a simple machine, because its motive power is not applied from without, but resides in its own substance. Moreover, it repairs its own waste, it lubricates its own action, and it modifies its movements according to the varying needs of the system. It is more than a mere force-pump, just as the stomach is something more than a crucible, and the eye something more than an optical instrument.
30.What are the arteries? Their walls? Their membrane?
30. The Arteries.—The tube-like canals which carry the blood away from the heart are the arteries. Their walls are made of tough, fibrous materials, so that they sustain the mighty impulse of the heart, and are not ruptured. In common with the heart, the arteries have adelicately smooth lining membrane. They are also elastic, and thus re-enforce the action of the heart: they always remain open when cut across, and after death are always found empty.
31.Early anatomists? The service of the illustration?
31.The early anatomists observed this phenomenon, and supposing that the same condition existed during life, came to the conclusion that these tubes were designed to act as air-vessels, hence the name artery, from a Greek word which signifies containing air. This circumstance affords us an illustration of the confused notions of the ancients in reference to the internal operations of the body. Cicero speaks of the arteries as "conveying the breath to all parts of the body."
32.The arterial system? The branches and sub-branches of the arteries?
32.The arterial system springs from the heart by a single trunk, like a minute and hollow tree, with numberless branches. As these branches leave the heart they divide and subdivide, continually growing smaller and smaller, until they can no longer be traced with the naked eye. If, then, we continue the examination by the aid of a microscope, we see these small branches sending off still smaller ones, until all the organs of the body are penetrated by arteries.
33.Successive undulations from the heart? Course of the arteries? Protection of the arteries? General location of the arteries?
33. The Pulse.—With each contraction of the left heart, the impulse causes a wave-like motion to traverse the entire arterial system. If the arteries were exposed to view, we might see successive undulations speeding from the heart to the smallest of the branches, in about one-sixth part of a second. The general course of the arteries is as far as possible from the surface. This arrangement is certainly wise, as it renders them less liable to injury, the wounding of an artery being especially dangerous. It also protects the arteries from external and unequal pressure, by which the force of the heart would becounteracted and wasted. Accordingly, we generally find these vessels hugging close to the bones, or hiding behind the muscles and within the cavities of the body.
34.Where do the arteries lie? If we apply the finger? Pulse? Where felt?
34.In a few situations, however, the arteries lie near the surface; and if we apply the finger to any of these parts, we will distinctly feel the movement described, taking place in harmony with the heart-beat. This is part of the wave-motion just mentioned, and is known as the pulse. All are more familiar with the pulse at the wrist, in theradialartery; but the pulse is not peculiar to that position, for it may be felt in thecarotidof the neck, in thetemporalat the temple, and elsewhere, especially near the joints.
Fig. 30.--The Form of the Pulse.Fig. 30.—The Form of the Pulse.
35.The pulse as an index? Of what does it inform the physician? Instrument for recording pulsation?
35.Since the heart-beat makes the pulse, whatever affects the former affects the latter also. Accordingly, the pulse is a good index of the state of the health, so far as the health depends upon the action of the heart. It informs the physician of the condition of the circulation in four particulars: its rate, regularity, force, and fullness; and nearly every disease modifies in some respect the condition of the pulse. A very ingenious instrument, known as the sphygmograph, or pulse-writer, has recently been invented, by the aid of which the pulse is made to write upon paper its own signature, or rather to sketch its own profile. This instrument shows with great accuracy the difference between the pulses of health and those of disease. In Fig. 30 is traced the form of the pulse in health, which should be read from left to right. That part of the tracewhich is nearly perpendicular coincides with the contraction of the ventricles; while the wavy portion marks their dilatation.
36.What are the veins? How do they form? What do they resemble?
36. The Veins.—The vessels which convey the blood on its return to the heart are the veins. They begin in the several organs of the body, and at first are extremely small; but uniting together as they advance, they constantly increase in size, reminding us of the way in which the fine rootlets of the plant join together to form the large roots, or of the rills and rivulets that flow together to form the large streams and rivers. In structure, the veins resemble the arteries, but their walls are comparatively inelastic. They are more numerous, and communicate with each other freely in their course, by means of interlacing branches.
Fig. 31.--The Valves of the Veins.Fig. 31.—The Valves of the Veins.
37.Valves in the veins? What are they? Their position? Experiment with the cord?
37.But the chief point of distinction is in the presence of the valves in the veins. These are little folds of membrane, disposed in such a way, that they only open to receive blood flowing toward the heart, and close against a current in the opposite direction. Their position in the veins on the back of the hand may be readily observed, if we first obstruct the return of blood by a cord tied around the forearm or wrist. In a few minutes the veins will appear swollen, and upon them will be seen certain prominences, about an inch apart. These latter indicate the location of the valves, or, rather, they show that the vessels in front of the valves are distended by the blood, which cannot force a passage back through them.
38.What will be proved by the experiment? What inference is drawn?
38.This simple experiment proves that the true direction of the venous blood is toward the heart. That the colorof the blood is dark, will be evident, if we compare the hand thus bound by a cord with the hand not so bound. It also proves that the veins lie superficially, while the arteries are beneath the muscles, well protected from pressure; and that free communication exists from one vein to another. If now we test the temperature of the constricted member by means of a thermometer, we will find that it is colder than natural, although the amount of blood is larger than usual. From this fact we infer, that whatever impedes the venous circulation tends to diminish vitality; and hence, articles of clothing or constrained postures, that confine the body or limbs, and hinder the circulation of the blood, are to be avoided as injurious to the health.
39.Capillaries? How regarded? Harvey?
39. The Capillaries.—A third set of vessels completes the list of the organs of the circulation, namely, thecapillaryvessels, so called (from the Latin wordcapillaris, hair-like), because of their extreme fineness. They are, however, smaller than any hair, having a diameter of about 1/3000 of an inch, and can only be observed by the use of the microscope. These vessels may be regarded as the connecting link between the last of the arteries and the first of the veins. The existence of these vessels was unknown to Harvey, and was the one step wanting to complete his great work. The capillaries were not discovered until 1661, a short time after the invention of the microscope.
40.The circulation of the blood in the web of a frog's foot? Describe it. How general is the existence of the tissues?
40.The circulation of the blood, as seen under the microscope, in the transparent web of a frog's foot, is a spectacle of rare beauty, possessing more than ordinary interest, when we consider that something very similar is taking place in our own bodies, on a most magnificent scale. It is like opening a secret page in the history of our own frames. We there see distinctly the three classes of vessels with their moving contents; first, the artery,with its torrent of blood rushing down from the heart, secondly, the vein, with its slow, steady stream flowing in the opposite direction; and between them lies the network of capillaries, so fine that the corpuscles can only pass through "in single file." The current has here an uncertain or swaying motion, hurrying first in one direction, then hesitating, and then turning back in the opposite direction, and sometimes the capillaries contract so as to be entirely empty. Certain of the tissues are destitute of capillaries; such are cartilage, hair, and a few others on the exterior of the body. In all other structures, networks of these vessels are spread out in countless numbers: so abundant is the supply, that it is almost impossible to puncture any part with the point of a needle without lacerating tens, or even hundreds of these vessels.
Fig. 33.--Margin of Frog's WebFig. 33.—Margin of Frog's Webmagnified 30 diameters.
Fig. 32.--Web of a Frog's Foot.Fig. 32.—Web of a Frog's Foot, slightly magnified.
41.Elasticity of the capillaries? Grain of sand in the eye? Blush? Other cases?
41.The capillaries are elastic, and may so expand as to produce an effect visible to the naked eye. If a grain of sand, or some other foreign particle, lodge in the eye, it will become irritated, and in a short time the white of the eye will be "blood-shot." This appearance is due to anincrease in the size of these vessels. A blush is another example of this, but the excitement comes through the nervous system, and the cause is some transient emotion, either of pleasure or pain. Another example is sometimes seen in purplish faces of men addicted to drinking brandy; in them the condition is a congestion of the capillary circulation, and is permanent, the vessels having lost their power of elastic contraction.
42.Show what time is required for a given portion of blood to travel once around the body.
42. Rapidity of the Circulation.—That the blood moves with great rapidity is evident from the almost instant effects of certain poisons, as prussic acid, which act through the blood. Experiments upon the horse, dog, and other inferior animals, have been made to measure its velocity. If a substance, which is capable of a distinct chemical reaction (aspotassium ferrocyanide, orbarium nitrate), be introduced into a vein of a horse on one side, and blood be taken from a distant vein on the other side, its presence may be detected at the end of twenty or thirty-two seconds. In man, the blood moves with greater speed, and the circuit is completed in twenty-four seconds.
43.Time required for all the blood to circulate completely around?
43.What length of time is required for all the blood of the body to make a complete round of the circulation? This question cannot be answered with absolute accuracy, since the amount of the blood is subject to continual variations. But, if we assume this to be one-eighth of the weight of the body, about eighteen pounds, it will be sufficiently correct for our purpose. Now to complete the circuit, this blood must pass once through the left ventricle, the capacity of which is two ounces. Accordingly, we find that, under ordinary circumstances, all the blood makes one complete rotation every two minutes; passing successively through the heart, the capillaries of the lungs, the arteries, the capillaries of the extremities, and through the veins.
44.What is meant by assimilation? What can you say of its use, etc.? Time?
44. Assimilation.—The crowning act of the circulation, the furnishing of supplies to the different parts of the body, is effected by means of the capillaries. The organs have been wasted by use; the blood has been enriched by the products of digestion. Here, within the meshes of the capillary network, the needy tissues and the needed nutriment are brought together. By some mysterious chemistry, each tissue selects and withdraws from the blood the materials it requires, and converts them into a substance like itself. This conversion of lifeless food into living tissue is called assimilation. The process probably takes place at all times, but the period especially favorable for it is during sleep. Then the circulation is slower, and more regular, and most of the functions are at rest. The body is then like some trusty ship, which after a long voyage is "hauled up for repairs."
45.What is stated of the injuries to the blood-vessels?
45. Injuries to the Blood-vessels.—It is important to be able to discriminate between an artery and a vein, in the case of a wound, and if we remember the physiology of the circulation we may readily do so. For, as we have already seen, hæmorrhage from an artery is much more dangerous than that from a vein. The latter tends to cease spontaneously after a short time. The arterial blood flows away from the heart with considerable force, in jets; its color being bright scarlet. The venous blood flows toward the heart from that side of the wound furthest from the heart; its stream being continuous and sluggish; its color dark. In an injury to an artery, pressure should be made between the heart and the wound; and in the case of a vein that persistently bleeds, it should be made upon the vessel beyond its point of injury.
QUESTIONS FOR TOPICAL REVIEW.
CHAPTER VIII.
The Objects of Respiration—The Lungs—The Air-Passages—The Movements of Respiration—Expiration and Inspiration—The Frequency of Respiration—Capacity of the Lungs—The Air we breathe—Changes in the Air from Respiration—Changes in the Blood—Interchange of Gases in the Lungs—Comparison between Arterial and Venous Blood—Respiratory Labor—Impurities of the Air—Dust—Carbonic Acid—Effects of Impure Air—Nature's Provision for Purifying the Air—Ventilation—Animal Heat—Spontaneous Combustion.
The Objects of Respiration—The Lungs—The Air-Passages—The Movements of Respiration—Expiration and Inspiration—The Frequency of Respiration—Capacity of the Lungs—The Air we breathe—Changes in the Air from Respiration—Changes in the Blood—Interchange of Gases in the Lungs—Comparison between Arterial and Venous Blood—Respiratory Labor—Impurities of the Air—Dust—Carbonic Acid—Effects of Impure Air—Nature's Provision for Purifying the Air—Ventilation—Animal Heat—Spontaneous Combustion.