see text and captionNo. 1.In order to acquire steadiness of hand, the best thing for a pupil to begin with is the cutting of tints,—that is, parallel lines; and the first attempts ought to be made on a small block such as is represented in No. 1, which will allow each entire line to be cut with the thumb resting against the edge. When lines of this length can be cut with tolerable precision, the pupil should proceed to blocks of the size of No. 2. He ought also to cut waved tints, which are not so difficult; beginning, as in straight ones, with a small block, and gradually proceeding to blocks of greater size. Should the wood not cut smoothly in the direction in which he has begun, he should reverse the block, and cut his lines in the opposite direction; for it not unfrequently happens that wood which cuts short and crumbles in one direction will cut clean and smooth the opposite way. It is here necessary to observe, that if a certain number of lines be cut in one direction, and another portion, by reversing the block, be cut the contrary way, the tint, although the same tool may have been used for all, will be of two different shades, notwithstanding the pains that may have been taken to keep the lines of an even thickness throughout. This difference in the appearance of the two portions of lines cut from opposite sides is entirely owing to the wood cutting more smoothly in one direction than another, although the difference in the resistance which it makes to the tool may not be perceptible by the hand of the engraver. It is of great importance that a pupil should be able to cut tints well before he proceeds to any other kind of work. The practice will give him steadiness of hand, and he will thus acquire a habit of carefully executing such lines, which subsequently will be of the greatest service. Wood engravers who have not been well schooled in this elementary part of their profession often cut their tints carelessly in the first instance, and, when they perceive the defect in a proof, return to their work; and, with great loss of time, keep thinning and dressing the lines, till they frequently make the tint appear worse than at first.see text and captionNo. 2.582see text and captionNo. 3.see text and captionNo. 4.When uniform tints, both of straight and waved lines, can be cut with facility, the learner should proceed to cut tints in which the lines are of unequal distance apart. To effect this, tools of different sizes are necessary; for in tints of this kind the different distances between the black lines, are according to the width of the different tools used to cut them; though in tints of a graduated tone of colour, the difference is sometimes entirely produced by increasing the pressure of the graver. In the annexed cut, No. 3, the black lines are of equal thickness, but the width of the white lines between them becomes gradually less from the top to the bottom. By comparing it with No. 4, the difference between a uniform tint, where the lines are of the same thickness and equally distant, and one where the distance between the lines is unequal, will be more readily understood.A straight-line tint, either uniform, or with the lines becoming gradually closer without appearing darker, is generally adopted to represent a clear blue sky. In No. 3 the tint has been commenced with a comparatively broad-pointed tool; and after cutting a few lines, less pressure, thus allowing the black lines to come a little closer together, has been used, till it became necessary to change the tool for one less broad in the face. In this manner a succession of tools, each finer than the preceding, has been employed till the tint was completed.—To be able to produce a tint of delicately graduatedtone, it is necessary that the engraver should be well acquainted with the use of his tools, and also have a correct eye. The following is a specimen of a tint cut entirely with the samegraver, the difference in the colour being produced by increasing the pressure in the lighter parts.see text and captionNo. 5.Tints of this kind are obtained with greater facility and certainty by using a graver, and583increasing the pressure, than by using several tint-tools. On comparing No. 3 with No. 5, it will be perceived that the black lines in the latter decrease in thickness as they approach the bottom of the cut, while in the former they are of a uniform thickness throughout. If a clear sky is to be represented, there is no other mode of making that part near the horizon appear to recede except by means of fine black lines becoming gradually closer as they descend, as seen in the tint No. 3. As the black lines in this tint are closer at the bottom than at the top, it might naturally be supposed that the colour would beproportionablystronger in that part. It is, however, known by experience that the unequal distance of the lines in such a tint does not cause any perceptible difference in the colour; as the upper lines, in consequence of their being more apart, print thicker, and thus counterbalance the effect of the greater closeness of the others.The two following cuts are specimens of tints represented by means of waved lines: in No. 6 the lines are slightly undulated; in No. 7 they have more of the appearance of zig-zag.see text and captionNo. 6.see text and captionNo. 7.Waved lines are generally introduced to represent clouds, as they not only form a contrast with the straight lines of the sky, but from their form suggest the idea of motion. It is necessary to observe, that if the alternate undulations in such lines be too much curved, the tint,584when printed, will appear as if intersected from top to bottom, like wicker-work with perpendicular stakes, in the manner shown in the following specimen, No. 8. This appearance is caused by the unequal pressure of the tool in forming the small curves of which each line is composed, thus making the black or raised line rather thicker in some parts than in others, and the white interstices wide or narrow in the same proportion. The appearance of such a tint is precisely the same whether cut by hand or by a machine.IX.15In executing waved tints it is therefore necessary to be particularly careful not to get the undulations too much curved.see text and captionNo. 8.As the choice of proper tints depends on taste, no specific rules can be laid down to guide a person in their selection. The proper use of lines of various kinds as applied to the execution of wood-cuts, is a most important consideration to the engraver, as upon their proper application all indications of form, texture, and conventional colour entirely depend. Lines are not to be introduced merely as such,—to display the mechanical skill of the engraver; they ought to be the signs of an artistic meaning, and be judged of accordingly as they serve to express it with feeling and correctness. Some wood engravers are but too apt to pride themselves on the delicacy of theirlining, without considering whether it be well adapted to express their subject; and to fancy that excellence in the art consists chiefly in cutting with great labour a number of delicate unmeaning lines. To such an extent is this carried by some of this class that they spend more time in expressing the mere scratches of the designer’s pencil in a shade than a Bewick or a Clennell would require to engrave a cut full of meaning and interest. Mere delicacy of lines will not, however, compensate for want of natural585expression, nor laborious trifling for that vigorous execution which is the result of feeling. “Expression,” says Flaxman, “engages the attention, and excites an interest which compensates for a multitude of defects—whilst the most admirable execution, without a just and lively expression, will be disregarded as laborious inanity, or contemned as an illusory endeavour to impose on the feelings and the understanding.—Sentiment gives a sterling value, an irresistible charm, to the rudest imagery or the most unpractised scrawl. By this quality a firm alliance is formed with the affections in all works of art.”IX.16Perpetrators of laborious inanities find, however, their admirers; and an amateur of such delicacies is in raptures with a specimen of “exquisitely fine lining,” and when told that such wood-peckingsare, as works of art, much inferior to the productions of Bewick, he asks where his works are to be found; and after he has examined them he pronounces them “coarse and tasteless,—the rude efforts of acountryengraver,” and not to be compared with certain delicate, but spiritless, wood engravings of the present day.see textWith respect to the direction of lines, it ought at all times to be borne in mind by the wood engraver,—and more especially when the lines are notlaid inby the designer,—that they should be disposed so as to denote the peculiar form of the object they are intended to represent. For instance, in the limb of a figure they ought not to run horizontally or vertically,—conveying the idea of either a flat surface or of a hard cylindrical form,—but with a gentle curvature suitable to the shape and the degree of rotundity required. A well chosen line makes a great difference in properly representing an object, when compared with one less appropriate, though more delicate. The proper disposition of lines will not only express the form required, but also produce morecolouras they approach each other in approximating curves, as in the following example, and thus represent a variety of light and shade, without the necessity of introducing other lines crossing them, which ought always to be avoided in small subjects: if, however, the figures be large, it is necessary to break the hard appearance of a series of such single lines by crossing them with others more delicate.In cutting curved lines, considerable difficulty is experienced by not commencing properly. For instance, if in executing a series of such lines as are shown in the preceding cut, the engraver commences at A, and works towards B, the tool will always be apt to cut through the black line already formed; whereas by commencing at B, and working towards A, the graver is always outside of the curve, and consequently586never touches the lines previously cut.IX.17This difference ought always to be borne in mind when engraving a series of curved lines, as, by commencing properly, the work is executed with greater freedom and ease, while the inconvenience arising from slips is avoided. When such lines are introduced to represent the rotundity of a limb, with a break of white in the middle expressive of its greatest prominence, as is shown in the following figure A, it is advisable that they should be firstlaid inas if intended to be continuous, as is seen in figure B, and the part which appears white in Aloweredout before beginning to cut them, as by this means all risk of their disagreeing, as in C, will be avoided.see textsee textThe rotundity of a column or similar object is represented by means of parallel lines, which are comparatively open in the middle where light is required, but which are engraved closer and thicker towards the sides to express shade. The effect of such lines will be rendered more evident by comparing the column in the annexed cut with the square base, which is represented by a series of equidistant lines, each of the same thickness as those in the middle of the column.Many more examples of tints and simple lines might be given; but, as no real benefit would be derived from them, it is needless to increase the number, and make “much ado about nothing.” Every new subject that the engraver commences presents something new for him to effect, and requires the exercise of his taste and judgment as to the best mode of executing it, so that the whole may have some claim to the character of a work of art. If a thousand examples were given, they would not enable an engraver to587execute a subject properly, unless he were endowed with that indefinablefeelingwhich at once suggests the best means of attaining his end. Such feeling may indeed be excited, but can never be perfectly communicated by rules and examples. In this respect every artist, whether a humble wood engraver, or a sculptor or a painter of the highest class, must be self-instructed; the feeling displayed in his works must be the result of his own perceptions and ideas of beauty and propriety. It is the difference in feeling, rather than any greater or less degree of excellence in the mechanical execution, that distinguishes the paintings of Raffaele from those of Le Brun, Flaxman’s statues from those of Roubilliac, and the cuts in the Lyons Dance of Death from many of the laborious inanities of the present day.Clear, unruffled water, and all bright and smooth metallic substances, are best represented by single lines; for if cross-lines be introduced, except to indicate a strong shadow, it gives to them the appearance of roughness, which is not at all in accordance with the ideas which such substances naturally excite. Objects which appear to reflect brilliant flashes of light ought to be carefully dealt with, leavingplenty of blackas a ground-work, for in wood engravings such lights can only be effectively represented by contrast with deepcolour. Reflected lights are in general best represented by means of single lines running in the direction of the object, with a few touches of white judiciously taken out. In this respect Clennell particularly excelled as a wood engraver. Painting itself can scarcely represent reflected lights with greater effect than he has expressed them in several of his cuts. In Harvey’s large cut of the Death of Dentatus, after Haydon’s noble picture, the shield of Dentatus affords an instance of reflected light most admirably represented.As my object is to point out to the uninitiated the method of cutting certain lines, rather than to engage in the fruitless task of showing how such lines are to be generally applied, I shall now proceed to offer a few observations on engraving in outline, a process with which the learner ought to be well acquainted before he attempts subjects consisting of complicated lines. The wordoutlinein wood engraving has two meanings: it is used, first, to denote the distinct boundaries of all kinds of objects; and secondly, to denote the delicate white line that is cut round any figure or object in order to form a boundary to the lines by which such figure or object is surrounded, and to thus allow of their easier liberation: it forms as it were a terminal furrow into which the lines surrounding the figure run. In speaking of this second outline in future, it will be distinguished as thewhite outline; while the other, which properly defines the different figures and forms, will be called the true or proper outline, or simply588the outline, without any distinctive additional term. As the white outline ought never to be distinctly visible in an impression, care ought to be taken, more especially where the adjacent tint is dark, not to cut it too deep or too wide. In the first of the two following cuts, the white outline, intentionally cut rather wider than is necessary, is distinctly seen from its contrast with the dark parts immediately in contact with it.see textIn the second cut of the same subject, with a different back-ground, it is less visible in consequence of the parts adjacent being light. It is, however, still distinctly seen in the shadow of the feet; but it is shown here purposely to point out an error which is sometimes committed by cutting a white outline where, as in these parts, it is not required. The white outline is here quite unnecessary, as the two blacks589ought not to be separated in such a manner; the proper intention of the white outline is not so much to define the form of the figure or object, but, as has been already explained, to make an incision in the wood as a boundary toother linescoming against it, and to allow of their being clearly liberated without injury to the proper outline of the object: when a line is cut to such a boundary, the small shaving forced out by the graver becomes immediately released, without the point of the tool coming in contact with the true outline. The old German wood engravers, who chiefly engraved large subjects on apple or pear tree, and on thesideof the wood, were not in the habit of cutting a white outline round their figures before they began to engrave them, and hence in their cuts objects frequently appearto stickto each other. The practice is now, however, so general, that in many modern wood-cuts a white line is improperly seen surrounding every figure.see textIn proceeding to engrave figures, it is advisable to commence with such as consist of little more than outline, and have no shades expressed by cross-lines. The first step in executing such a subject is to cut a white line on each side of the pencilled lines which are to remain in relief of the height of the plane surface of the block, and to form the impression when it is printed. A cut when thus engraved, and previous to the parts which are white, when printed, being cut away, or, in technical language,blocked out, would present the following appearance.IX.18see textIt is, however, necessary to observe that all the parts which require to be blocked away have been purposely retained in this cut in order to show more clearly the manner in which it is executed; for the engraver usually cuts away as he proceeds all the black masses seen within the subject. A wide margin of solid wood round the edges of the cut is,590however, generally allowed to remain until a proof be taken when the engraving is finished, as it affords a support to the paper, and prevents the exterior lines of the subject from appearing too hard. This margin, where room is allowed, is separated from the engraved parts by a moderately deep and wide furrow, and is covered with a piece of paper serving as afrisketin taking a proof impression by means of friction. In clearing away such of the black parts in the preceding cut as require to be removed, it is necessary to proceed with great care in order to avoid breaking down or cutting through the lines which are to be left in relief. When the cut is properly cleared out and blocked away, it is then finished, and when printed will appear thus:see textSculptures and bas-reliefs of any kind are generally best represented by simple outlines, with delicate parallel lines, running horizontally, to represent the ground. The following cut is from a design by Flaxman for the front of a gold snuff-box made by Rundell and Bridge for George IV. about 1827.see textThe subject of this design was intended to commemorate the General Peace concluded in 1814: to the left Agriculture is seen flourishing under the auspices of Peace; while to the right a youthful figure is seen placing a wreath above the helmet of a warrior; the trophy indicates his services, and opposite to him is seated a figure of Victory. The three other sides, and the top and bottom, were also591embellished with figures and ornaments in relief designed by Flaxman. The whole of the dies were cut in steel by Henning and Son—so well known to admirers of art from their beautiful reduced copies and restorations of the sculptures of the Parthenon preserved in the British Museum—and from these dies the plates of gold composing the box were struck, so that the figures appear in slight relief. A blank space was left in the top of the box for an enamel portrait of the King, which was afterwards inserted, surrounded with diamonds, and the margin of the lid was also ornamented in the same manner. This box is perhaps the most beautiful of the kind ever executed in any country: it may justly challenge a comparison with the drinking cups by Benvenuto Cellini, the dagger hafts designed by Durer, or the salts by Hans Holbein. The process of engraving in this style is extremely simple, as it is only necessary to leave the lines drawn in pencil untouched, and to cut away the wood on each side of them. An amateur may without much trouble teach himself to execute cuts in this manner, or to engrave fac-similes of small pen-and-ink sketches such as the annexed.IX.19see textHaving now explained the mode of procedure in outline engraving, it seems necessary, before proceeding to speak of more complicated subjects, to say a few words respecting drawings made on the block; for, however well the engraving may be executed, the cut which is a fac-simile of a bad drawing can never be a good one. An artist’s knowledge of drawing is put to the test when he begins to make designs on wood; he cannot resort, as in painting, to the trick of colour to conceal the defects of his outlines. To be efficient in the engraving, his principal figures must be distinctly made out; a drawing on the wood admits of noscumbling; black and white are the only means by which the subject can be represented; and if he be ignorant of the proper management of chiaro-scuro, and incorrect and feeble in his drawing, he will not be able592to produce a really good design for the wood engraver. Many persons can paint a tolerably good picture who are utterly incapable of making a passable drawing on wood. Their drawing will not stand the test of simple black and white; they can indicate generalities “indifferently well” by means of positive colours, but they cannot delineate individual forms correctly with the black-lead pencil. It is from this cause that we have so very few persons who professedly make designs for wood engravers; and hence the sameness of character that is to be found in so many modern wood-cuts. It is not unusual for many second and third rate painters, when applied to for a drawing for a wood-cut, to speak slightingly of the art, and to decline to furnish the design required. This generally results rather from a consciousness of their own incapacity than from any real contempt for the art. As greater painters than any now living have made designs for wood engravers in former times, a second or third rate painter of the present day surely could not be much degraded by doing the same. The true reason for the refusal, however, is generally to be found in such painter’s incapacity.The two next cuts, both drawn from the same sketch,IX.20but by different persons, will show how much depends upon having a good, artist-like drawing. The first is meagre; the second, on the contrary, is remarkably spirited, and the additional lines which are introduced not only give effect to the figure, but also in printing form a support to the more delicate parts of the outline.see text and captionNo 1.see text and captionNo. 2.593Though a learner in proceeding from one subject to another more complicated will doubtless meet with difficulties which may occasionally damp his ardour, yet he will encounter none which will not yield to earnest perseverance. As it is not likely that any amateur practising the art merely for amusement would be inclined to test his patience by proceeding beyond outline engraving, the succeeding remarks are more especially addressed to those who may wish to apply themselves to wood engraving as a profession.When beginning to engrave in outline, it is advisable that the subjects first attempted should be of the most simple kind,—similar, for instance, to the preceding figure marked No. 1. When facility in executing cuts in this style is obtained, the learner may proceed to engrave such as are slightly shaded, and have a back-ground indicated as in No. 2. He may next proceed to subjects containing a greater variety of lines, and requiring greater neatness of execution, but should by no means endeavour to get on too fast by attempting to domuchbefore he can do a littlewell. Whatever kind of subject be chosen, particular attention ought to be paid to the causes of failure and success in the execution. By diligently noting what produces a good effect in certain subjects, he will, under similar circumstances, be prepared to apply the same means; and by attending to the faults in his work he will be the more careful to avoid them in future. The group of figures here, selected from Sir David Wilkie’s picture of the Rent Day, will serve as an example of a cut executed by comparatively simple means; the subject is also594such a one as a pupil may attempt after he has made some progress in engraving slightly shaded figures. There are no complicated lines which are difficult to execute; the hatchings are few, and of simple character; and for the execution of the whole, as here represented, nothing is required but afeelingfor the subject; and a moderate degree of skill in the use of the graver, combined with patient application.see textWhen the pupil is thus far advanced, he ought, in subjects of this kind, to avoid introducing more work, more especially in the features, than he can execute with comparative facility and precision; for, by attempting to attain excellence before he has arrived at mediocrity, he will be very likely to fail, and instead of having reason to congratulate himself on his success, experience nothing but disappointment. To make wood engraving an interesting, instead of an irksome study to young persons, I would recommend for their practice not only such subjects as are likely to engage their attention, but also such as they may be able to finish before they become weary of their task. At this period every endeavour ought to be made to smooth the pupil’s way by giving him such subjects to execute as will rather serve to stimulate his exertions than exhaust his patience. Little characteristic figures, like the one here copied, from one of Hogarth’s plates of the Four Parts of the Day, seem most suitable for this purpose. A subject of this kind does not contain so much work as to render a young person tired of it before595it be finished; while at the same time it serves to exercise him in the practice of the art and to engage his attention.see textWhen a pupil feels no interest in what he is employed on, he will seldom execute his work well; and when he is kept too long in engraving subjects that merely try his patience, he is apt to lose all taste for the art, and become a mere mechanical cutter of lines, without caring for what they express.Such a cut as the following—copied from an etching by Rembrandt—will form a useful exercise to the pupil, after he has attained facility in the execution of outline subjects, while at the same time it will serve to display the excellent effect in wood engravings of well contrasted light and shade. The hog—which is here the principal object—immediately arrests the eye, while the figures in the back-ground, being introduced merely to aid the composition and form a medium between the dark colour of the animal and the white paper, consist of little more than outline, and are comparatively light. In engraving the hog, it is necessary to exercise a little judgment in representing the bristly hair, and intouchingthe details effectively.see textWhen a learner has made some progress, he may attempt such a cut as that on the next page in order to exercise himself in the appropriate representation of animal texture. The subject is a dray-horse, formerly belonging to Messrs. Meux and Co., and the drawing was made on the block by James Ward, R.A., one of the most distinguished animal painters of the present time. Such a cut, though executed by simple596means, affords an excellent test of a learner’s skill and discrimination: the hide is smooth and glossy; the mane is thick and tangled; the long flowing hair of the tail has to be represented in a proper manner; and the markings of the joints require the exercise of both judgment and skill. By attending to such distinctions at the commencement of his career, he will find less difficulty in representing objects by appropriate texture when he shall have made greater progress, and will not be entirely dependent on a designer tolay infor him every line. An engraver who requires every line to be drawn, and who is only capable of executing a fac-simile of a design made for him on the block, can never excel.see textAs enough perhaps has been said in explanation of the manner of cutting tints, and of figures chiefly represented by single lines, I shall now give a cut—Jacob blessing the children of Joseph—in which single-lined figures and tint are combined. It is necessary to observe that this cut is not introduced as a good specimen of engraving, but as being well adapted, from the simplicity of its execution, to illustrate what I have to say. The figures are represented by single lines, which require the exercise of no great degree of skill; and by the introduction of a varied tint as a back-ground the cut appears like a complete subject, and not like a sketch, or a detached group.It is necessary to remark here, that when comparatively light objects, such as the figures here seen, are to be relieved by a tint of any kind, whether darker or lighter, such objects are now generally separated from it by a black outline. The reason for leaving such an outline in parts where the conjunction of the tint and the figures does not render it absolutelynecessaryis this: as those parts in a cut which appear white597in the impression are to be cut away—as has already been explained,—it frequently happens that when they are cut awayfirst, and the tint cut afterwards, the wood breaks away near the termination of the line before the tool arrives at the blank or white. It is, therefore, extremely difficult to preserve a distinct outline in this manner, and hence a blackconventionaloutline is introduced in those parts where properly there ought to be none, except such as is formed by the tintrelievingagainst the white parts, as is seen in the back part of the head of Jacob in the present cut, where there is no other outline than that which is formed by the tint relieving against his white cap. Bewick used to execute all his subjects in this manner; but he not unfrequently carried this principle too far, not only running the lines of his tints into the white on thelightside of his figures,—that is, on the side on which the light falls,—but also on both sides of a light object.see textBefore dismissing this part of the subject, it is necessary to observe further, that when the white parts are cut away before the tint is introduced, the conventional black outline is very liable to be cut through by the tool slipping. This will be rendered more intelligible by an inspection of the following cut,IX.21where the house is seen finished,598and the part where a tint is intended to be subsequently engraved appears black. Any person in the least acquainted with the practice of wood engraving, will perceive, that should the tool happen to slip when near the finished parts, in coming directly towards them, it will be very likely to cut the outline through, and to make a breach in proportion as such outline may be thin, and thus yield more readily to the force of the tool.see textWhen the tint is cutfirst, instead of being left to be executed last, as it would be in the preceding cut, the mass of wood out of which the house is subsequently engraved serves as a kind of barrier to the tool in the event of its slipping, and allows of the tint being cut with less risk quite up to the white outline. By attending to such matters, and considering what part of a subject can be most safely executed first, a learner will both avoid the risk of cutting through his outline, and be enabled to execute his work with comparative facility. The following cut is an example of the tint being cut first. For the information of those who are unacquainted with the process of wood engraving, it is necessary to remark that the parts which appear positively black are those which remain untouched by the graver.see text599The following subject, copied from one of Rembrandt’s etchings, is chiefly represented by black lines crossing each other. Such lines, usually termedcross-hatchings, are executed with great facility in copper and steel, where they are cutintothe metal; but in wood engraving, where they are left inrelief, it requires considerable time and attention to execute them with delicacy and precision. In order to explain more clearly the difficulty of executing cross-hatchings, let it be conceived that this cut is a drawing made on a block, and that the engraver’s object is to produce a fac-simile of it: now, as each black line is to be left in relief, it is evident that he cannot imitate the cross-hatchings seen in the arms, the neck, and other parts, by cutting the lines continuously as in engraving on copper, which puts blackinby means of an incision, while in wood engraving a similar line takes itout. As the wood engraver, then, can only obtain white by cutting out the parts that are to appear so in the impression, while the black is to be left in relief, the only manner in which he is enabled to representcross-hatchings, orblack lines crossing each other, is to cut out singly with his graver every one of the white interstices. Such an operation, as will be evident from an inspection of this cut, necessarily requires not only patience, but also considerable skill to perform it in a proper manner,—that is, to cut each600white space cleanly out, and to preserve the lines of a regular thickness. From the supposed impossibility of executing such cross lines, it has been conjectured that many of the old wood-cuts containing such work were engraved in metallic relief: this opinion, however, is sufficiently refuted, by the fact of hundreds of blocks containing cross-hatchings being still in existence, and by the much more delicate and difficult work of the same kind displayed in modern wood engravings. Not only are cross-hatchings of the greatest delicacy now executed in England, but to such a degree of refinement is the process occasionally carried, that small blacktouches—such as may be perceived in the preceding cut in the folds of the sleeve above the elbow of the right arm—are left in the white interstices between the lines. Cross-hatchings, where the interstices are entirely white, are executed by means of a lozenge-pointed tool, and the piece of wood is removed at twocuts, each beginning at the opposite angles. Where a small black touch is left within the interstices, the operation becomes more difficult, and is performed by cutting round such minute touch of black with a finely pointed graver.see textThe various conjectures that have been propounded respecting the mode in which cross-hatchings have been effected in old wood-cuts require no argument to refute them, as they are directly contradicted both by undoubted historical facts, and by every day’s experience. Vegetable putties, punches, and metallic relief are nothing but the trifling speculations of persons who are fonder of propounding theories to display their own ingenuity than willing to investigate facts in order to arrive at the truth. It has happened rather unfortunately, that most persons who have hitherto written upon the subject have known very little about the practice of wood engraving, and have not thought it worth their while to consult those who were able to give them information. There is, however, no fear now of a young wood engraver being deterred from attempting cross-hatchings on learning from certain heretofore authorities on the subject that such work could not be executed on wood. He now laughs atvegetable putties,square-pointed punchesfor indenting the block to produce cross-hatchings, andmetallic relief: by means of his graver alone he produces a practical refutation of every baseless theory that has been propounded on the subject.The right leg of Dentatus in Mr. Harvey’s large wood engraving after Mr. Haydon’s picture is perhaps the most beautiful specimen of cross-hatching that ever was executed on wood; and, in my opinion, it is the best engraved part of the whole subject. Through the kindness of Mr. Harvey, I have obtained a cast of this portion of the block, from which the present impression is printed. The lines showing the muscular rotundity and action of the limb are as admirablylaid inas they are beautifully engraved. In the wider and stronger cross-hatchings601of the drapery above, the small black touches previously mentioned are perceived in the lozenge-shaped interstices.see textFrom an opinion that the excellence of an engraving consists chiefly in the difficulty of its execution, we now frequently find cross-hatchings in several modern wood-cuts, more especially in such as are manufactured for the French market, where a better effect would have been produced by simpler means. Cross-hatchings,properly introduced, undoubtedly improve a subject; and some parts of large figures, such as the leg of Dentatus, cannot be well expressed without their aid, as a series of curved lines on a limb, when not crossed, generally cause it to appear stiff and rigid. By crossing them, however, by other lines properlylaid in, the part assumes a most soft and natural appearance.602As the greatest advantage which wood engraving possesses over copper is the effective manner in which strongly contrasted light and shade can be represented, Rembrandt’s etchings,—which, like his paintings, are distinguished by the skilful management of the chiaro-scuro—form excellent studies for the engraver or designer on wood who should wish to become well acquainted with the capabilities of the art. A delicate wood-cut, executed in imitation of a smooth steel-engraving of “sober grey” tone, is sure to be tame and insipid; and whenever wood engravers attempt to give to their cuts the appearance of copper or steel-plates, and neglect the peculiar advantages of their own art, they are sure to fail, notwithstanding the pains they may bestow. Their work, instead of being commended as a successful application of the peculiar means of the art, is in effect condemned by being regarded as “a cleverimitationof a copper-plate.”see textThe above cut of Christ and the Woman of Samaria, copied from an etching by Rembrandt, will perhaps more forcibly illustrate what has been said with respect to wood engraving being excellently adapted to effectively express strong contrasts of light and shade. The original etching—which has been faithfully copied—is a good example of603Rembrandt’s consummate skill in the management of chiaro-scuro; everything that he has wished to forcibly express immediately arrests the eye, while in the whole design nothing appears abrupt. The extremes of light and shade concentre in the principal figure, that of Christ, and to this everything else in the composition is either subordinate or accessory. The middle tint under the arched passage forms a medium between the darkness of Christ’s robe and the shade under the curve of the nearest arch, and the light in the front of his figure is gradually carried off to the left through the medium of the woman and the distant buildings, which gradually approach to the colour of the paper. Were a tint, however delicate, introduced in this subject to represent the sky, the effect would be destroyed; the parts which are now so effective would appear spotted and confused, and have a crude, unfinished appearance. By the injudicious introduction of a tinted sky many wood-cuts, which would otherwise be striking and effective, are quite spoiled.It but too frequently happens when works are illustrated with wood-cuts, that subjects are chosen which the art cannot successfully represent. Whether the work to be illustrated be matter of fact or fiction, the designer, unless he be acquainted both with the capabilities and defects of the art, seldom thinks of more than making a drawing according to his own fancy, and never takes into consideration the means by which it has to be executed. To this inattention may be traced many failures in works illustrated with wood-cuts, and for which the engraver is censured, although he may have, with great care and skill, accomplished all that the art could effect. An artist who is desirous that his designs, when engraved on wood, should appear like impressions fromover-donesteel-plates, ought never to be employed to make drawings for wood engravers: he does not understand the peculiar advantages of the art, and his designs will only have a tendency to bring it into contempt, while those who execute them will be blamed for the defects which are the result of his want of knowledge.Delicate wood engravings which are made to look well in a proof on India paper by rubbing the ink partially off the block in the lighter parts—in the manner described by Papillon at page 466—generally present a very different appearance when printed, either with or without types in the same page. Lines which are cut too thin are very liable to turn down in printing from their want of support; and hence cuts consisting chiefly of such lines are seldom so durable as those which display more black, and are executed in a more bold and effective style. A designer who understands the peculiarities of wood engraving will avoid introducing delicate lines in parts where they receive no support from others of greater strength or closeness near to them, but are exposed604to the unmitigated force of the press. Cuts in proportion to the quantity ofcolourwhich they display are so much the better enabled to bear the action of the press; the delicate lines which they contain, from their receiving support from the others, are not only less liable to break down, but, from their contrast with the darker parts of the subject, appear to greater advantage than in a cut which is of a uniformly grey tone. I am not, however, the advocate ofblack, and little else, in a wood-cut; on the contrary, I am perfectly aware of the absurdity of introducing patches of black without either meaning or effect. What I wish to inculcate is, that a wood-cut to have a good effect must contain more of properly contrasted black and white than those who wish their cuts to appear like imitations of steel or copper-plate engravings are willing to allow. As wood engraving is not well adapted to represent subjects requiring great delicacy of lines and variety of tints, such will be generally avoided by a designer who understands the art; while, on the contrary, he will avail himself of its advantages in representing well contrasted light and shade in a manner superior to either copper-plate or steel engraving. Of all modern engravers on wood, none understood the advantages of their art in this respect better than Bewick and Clennell: the cuts of their engraving are generally the most effective that have ever been executed.Night-pieces, where the light is seen proceeding from a lantern, a lamp, or any other luminous object, can be well represented by means of wood engraving, although such subjects are very seldom attempted. An engraved wood-block, which contains a considerable proportion of positive black, prints much better than a copper-plate engraving of the same kind; in the former the ink is distributed of an even thickness over thesurface, and is evenly pressed upon the paper; in the latter the ink forms a little pool in thehollowed parts, and, instead of being evenly taken up by the paper which ispressed intoit, adheres only partially, thus giving in the corresponding parts a blurred appearance to the impression. For the effective representation of such scenes as Meg Merrilies watching by a feeble light the dying struggles of a smuggler, or Dirk Hatterick in the Cave, from Sir Walter Scott’s Guy Mannering, wood engraving is peculiarly adapted,—that is, supposing the designer, in addition to possessing a knowledge of chiaro-scuro, to be also capable of drawing correctly, and of treating the subject with properfeeling. Some idea of the capability of the art in this respect may be formed from the following cut—the Flight into Egypt,—copied from an etching by Rembrandt. The mere work in this cut is of a very simple character; there are no lines of difficult execution; and the only parts that are lowered are those which represent the rays of light seen proceeding from the lantern.605see textAs the wood engraver can always get his subjectlighter, but cannot reproduce the black which he has cut away, he ought to be careful not to get his subject too light before he has taken a proof; and even in reducing thecolouraccording to the touchings of the designer on the proof, he ought to proceed with great circumspection; and where his own judgment informs him that to take out all the black marked for excision would be to spoil the cut, the safest mode would be to take out only a part, and not remove all at once; for by strictly adhering to the directions of an artist who knows very little of the real advantages of wood engraving, it will not unfrequently happen that the cut so amended will to himself, when printed, appear worse than it did in its first state. In the following cut too much has been done in this respect; it has been touched and retouched so often, in order to make it appear delicate, that the spirit of the original drawing has been entirely lost. In this instance the fault was not that of the artist, but of the engraver, who “would not let well alone;” but, in order to improve his work, as he606fancied, kepttrimmingthe parts which gave effect to the whole till he made it what it now appears. So far as relates to the execution of the lines, the subject need not have been better; but, from the engraver’s having taken away too much colour in places where it was necessary, the whole has the appearance of middle tint, the excellence of the original drawing is lost, and in its stead we have a dull, misty, spiritless wood engraving.see textIn every cut there ought to be a principal object to first arrest the attention; and if this cannot be effected from want of interest in such object considered singly, the designer ought to make the general subject607pleasing to the eye by skilful composition or combination of forms, and the effective distribution of light and shade.see textThe preceding cut—a moonlight scene—when compared with the previous one, will show how much depends on an engraver having a properfeelingfor his subject. So far as relates to the mere execution of the lines, this cut is decidedly inferior to the former; but, viewed as a production of art, and as a spirited representation of the original drawing, it is very much superior: in the former we see little more than mechanical dexterity; while in the latter we perceive that the engraver has, from a greater knowledge of his art, produced a pleasing effect by comparatively simple means. The former cut displays more mechanical skill; the latter more artistic feeling. The one contains much delicate work, but is deficient in spirit; the other, which has been produced with little more than half the labour, is more effective because the subject has been better understood.The following cut, representing a landscape, with the effect of the setting sun, displays great delicacy of execution; but the labour here is not thrown away, as in the sea-piece just mentioned: manual dexterity in the use of the graver is combined with the knowledge of an artist, and the result is a wood engraving at once delicate in execution and spirited in its general effect.see textA volume might be filled with examples and comments on them, and I might, like Papillon,instructthe reader in the practice of the art, by informing him how many times the graver would have to enter the wood in order to produce a certain number of lines in relief; but I have no inclination to do either the one or the other: my object is to make608a few observations on some of the most important and least understood points in the practice of wood engraving, and to illustrate them with examples, rather than to enter into minute details, which would be uninteresting to the general reader, and useless to the learner who has made any progress in the art. The person who wishes to acquire a knowledge of wood engraving, with the view of practising it professionally, must generally be guided by his own judgment and feeling; for he who requires the aid of rules and examples in every possible case will never attain excellence. A learner ought not to put much trust in what is said about the beautiful wood-cuts—orplates, as some critics call them—which appear in modern publications. He ought to examine for himself, and not pin his faith to ephemeral commendations, which are often the customary acknowledgment for a presentation copy of the work. It is not unusual to find very ordinary wood-cuts praised as displaying the very perfection of the art, while others of much greater merit are entirely overlooked.The person who wishes to excel as a wood engraver,—that is, to display in his cuts the knowledge and feeling of an artist, as well as the mechanical dexterity of a workman,—ought always to bear in mind that those who rank highest in modern times, not only as engravers, but also as designers on wood, have generally adopted the simplest means of effecting their purpose, and have never introduced unmeaning cross-hatchings, when working from their own drawings, merely to display their skill in execution. In representing a peasant supping his porridge, they have not spent a day on the figure, and two in delicately engraving the bowl. It may almost be said that Bewick never employed cross-hatchings; for, in the two or three instances in which he introduced such lines, it has been rather for the sake of experiment than to improve the appearance of the cut. Though one of the finest specimens of this kind of work ever executed on wood is to be found in Mr. Harvey’s cut of Dentatus, yet, on other occasions, when he engraved his own designs, he seldom introduced cross-hatchings when he could accomplish the same object by simpler means. A wood engraving, viewed as awork of art, isnotgood in proportion as many of its parts have the appearance of fine lace. Bewick’s birds and tail-pieces are not, in my opinion, less excellent because they do not display so muchworkas a modern wood-cut which contains numerous cross-hatchings. Several of the best French designers on wood of the present day appear to have formed erroneous opinions on this subject; and hence we find in many of their designs much of the engraver’s time spent in the execution of parts which are unimportant, while others, where expression or feeling ought to be shown, are treated in a careless manner. Many of their designs seem to have been made rather to test the patience609of the engraver as aworkmanthan to display his ability as anartist. The following cut, from a cast of a part of the Death of Dentatus, is introduced to show in how simple and effective a manner Mr. Harvey has represented the shield of the hero. An inferior artist would be very likely to represent such an object by means of complicated lines, which, while they would be less effective, would require nearly a week to engrave.see textConsidering the number of wood engravings that are yearly executed in this country, it is rather surprising that there should hitherto have been so few persons capable of making a good drawing on wood. Till within610the last few years, it might be said that there was probably not more than oneartistin the kingdom possessing a knowledge of design who professionally devoted himself to making drawings on the block for wood engravers. Whenever a good original design is wanted, there are still but few persons to whom the English wood engraver can apply with the certainty of obtaining it; for though some of our most distinguished painters have occasionally furnished designs to be engraved on wood, it has mostly been as a matter of especial favour to an individual who had an interest in the work in which such designs were to appear. In this respect we are behind our French neighbours; the more common kind of French wood-cuts containing figures are much superior to our own of the same class; the drawing is much more correct, more attention is paid to costume, and in the details we perceive the indications of much greater knowledge of art than is generally to be found in the productions of our second-rate occasional designers on wood. It cannot be said that this deficiency results from want of encouragement; for a designer on wood, of even moderate abilities, is better paid for his drawings than a second-rate painter is for his pictures. The truth is, that a taste for correct drawing has hitherto not been sufficiently cultivated in England: our artists are painters before they can draw; and hence, comparatively few can make a good design on wood. They require the aid of positive colours to deceive the eye, and prevent it from resting upon the defects of their drawing. It is therefore of great importance that a wood engraver should have some knowledge of drawing himself, in order that he may be able to correct many of the defects that are to be found in the commoner kind of subjects sent to him to be engraved.In the execution of subjects which require considerable time, but little more than the exercise of mechanical skill, it is frequently advisable to adopt the principle ofthe division of labour, and have the work performed, as it were, by instalments, allotting to each person that portion of the subject which he is likely to execute best. In this manner the annexed cut of Rouen Cathedral has been engraved by four different persons; and the result of their joint labours is such a work as not even the best engraver of the four could have executed by himself. Each having to do but a little, and that of the kind of work in which he excelled, has workedcon amore, and finished his task before he became weary of it.
see text and captionNo. 1.
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No. 1.
In order to acquire steadiness of hand, the best thing for a pupil to begin with is the cutting of tints,—that is, parallel lines; and the first attempts ought to be made on a small block such as is represented in No. 1, which will allow each entire line to be cut with the thumb resting against the edge. When lines of this length can be cut with tolerable precision, the pupil should proceed to blocks of the size of No. 2. He ought also to cut waved tints, which are not so difficult; beginning, as in straight ones, with a small block, and gradually proceeding to blocks of greater size. Should the wood not cut smoothly in the direction in which he has begun, he should reverse the block, and cut his lines in the opposite direction; for it not unfrequently happens that wood which cuts short and crumbles in one direction will cut clean and smooth the opposite way. It is here necessary to observe, that if a certain number of lines be cut in one direction, and another portion, by reversing the block, be cut the contrary way, the tint, although the same tool may have been used for all, will be of two different shades, notwithstanding the pains that may have been taken to keep the lines of an even thickness throughout. This difference in the appearance of the two portions of lines cut from opposite sides is entirely owing to the wood cutting more smoothly in one direction than another, although the difference in the resistance which it makes to the tool may not be perceptible by the hand of the engraver. It is of great importance that a pupil should be able to cut tints well before he proceeds to any other kind of work. The practice will give him steadiness of hand, and he will thus acquire a habit of carefully executing such lines, which subsequently will be of the greatest service. Wood engravers who have not been well schooled in this elementary part of their profession often cut their tints carelessly in the first instance, and, when they perceive the defect in a proof, return to their work; and, with great loss of time, keep thinning and dressing the lines, till they frequently make the tint appear worse than at first.
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No. 2.
see text and captionNo. 3.see text and captionNo. 4.
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No. 3.
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No. 4.
When uniform tints, both of straight and waved lines, can be cut with facility, the learner should proceed to cut tints in which the lines are of unequal distance apart. To effect this, tools of different sizes are necessary; for in tints of this kind the different distances between the black lines, are according to the width of the different tools used to cut them; though in tints of a graduated tone of colour, the difference is sometimes entirely produced by increasing the pressure of the graver. In the annexed cut, No. 3, the black lines are of equal thickness, but the width of the white lines between them becomes gradually less from the top to the bottom. By comparing it with No. 4, the difference between a uniform tint, where the lines are of the same thickness and equally distant, and one where the distance between the lines is unequal, will be more readily understood.
A straight-line tint, either uniform, or with the lines becoming gradually closer without appearing darker, is generally adopted to represent a clear blue sky. In No. 3 the tint has been commenced with a comparatively broad-pointed tool; and after cutting a few lines, less pressure, thus allowing the black lines to come a little closer together, has been used, till it became necessary to change the tool for one less broad in the face. In this manner a succession of tools, each finer than the preceding, has been employed till the tint was completed.—To be able to produce a tint of delicately graduatedtone, it is necessary that the engraver should be well acquainted with the use of his tools, and also have a correct eye. The following is a specimen of a tint cut entirely with the samegraver, the difference in the colour being produced by increasing the pressure in the lighter parts.
see text and captionNo. 5.
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No. 5.
Tints of this kind are obtained with greater facility and certainty by using a graver, and583increasing the pressure, than by using several tint-tools. On comparing No. 3 with No. 5, it will be perceived that the black lines in the latter decrease in thickness as they approach the bottom of the cut, while in the former they are of a uniform thickness throughout. If a clear sky is to be represented, there is no other mode of making that part near the horizon appear to recede except by means of fine black lines becoming gradually closer as they descend, as seen in the tint No. 3. As the black lines in this tint are closer at the bottom than at the top, it might naturally be supposed that the colour would beproportionablystronger in that part. It is, however, known by experience that the unequal distance of the lines in such a tint does not cause any perceptible difference in the colour; as the upper lines, in consequence of their being more apart, print thicker, and thus counterbalance the effect of the greater closeness of the others.
The two following cuts are specimens of tints represented by means of waved lines: in No. 6 the lines are slightly undulated; in No. 7 they have more of the appearance of zig-zag.
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No. 6.
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No. 7.
Waved lines are generally introduced to represent clouds, as they not only form a contrast with the straight lines of the sky, but from their form suggest the idea of motion. It is necessary to observe, that if the alternate undulations in such lines be too much curved, the tint,584when printed, will appear as if intersected from top to bottom, like wicker-work with perpendicular stakes, in the manner shown in the following specimen, No. 8. This appearance is caused by the unequal pressure of the tool in forming the small curves of which each line is composed, thus making the black or raised line rather thicker in some parts than in others, and the white interstices wide or narrow in the same proportion. The appearance of such a tint is precisely the same whether cut by hand or by a machine.IX.15In executing waved tints it is therefore necessary to be particularly careful not to get the undulations too much curved.
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No. 8.
As the choice of proper tints depends on taste, no specific rules can be laid down to guide a person in their selection. The proper use of lines of various kinds as applied to the execution of wood-cuts, is a most important consideration to the engraver, as upon their proper application all indications of form, texture, and conventional colour entirely depend. Lines are not to be introduced merely as such,—to display the mechanical skill of the engraver; they ought to be the signs of an artistic meaning, and be judged of accordingly as they serve to express it with feeling and correctness. Some wood engravers are but too apt to pride themselves on the delicacy of theirlining, without considering whether it be well adapted to express their subject; and to fancy that excellence in the art consists chiefly in cutting with great labour a number of delicate unmeaning lines. To such an extent is this carried by some of this class that they spend more time in expressing the mere scratches of the designer’s pencil in a shade than a Bewick or a Clennell would require to engrave a cut full of meaning and interest. Mere delicacy of lines will not, however, compensate for want of natural585expression, nor laborious trifling for that vigorous execution which is the result of feeling. “Expression,” says Flaxman, “engages the attention, and excites an interest which compensates for a multitude of defects—whilst the most admirable execution, without a just and lively expression, will be disregarded as laborious inanity, or contemned as an illusory endeavour to impose on the feelings and the understanding.—Sentiment gives a sterling value, an irresistible charm, to the rudest imagery or the most unpractised scrawl. By this quality a firm alliance is formed with the affections in all works of art.”IX.16Perpetrators of laborious inanities find, however, their admirers; and an amateur of such delicacies is in raptures with a specimen of “exquisitely fine lining,” and when told that such wood-peckingsare, as works of art, much inferior to the productions of Bewick, he asks where his works are to be found; and after he has examined them he pronounces them “coarse and tasteless,—the rude efforts of acountryengraver,” and not to be compared with certain delicate, but spiritless, wood engravings of the present day.
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With respect to the direction of lines, it ought at all times to be borne in mind by the wood engraver,—and more especially when the lines are notlaid inby the designer,—that they should be disposed so as to denote the peculiar form of the object they are intended to represent. For instance, in the limb of a figure they ought not to run horizontally or vertically,—conveying the idea of either a flat surface or of a hard cylindrical form,—but with a gentle curvature suitable to the shape and the degree of rotundity required. A well chosen line makes a great difference in properly representing an object, when compared with one less appropriate, though more delicate. The proper disposition of lines will not only express the form required, but also produce morecolouras they approach each other in approximating curves, as in the following example, and thus represent a variety of light and shade, without the necessity of introducing other lines crossing them, which ought always to be avoided in small subjects: if, however, the figures be large, it is necessary to break the hard appearance of a series of such single lines by crossing them with others more delicate.
In cutting curved lines, considerable difficulty is experienced by not commencing properly. For instance, if in executing a series of such lines as are shown in the preceding cut, the engraver commences at A, and works towards B, the tool will always be apt to cut through the black line already formed; whereas by commencing at B, and working towards A, the graver is always outside of the curve, and consequently586never touches the lines previously cut.IX.17This difference ought always to be borne in mind when engraving a series of curved lines, as, by commencing properly, the work is executed with greater freedom and ease, while the inconvenience arising from slips is avoided. When such lines are introduced to represent the rotundity of a limb, with a break of white in the middle expressive of its greatest prominence, as is shown in the following figure A, it is advisable that they should be firstlaid inas if intended to be continuous, as is seen in figure B, and the part which appears white in Aloweredout before beginning to cut them, as by this means all risk of their disagreeing, as in C, will be avoided.
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The rotundity of a column or similar object is represented by means of parallel lines, which are comparatively open in the middle where light is required, but which are engraved closer and thicker towards the sides to express shade. The effect of such lines will be rendered more evident by comparing the column in the annexed cut with the square base, which is represented by a series of equidistant lines, each of the same thickness as those in the middle of the column.
Many more examples of tints and simple lines might be given; but, as no real benefit would be derived from them, it is needless to increase the number, and make “much ado about nothing.” Every new subject that the engraver commences presents something new for him to effect, and requires the exercise of his taste and judgment as to the best mode of executing it, so that the whole may have some claim to the character of a work of art. If a thousand examples were given, they would not enable an engraver to587execute a subject properly, unless he were endowed with that indefinablefeelingwhich at once suggests the best means of attaining his end. Such feeling may indeed be excited, but can never be perfectly communicated by rules and examples. In this respect every artist, whether a humble wood engraver, or a sculptor or a painter of the highest class, must be self-instructed; the feeling displayed in his works must be the result of his own perceptions and ideas of beauty and propriety. It is the difference in feeling, rather than any greater or less degree of excellence in the mechanical execution, that distinguishes the paintings of Raffaele from those of Le Brun, Flaxman’s statues from those of Roubilliac, and the cuts in the Lyons Dance of Death from many of the laborious inanities of the present day.
Clear, unruffled water, and all bright and smooth metallic substances, are best represented by single lines; for if cross-lines be introduced, except to indicate a strong shadow, it gives to them the appearance of roughness, which is not at all in accordance with the ideas which such substances naturally excite. Objects which appear to reflect brilliant flashes of light ought to be carefully dealt with, leavingplenty of blackas a ground-work, for in wood engravings such lights can only be effectively represented by contrast with deepcolour. Reflected lights are in general best represented by means of single lines running in the direction of the object, with a few touches of white judiciously taken out. In this respect Clennell particularly excelled as a wood engraver. Painting itself can scarcely represent reflected lights with greater effect than he has expressed them in several of his cuts. In Harvey’s large cut of the Death of Dentatus, after Haydon’s noble picture, the shield of Dentatus affords an instance of reflected light most admirably represented.
As my object is to point out to the uninitiated the method of cutting certain lines, rather than to engage in the fruitless task of showing how such lines are to be generally applied, I shall now proceed to offer a few observations on engraving in outline, a process with which the learner ought to be well acquainted before he attempts subjects consisting of complicated lines. The wordoutlinein wood engraving has two meanings: it is used, first, to denote the distinct boundaries of all kinds of objects; and secondly, to denote the delicate white line that is cut round any figure or object in order to form a boundary to the lines by which such figure or object is surrounded, and to thus allow of their easier liberation: it forms as it were a terminal furrow into which the lines surrounding the figure run. In speaking of this second outline in future, it will be distinguished as thewhite outline; while the other, which properly defines the different figures and forms, will be called the true or proper outline, or simply588the outline, without any distinctive additional term. As the white outline ought never to be distinctly visible in an impression, care ought to be taken, more especially where the adjacent tint is dark, not to cut it too deep or too wide. In the first of the two following cuts, the white outline, intentionally cut rather wider than is necessary, is distinctly seen from its contrast with the dark parts immediately in contact with it.
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In the second cut of the same subject, with a different back-ground, it is less visible in consequence of the parts adjacent being light. It is, however, still distinctly seen in the shadow of the feet; but it is shown here purposely to point out an error which is sometimes committed by cutting a white outline where, as in these parts, it is not required. The white outline is here quite unnecessary, as the two blacks589ought not to be separated in such a manner; the proper intention of the white outline is not so much to define the form of the figure or object, but, as has been already explained, to make an incision in the wood as a boundary toother linescoming against it, and to allow of their being clearly liberated without injury to the proper outline of the object: when a line is cut to such a boundary, the small shaving forced out by the graver becomes immediately released, without the point of the tool coming in contact with the true outline. The old German wood engravers, who chiefly engraved large subjects on apple or pear tree, and on thesideof the wood, were not in the habit of cutting a white outline round their figures before they began to engrave them, and hence in their cuts objects frequently appearto stickto each other. The practice is now, however, so general, that in many modern wood-cuts a white line is improperly seen surrounding every figure.
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In proceeding to engrave figures, it is advisable to commence with such as consist of little more than outline, and have no shades expressed by cross-lines. The first step in executing such a subject is to cut a white line on each side of the pencilled lines which are to remain in relief of the height of the plane surface of the block, and to form the impression when it is printed. A cut when thus engraved, and previous to the parts which are white, when printed, being cut away, or, in technical language,blocked out, would present the following appearance.IX.18
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It is, however, necessary to observe that all the parts which require to be blocked away have been purposely retained in this cut in order to show more clearly the manner in which it is executed; for the engraver usually cuts away as he proceeds all the black masses seen within the subject. A wide margin of solid wood round the edges of the cut is,590however, generally allowed to remain until a proof be taken when the engraving is finished, as it affords a support to the paper, and prevents the exterior lines of the subject from appearing too hard. This margin, where room is allowed, is separated from the engraved parts by a moderately deep and wide furrow, and is covered with a piece of paper serving as afrisketin taking a proof impression by means of friction. In clearing away such of the black parts in the preceding cut as require to be removed, it is necessary to proceed with great care in order to avoid breaking down or cutting through the lines which are to be left in relief. When the cut is properly cleared out and blocked away, it is then finished, and when printed will appear thus:
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Sculptures and bas-reliefs of any kind are generally best represented by simple outlines, with delicate parallel lines, running horizontally, to represent the ground. The following cut is from a design by Flaxman for the front of a gold snuff-box made by Rundell and Bridge for George IV. about 1827.
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The subject of this design was intended to commemorate the General Peace concluded in 1814: to the left Agriculture is seen flourishing under the auspices of Peace; while to the right a youthful figure is seen placing a wreath above the helmet of a warrior; the trophy indicates his services, and opposite to him is seated a figure of Victory. The three other sides, and the top and bottom, were also591embellished with figures and ornaments in relief designed by Flaxman. The whole of the dies were cut in steel by Henning and Son—so well known to admirers of art from their beautiful reduced copies and restorations of the sculptures of the Parthenon preserved in the British Museum—and from these dies the plates of gold composing the box were struck, so that the figures appear in slight relief. A blank space was left in the top of the box for an enamel portrait of the King, which was afterwards inserted, surrounded with diamonds, and the margin of the lid was also ornamented in the same manner. This box is perhaps the most beautiful of the kind ever executed in any country: it may justly challenge a comparison with the drinking cups by Benvenuto Cellini, the dagger hafts designed by Durer, or the salts by Hans Holbein. The process of engraving in this style is extremely simple, as it is only necessary to leave the lines drawn in pencil untouched, and to cut away the wood on each side of them. An amateur may without much trouble teach himself to execute cuts in this manner, or to engrave fac-similes of small pen-and-ink sketches such as the annexed.IX.19
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Having now explained the mode of procedure in outline engraving, it seems necessary, before proceeding to speak of more complicated subjects, to say a few words respecting drawings made on the block; for, however well the engraving may be executed, the cut which is a fac-simile of a bad drawing can never be a good one. An artist’s knowledge of drawing is put to the test when he begins to make designs on wood; he cannot resort, as in painting, to the trick of colour to conceal the defects of his outlines. To be efficient in the engraving, his principal figures must be distinctly made out; a drawing on the wood admits of noscumbling; black and white are the only means by which the subject can be represented; and if he be ignorant of the proper management of chiaro-scuro, and incorrect and feeble in his drawing, he will not be able592to produce a really good design for the wood engraver. Many persons can paint a tolerably good picture who are utterly incapable of making a passable drawing on wood. Their drawing will not stand the test of simple black and white; they can indicate generalities “indifferently well” by means of positive colours, but they cannot delineate individual forms correctly with the black-lead pencil. It is from this cause that we have so very few persons who professedly make designs for wood engravers; and hence the sameness of character that is to be found in so many modern wood-cuts. It is not unusual for many second and third rate painters, when applied to for a drawing for a wood-cut, to speak slightingly of the art, and to decline to furnish the design required. This generally results rather from a consciousness of their own incapacity than from any real contempt for the art. As greater painters than any now living have made designs for wood engravers in former times, a second or third rate painter of the present day surely could not be much degraded by doing the same. The true reason for the refusal, however, is generally to be found in such painter’s incapacity.
The two next cuts, both drawn from the same sketch,IX.20but by different persons, will show how much depends upon having a good, artist-like drawing. The first is meagre; the second, on the contrary, is remarkably spirited, and the additional lines which are introduced not only give effect to the figure, but also in printing form a support to the more delicate parts of the outline.
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Though a learner in proceeding from one subject to another more complicated will doubtless meet with difficulties which may occasionally damp his ardour, yet he will encounter none which will not yield to earnest perseverance. As it is not likely that any amateur practising the art merely for amusement would be inclined to test his patience by proceeding beyond outline engraving, the succeeding remarks are more especially addressed to those who may wish to apply themselves to wood engraving as a profession.
When beginning to engrave in outline, it is advisable that the subjects first attempted should be of the most simple kind,—similar, for instance, to the preceding figure marked No. 1. When facility in executing cuts in this style is obtained, the learner may proceed to engrave such as are slightly shaded, and have a back-ground indicated as in No. 2. He may next proceed to subjects containing a greater variety of lines, and requiring greater neatness of execution, but should by no means endeavour to get on too fast by attempting to domuchbefore he can do a littlewell. Whatever kind of subject be chosen, particular attention ought to be paid to the causes of failure and success in the execution. By diligently noting what produces a good effect in certain subjects, he will, under similar circumstances, be prepared to apply the same means; and by attending to the faults in his work he will be the more careful to avoid them in future. The group of figures here, selected from Sir David Wilkie’s picture of the Rent Day, will serve as an example of a cut executed by comparatively simple means; the subject is also594such a one as a pupil may attempt after he has made some progress in engraving slightly shaded figures. There are no complicated lines which are difficult to execute; the hatchings are few, and of simple character; and for the execution of the whole, as here represented, nothing is required but afeelingfor the subject; and a moderate degree of skill in the use of the graver, combined with patient application.
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When the pupil is thus far advanced, he ought, in subjects of this kind, to avoid introducing more work, more especially in the features, than he can execute with comparative facility and precision; for, by attempting to attain excellence before he has arrived at mediocrity, he will be very likely to fail, and instead of having reason to congratulate himself on his success, experience nothing but disappointment. To make wood engraving an interesting, instead of an irksome study to young persons, I would recommend for their practice not only such subjects as are likely to engage their attention, but also such as they may be able to finish before they become weary of their task. At this period every endeavour ought to be made to smooth the pupil’s way by giving him such subjects to execute as will rather serve to stimulate his exertions than exhaust his patience. Little characteristic figures, like the one here copied, from one of Hogarth’s plates of the Four Parts of the Day, seem most suitable for this purpose. A subject of this kind does not contain so much work as to render a young person tired of it before595it be finished; while at the same time it serves to exercise him in the practice of the art and to engage his attention.
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When a pupil feels no interest in what he is employed on, he will seldom execute his work well; and when he is kept too long in engraving subjects that merely try his patience, he is apt to lose all taste for the art, and become a mere mechanical cutter of lines, without caring for what they express.
Such a cut as the following—copied from an etching by Rembrandt—will form a useful exercise to the pupil, after he has attained facility in the execution of outline subjects, while at the same time it will serve to display the excellent effect in wood engravings of well contrasted light and shade. The hog—which is here the principal object—immediately arrests the eye, while the figures in the back-ground, being introduced merely to aid the composition and form a medium between the dark colour of the animal and the white paper, consist of little more than outline, and are comparatively light. In engraving the hog, it is necessary to exercise a little judgment in representing the bristly hair, and intouchingthe details effectively.
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When a learner has made some progress, he may attempt such a cut as that on the next page in order to exercise himself in the appropriate representation of animal texture. The subject is a dray-horse, formerly belonging to Messrs. Meux and Co., and the drawing was made on the block by James Ward, R.A., one of the most distinguished animal painters of the present time. Such a cut, though executed by simple596means, affords an excellent test of a learner’s skill and discrimination: the hide is smooth and glossy; the mane is thick and tangled; the long flowing hair of the tail has to be represented in a proper manner; and the markings of the joints require the exercise of both judgment and skill. By attending to such distinctions at the commencement of his career, he will find less difficulty in representing objects by appropriate texture when he shall have made greater progress, and will not be entirely dependent on a designer tolay infor him every line. An engraver who requires every line to be drawn, and who is only capable of executing a fac-simile of a design made for him on the block, can never excel.
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As enough perhaps has been said in explanation of the manner of cutting tints, and of figures chiefly represented by single lines, I shall now give a cut—Jacob blessing the children of Joseph—in which single-lined figures and tint are combined. It is necessary to observe that this cut is not introduced as a good specimen of engraving, but as being well adapted, from the simplicity of its execution, to illustrate what I have to say. The figures are represented by single lines, which require the exercise of no great degree of skill; and by the introduction of a varied tint as a back-ground the cut appears like a complete subject, and not like a sketch, or a detached group.
It is necessary to remark here, that when comparatively light objects, such as the figures here seen, are to be relieved by a tint of any kind, whether darker or lighter, such objects are now generally separated from it by a black outline. The reason for leaving such an outline in parts where the conjunction of the tint and the figures does not render it absolutelynecessaryis this: as those parts in a cut which appear white597in the impression are to be cut away—as has already been explained,—it frequently happens that when they are cut awayfirst, and the tint cut afterwards, the wood breaks away near the termination of the line before the tool arrives at the blank or white. It is, therefore, extremely difficult to preserve a distinct outline in this manner, and hence a blackconventionaloutline is introduced in those parts where properly there ought to be none, except such as is formed by the tintrelievingagainst the white parts, as is seen in the back part of the head of Jacob in the present cut, where there is no other outline than that which is formed by the tint relieving against his white cap. Bewick used to execute all his subjects in this manner; but he not unfrequently carried this principle too far, not only running the lines of his tints into the white on thelightside of his figures,—that is, on the side on which the light falls,—but also on both sides of a light object.
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Before dismissing this part of the subject, it is necessary to observe further, that when the white parts are cut away before the tint is introduced, the conventional black outline is very liable to be cut through by the tool slipping. This will be rendered more intelligible by an inspection of the following cut,IX.21where the house is seen finished,598and the part where a tint is intended to be subsequently engraved appears black. Any person in the least acquainted with the practice of wood engraving, will perceive, that should the tool happen to slip when near the finished parts, in coming directly towards them, it will be very likely to cut the outline through, and to make a breach in proportion as such outline may be thin, and thus yield more readily to the force of the tool.
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When the tint is cutfirst, instead of being left to be executed last, as it would be in the preceding cut, the mass of wood out of which the house is subsequently engraved serves as a kind of barrier to the tool in the event of its slipping, and allows of the tint being cut with less risk quite up to the white outline. By attending to such matters, and considering what part of a subject can be most safely executed first, a learner will both avoid the risk of cutting through his outline, and be enabled to execute his work with comparative facility. The following cut is an example of the tint being cut first. For the information of those who are unacquainted with the process of wood engraving, it is necessary to remark that the parts which appear positively black are those which remain untouched by the graver.
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The following subject, copied from one of Rembrandt’s etchings, is chiefly represented by black lines crossing each other. Such lines, usually termedcross-hatchings, are executed with great facility in copper and steel, where they are cutintothe metal; but in wood engraving, where they are left inrelief, it requires considerable time and attention to execute them with delicacy and precision. In order to explain more clearly the difficulty of executing cross-hatchings, let it be conceived that this cut is a drawing made on a block, and that the engraver’s object is to produce a fac-simile of it: now, as each black line is to be left in relief, it is evident that he cannot imitate the cross-hatchings seen in the arms, the neck, and other parts, by cutting the lines continuously as in engraving on copper, which puts blackinby means of an incision, while in wood engraving a similar line takes itout. As the wood engraver, then, can only obtain white by cutting out the parts that are to appear so in the impression, while the black is to be left in relief, the only manner in which he is enabled to representcross-hatchings, orblack lines crossing each other, is to cut out singly with his graver every one of the white interstices. Such an operation, as will be evident from an inspection of this cut, necessarily requires not only patience, but also considerable skill to perform it in a proper manner,—that is, to cut each600white space cleanly out, and to preserve the lines of a regular thickness. From the supposed impossibility of executing such cross lines, it has been conjectured that many of the old wood-cuts containing such work were engraved in metallic relief: this opinion, however, is sufficiently refuted, by the fact of hundreds of blocks containing cross-hatchings being still in existence, and by the much more delicate and difficult work of the same kind displayed in modern wood engravings. Not only are cross-hatchings of the greatest delicacy now executed in England, but to such a degree of refinement is the process occasionally carried, that small blacktouches—such as may be perceived in the preceding cut in the folds of the sleeve above the elbow of the right arm—are left in the white interstices between the lines. Cross-hatchings, where the interstices are entirely white, are executed by means of a lozenge-pointed tool, and the piece of wood is removed at twocuts, each beginning at the opposite angles. Where a small black touch is left within the interstices, the operation becomes more difficult, and is performed by cutting round such minute touch of black with a finely pointed graver.
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The various conjectures that have been propounded respecting the mode in which cross-hatchings have been effected in old wood-cuts require no argument to refute them, as they are directly contradicted both by undoubted historical facts, and by every day’s experience. Vegetable putties, punches, and metallic relief are nothing but the trifling speculations of persons who are fonder of propounding theories to display their own ingenuity than willing to investigate facts in order to arrive at the truth. It has happened rather unfortunately, that most persons who have hitherto written upon the subject have known very little about the practice of wood engraving, and have not thought it worth their while to consult those who were able to give them information. There is, however, no fear now of a young wood engraver being deterred from attempting cross-hatchings on learning from certain heretofore authorities on the subject that such work could not be executed on wood. He now laughs atvegetable putties,square-pointed punchesfor indenting the block to produce cross-hatchings, andmetallic relief: by means of his graver alone he produces a practical refutation of every baseless theory that has been propounded on the subject.
The right leg of Dentatus in Mr. Harvey’s large wood engraving after Mr. Haydon’s picture is perhaps the most beautiful specimen of cross-hatching that ever was executed on wood; and, in my opinion, it is the best engraved part of the whole subject. Through the kindness of Mr. Harvey, I have obtained a cast of this portion of the block, from which the present impression is printed. The lines showing the muscular rotundity and action of the limb are as admirablylaid inas they are beautifully engraved. In the wider and stronger cross-hatchings601of the drapery above, the small black touches previously mentioned are perceived in the lozenge-shaped interstices.
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From an opinion that the excellence of an engraving consists chiefly in the difficulty of its execution, we now frequently find cross-hatchings in several modern wood-cuts, more especially in such as are manufactured for the French market, where a better effect would have been produced by simpler means. Cross-hatchings,properly introduced, undoubtedly improve a subject; and some parts of large figures, such as the leg of Dentatus, cannot be well expressed without their aid, as a series of curved lines on a limb, when not crossed, generally cause it to appear stiff and rigid. By crossing them, however, by other lines properlylaid in, the part assumes a most soft and natural appearance.
As the greatest advantage which wood engraving possesses over copper is the effective manner in which strongly contrasted light and shade can be represented, Rembrandt’s etchings,—which, like his paintings, are distinguished by the skilful management of the chiaro-scuro—form excellent studies for the engraver or designer on wood who should wish to become well acquainted with the capabilities of the art. A delicate wood-cut, executed in imitation of a smooth steel-engraving of “sober grey” tone, is sure to be tame and insipid; and whenever wood engravers attempt to give to their cuts the appearance of copper or steel-plates, and neglect the peculiar advantages of their own art, they are sure to fail, notwithstanding the pains they may bestow. Their work, instead of being commended as a successful application of the peculiar means of the art, is in effect condemned by being regarded as “a cleverimitationof a copper-plate.”
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The above cut of Christ and the Woman of Samaria, copied from an etching by Rembrandt, will perhaps more forcibly illustrate what has been said with respect to wood engraving being excellently adapted to effectively express strong contrasts of light and shade. The original etching—which has been faithfully copied—is a good example of603Rembrandt’s consummate skill in the management of chiaro-scuro; everything that he has wished to forcibly express immediately arrests the eye, while in the whole design nothing appears abrupt. The extremes of light and shade concentre in the principal figure, that of Christ, and to this everything else in the composition is either subordinate or accessory. The middle tint under the arched passage forms a medium between the darkness of Christ’s robe and the shade under the curve of the nearest arch, and the light in the front of his figure is gradually carried off to the left through the medium of the woman and the distant buildings, which gradually approach to the colour of the paper. Were a tint, however delicate, introduced in this subject to represent the sky, the effect would be destroyed; the parts which are now so effective would appear spotted and confused, and have a crude, unfinished appearance. By the injudicious introduction of a tinted sky many wood-cuts, which would otherwise be striking and effective, are quite spoiled.
It but too frequently happens when works are illustrated with wood-cuts, that subjects are chosen which the art cannot successfully represent. Whether the work to be illustrated be matter of fact or fiction, the designer, unless he be acquainted both with the capabilities and defects of the art, seldom thinks of more than making a drawing according to his own fancy, and never takes into consideration the means by which it has to be executed. To this inattention may be traced many failures in works illustrated with wood-cuts, and for which the engraver is censured, although he may have, with great care and skill, accomplished all that the art could effect. An artist who is desirous that his designs, when engraved on wood, should appear like impressions fromover-donesteel-plates, ought never to be employed to make drawings for wood engravers: he does not understand the peculiar advantages of the art, and his designs will only have a tendency to bring it into contempt, while those who execute them will be blamed for the defects which are the result of his want of knowledge.
Delicate wood engravings which are made to look well in a proof on India paper by rubbing the ink partially off the block in the lighter parts—in the manner described by Papillon at page 466—generally present a very different appearance when printed, either with or without types in the same page. Lines which are cut too thin are very liable to turn down in printing from their want of support; and hence cuts consisting chiefly of such lines are seldom so durable as those which display more black, and are executed in a more bold and effective style. A designer who understands the peculiarities of wood engraving will avoid introducing delicate lines in parts where they receive no support from others of greater strength or closeness near to them, but are exposed604to the unmitigated force of the press. Cuts in proportion to the quantity ofcolourwhich they display are so much the better enabled to bear the action of the press; the delicate lines which they contain, from their receiving support from the others, are not only less liable to break down, but, from their contrast with the darker parts of the subject, appear to greater advantage than in a cut which is of a uniformly grey tone. I am not, however, the advocate ofblack, and little else, in a wood-cut; on the contrary, I am perfectly aware of the absurdity of introducing patches of black without either meaning or effect. What I wish to inculcate is, that a wood-cut to have a good effect must contain more of properly contrasted black and white than those who wish their cuts to appear like imitations of steel or copper-plate engravings are willing to allow. As wood engraving is not well adapted to represent subjects requiring great delicacy of lines and variety of tints, such will be generally avoided by a designer who understands the art; while, on the contrary, he will avail himself of its advantages in representing well contrasted light and shade in a manner superior to either copper-plate or steel engraving. Of all modern engravers on wood, none understood the advantages of their art in this respect better than Bewick and Clennell: the cuts of their engraving are generally the most effective that have ever been executed.
Night-pieces, where the light is seen proceeding from a lantern, a lamp, or any other luminous object, can be well represented by means of wood engraving, although such subjects are very seldom attempted. An engraved wood-block, which contains a considerable proportion of positive black, prints much better than a copper-plate engraving of the same kind; in the former the ink is distributed of an even thickness over thesurface, and is evenly pressed upon the paper; in the latter the ink forms a little pool in thehollowed parts, and, instead of being evenly taken up by the paper which ispressed intoit, adheres only partially, thus giving in the corresponding parts a blurred appearance to the impression. For the effective representation of such scenes as Meg Merrilies watching by a feeble light the dying struggles of a smuggler, or Dirk Hatterick in the Cave, from Sir Walter Scott’s Guy Mannering, wood engraving is peculiarly adapted,—that is, supposing the designer, in addition to possessing a knowledge of chiaro-scuro, to be also capable of drawing correctly, and of treating the subject with properfeeling. Some idea of the capability of the art in this respect may be formed from the following cut—the Flight into Egypt,—copied from an etching by Rembrandt. The mere work in this cut is of a very simple character; there are no lines of difficult execution; and the only parts that are lowered are those which represent the rays of light seen proceeding from the lantern.
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As the wood engraver can always get his subjectlighter, but cannot reproduce the black which he has cut away, he ought to be careful not to get his subject too light before he has taken a proof; and even in reducing thecolouraccording to the touchings of the designer on the proof, he ought to proceed with great circumspection; and where his own judgment informs him that to take out all the black marked for excision would be to spoil the cut, the safest mode would be to take out only a part, and not remove all at once; for by strictly adhering to the directions of an artist who knows very little of the real advantages of wood engraving, it will not unfrequently happen that the cut so amended will to himself, when printed, appear worse than it did in its first state. In the following cut too much has been done in this respect; it has been touched and retouched so often, in order to make it appear delicate, that the spirit of the original drawing has been entirely lost. In this instance the fault was not that of the artist, but of the engraver, who “would not let well alone;” but, in order to improve his work, as he606fancied, kepttrimmingthe parts which gave effect to the whole till he made it what it now appears. So far as relates to the execution of the lines, the subject need not have been better; but, from the engraver’s having taken away too much colour in places where it was necessary, the whole has the appearance of middle tint, the excellence of the original drawing is lost, and in its stead we have a dull, misty, spiritless wood engraving.
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In every cut there ought to be a principal object to first arrest the attention; and if this cannot be effected from want of interest in such object considered singly, the designer ought to make the general subject607pleasing to the eye by skilful composition or combination of forms, and the effective distribution of light and shade.
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The preceding cut—a moonlight scene—when compared with the previous one, will show how much depends on an engraver having a properfeelingfor his subject. So far as relates to the mere execution of the lines, this cut is decidedly inferior to the former; but, viewed as a production of art, and as a spirited representation of the original drawing, it is very much superior: in the former we see little more than mechanical dexterity; while in the latter we perceive that the engraver has, from a greater knowledge of his art, produced a pleasing effect by comparatively simple means. The former cut displays more mechanical skill; the latter more artistic feeling. The one contains much delicate work, but is deficient in spirit; the other, which has been produced with little more than half the labour, is more effective because the subject has been better understood.
The following cut, representing a landscape, with the effect of the setting sun, displays great delicacy of execution; but the labour here is not thrown away, as in the sea-piece just mentioned: manual dexterity in the use of the graver is combined with the knowledge of an artist, and the result is a wood engraving at once delicate in execution and spirited in its general effect.
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A volume might be filled with examples and comments on them, and I might, like Papillon,instructthe reader in the practice of the art, by informing him how many times the graver would have to enter the wood in order to produce a certain number of lines in relief; but I have no inclination to do either the one or the other: my object is to make608a few observations on some of the most important and least understood points in the practice of wood engraving, and to illustrate them with examples, rather than to enter into minute details, which would be uninteresting to the general reader, and useless to the learner who has made any progress in the art. The person who wishes to acquire a knowledge of wood engraving, with the view of practising it professionally, must generally be guided by his own judgment and feeling; for he who requires the aid of rules and examples in every possible case will never attain excellence. A learner ought not to put much trust in what is said about the beautiful wood-cuts—orplates, as some critics call them—which appear in modern publications. He ought to examine for himself, and not pin his faith to ephemeral commendations, which are often the customary acknowledgment for a presentation copy of the work. It is not unusual to find very ordinary wood-cuts praised as displaying the very perfection of the art, while others of much greater merit are entirely overlooked.
The person who wishes to excel as a wood engraver,—that is, to display in his cuts the knowledge and feeling of an artist, as well as the mechanical dexterity of a workman,—ought always to bear in mind that those who rank highest in modern times, not only as engravers, but also as designers on wood, have generally adopted the simplest means of effecting their purpose, and have never introduced unmeaning cross-hatchings, when working from their own drawings, merely to display their skill in execution. In representing a peasant supping his porridge, they have not spent a day on the figure, and two in delicately engraving the bowl. It may almost be said that Bewick never employed cross-hatchings; for, in the two or three instances in which he introduced such lines, it has been rather for the sake of experiment than to improve the appearance of the cut. Though one of the finest specimens of this kind of work ever executed on wood is to be found in Mr. Harvey’s cut of Dentatus, yet, on other occasions, when he engraved his own designs, he seldom introduced cross-hatchings when he could accomplish the same object by simpler means. A wood engraving, viewed as awork of art, isnotgood in proportion as many of its parts have the appearance of fine lace. Bewick’s birds and tail-pieces are not, in my opinion, less excellent because they do not display so muchworkas a modern wood-cut which contains numerous cross-hatchings. Several of the best French designers on wood of the present day appear to have formed erroneous opinions on this subject; and hence we find in many of their designs much of the engraver’s time spent in the execution of parts which are unimportant, while others, where expression or feeling ought to be shown, are treated in a careless manner. Many of their designs seem to have been made rather to test the patience609of the engraver as aworkmanthan to display his ability as anartist. The following cut, from a cast of a part of the Death of Dentatus, is introduced to show in how simple and effective a manner Mr. Harvey has represented the shield of the hero. An inferior artist would be very likely to represent such an object by means of complicated lines, which, while they would be less effective, would require nearly a week to engrave.
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Considering the number of wood engravings that are yearly executed in this country, it is rather surprising that there should hitherto have been so few persons capable of making a good drawing on wood. Till within610the last few years, it might be said that there was probably not more than oneartistin the kingdom possessing a knowledge of design who professionally devoted himself to making drawings on the block for wood engravers. Whenever a good original design is wanted, there are still but few persons to whom the English wood engraver can apply with the certainty of obtaining it; for though some of our most distinguished painters have occasionally furnished designs to be engraved on wood, it has mostly been as a matter of especial favour to an individual who had an interest in the work in which such designs were to appear. In this respect we are behind our French neighbours; the more common kind of French wood-cuts containing figures are much superior to our own of the same class; the drawing is much more correct, more attention is paid to costume, and in the details we perceive the indications of much greater knowledge of art than is generally to be found in the productions of our second-rate occasional designers on wood. It cannot be said that this deficiency results from want of encouragement; for a designer on wood, of even moderate abilities, is better paid for his drawings than a second-rate painter is for his pictures. The truth is, that a taste for correct drawing has hitherto not been sufficiently cultivated in England: our artists are painters before they can draw; and hence, comparatively few can make a good design on wood. They require the aid of positive colours to deceive the eye, and prevent it from resting upon the defects of their drawing. It is therefore of great importance that a wood engraver should have some knowledge of drawing himself, in order that he may be able to correct many of the defects that are to be found in the commoner kind of subjects sent to him to be engraved.
In the execution of subjects which require considerable time, but little more than the exercise of mechanical skill, it is frequently advisable to adopt the principle ofthe division of labour, and have the work performed, as it were, by instalments, allotting to each person that portion of the subject which he is likely to execute best. In this manner the annexed cut of Rouen Cathedral has been engraved by four different persons; and the result of their joint labours is such a work as not even the best engraver of the four could have executed by himself. Each having to do but a little, and that of the kind of work in which he excelled, has workedcon amore, and finished his task before he became weary of it.