Grills Classified.Grills may be divided into four classes, of which each demands particular care. They are: (1) Red-meat grills (beef and mutton); (2) White-meat grills (veal, lamb, poultry); (3) Fish; (4) Grills coated with butter and bread-crumbs.258—RED MEAT GRILLSI submit as a principle that the golden rule in grills is to strictly observe the correct degree of heat which is proper to each treated object, never forgetting that the larger and richer in nutrition the piece of meat, the quicker and more thorough must be its initial setting.I have already explained, under braisings, the part played by, and the use of,rissolingor setting; but it is necessary to revert to this question and its bearing upon grills.If large pieces of meat (beef or mutton) are in question, the[121]better their quality and the richer they are in juices, the more resisting must be therissoledcoating they receive. The pressure of the contained juices upon therissoledcoating of this meat will be proportionately great or small according to whether the latter be rich or poor, and this pressure will gradually increase with the waxing heat.If the grill fire be so regulated as to ensure the progressive penetration of heat into the cooking object, this is whathappens:—The heat, striking that surface of the meat which is in direct communication with the fire, penetrates the tissues, and spreads stratiformly through the body, driving the latter’s juices in front of it. When these reach the opposite,rissoled, or set side of the meat, they are checked, and thereupon, absorbing the incoming heat, effect the cooking of the inner parts.Of course, if the piece of meat under treatment is very thick, the fierceness of the fire should be proportionately abated the moment the initial process ofrissolingor setting of the meat’s surface has been effected, the object being to allow the heat to penetrate the cooking body more regularly. If the fierceness of the fire were maintained, therissoledcoating on the meat would probably char, and the resulting thickness of carbon would so successfully resist the passage of any heat into the interior that, in the end, while the meat would probably be found to be completely burnt on the outside, the inside would be quite raw.If somewhat thinner pieces are in question, a quickrissolingof their surfaces over a fierce fire, and a few minutes of subsequent cooking, will be all they need. No alteration in the intensity of the fire need be sought in this case.Examples.—A rumpsteak or Châteaubriand, in order to be properly cooked, should first have its outsidesrissoledon a very fierce fire with a view to preserving its juices, after which cooking may proceed over a moderate fire so as to allow of the gradual penetration of the heat into the centre of the body.Small pieces such as tournedos, small fillets, noisettes, chops, may, after the preliminary process of outsiderissoling, be cooked over the same degree of heat as effected the latter, because the thickness of meat to be penetrated is less.The Care of Grills while Cooking.—Before placing the meats on the grill, baste them slightly with clarified butter, and repeat this operation frequently during the cooking process, so as to avoid the possible drying of therissoledsurfaces.Grilled red meat should always be turned by means of special tongs, and great care should be observed that its surface[122]be not torn or pierced, lest the object of the preliminary precautions be defeated, and the contained juices escape.Time of Cooking.—This, in the case of red meats, is arrived at by the following test: if, on touching the meat with one’s finger, the former resist any pressure, it is sufficiently cooked: if it give, it is clear that in the centre, at least, the reverse is the case. The most certain sign, however, that cooking has been completed is the appearance of little beads of blood upon therissoledsurface of the meat.259—WHITE-MEAT GRILLSThat superficialrissolingwhich is so necessary in the case of red meats is not at all so in the case of white, for in the latter there can be no question of the concentration of juices, since these are only present in the form of albumen—that is to say, in the form of juices “in the making,” so to speak, which is peculiar to veal and lamb.For this kind of grills keep a moderate fire, so that the cooking and colouring of the meat may take place simultaneously.White-meat grills should be fairly often basted by means of a brush, with clarified butter, while cooking, lest their outsides dry.They are known to be cooked when the juice issuing from them is quite white.260—FISH GRILLSUse a moderate fire with these, and only grill after having copiously sprinkled them with clarified butter or oil. Sprinkle them similarly while cooking.A grilled fish is cooked when the bones are easily separated from the meat. Except for the fatty kind, such as mackerel, red mullet, or herrings, always roll fish to be grilled in flour before sprinkling them with melted butter. The object of so doing is to give them a golden external crust, which, besides making them more sightly, keeps them from drying.261—THE GRILLING OF PRODUCTS COATED WITH BUTTER AND BREAD-CRUMBSThese grills generally consist of only small objects; they must be effected on a very moderate fire, with the view of enabling them to cook and acquire colour simultaneously. They should also be frequently besprinkled with clarified butter, and turned with care, so as not to break their coating, the object of which is to withhold their contained juices.[123]262—FRYINGSFrying is one of the principal cooking processes, for the number of preparations that are accomplished by its means is very considerable. Its procedure is governed by stringent laws and rules which it is best not to break, lest the double danger of failure and impairment of material be incurred.The former is easily averted if one is familiar with the process, and pays proper attention to it, while the latter is obviated by precautions which have everyraison d’être, and the neglect of which only leads to trouble.The question of the kind of utensil to employ is not so immaterial as some would think, for very often accidents result from the mere disregard of the importance of this matter.Very often imprudence and bluster on the part of the operator may be the cause of imperfections, the greatest care being needed in the handling of utensils containing overheated fat.Utensils used in frying should be made of copper, or other resisting metal; they should be in one piece, oval or round in shape, and sufficiently large and deep to allow, while only half-filled with fat, of the objects being properly affected by the latter. The necessity of this condition is obvious, seeing that if the utensil contain too much fat the slightest jerking of it on the stove would spill some of the liquid, and the operator would probably be badly burnt.Finally, utensils with vertical sides are preferable to those with the slanting kind; more especially is this so in large kitchens where, the work involving much frying, capacious receptacles are required.263—FRYING FAT—ITS PREPARATIONAny animal or vegetable grease is suitable for frying, provided it be quite pure and possess a resisting force allowing it to reach a very high temperature without burning. But for frying on a large scale, the use of cooked and clarified fats, such as the fat of “pot-au-feu” and roasts, should be avoided.A frying medium is only perfect when it is able to meet the demands of a protracted operation, and consists of fresh or raw fats, chosen with care and thoroughly purified by cooking.Under no circumstances may butter be used for frying on a large scale, seeing that, even when thoroughly purified, it can only reach a comparatively low degree of heat. It may be used only forsmall, occasional fryings.The fat of kidney of beef generally forms the base of the grease intended for frying on a large scale. It is preferable[124]to all others on account of its cheapness and the great length of time it can be worked, provided it receives the proper care.Veal-fat yields a finer frying medium, but its resistance is small, and it must, moreover, always be strengthened with the fat of beef.Mutton-fat should be deliberately discarded, for, if it happen to be that of an old beast, it smells of tallow, and, if it be that of a young one, it causes the hot grease to foam and to overflow down the sides of the utensil, this leading to serious accidents.Pork-fat is also used for frying, either alone, or combined with some other kind.In brief, the fat of kidney of beef is that which is best suited to fryings on a large scale. Ordinary household frying, which does not demand a very resisting grease, may well be effected by means of the above, combined with an equal quantity of veal-fat, or a mixture composed of the fat of kidney of beef, veal, and pork in the proportions of one-half, one-quarter, and one-quarter respectively.The grease used for frying ought not only to be melted down, but also thoroughly cooked, so that it may be quite pure. If insufficiently cooked, it foams on first being used, and so demands all kinds of extra precautions, which only cease to be necessary when constant heating at last rectifies it. Moreover, if it be not quite pure, it easily penetrates immersed solids and makes them indigestible.All grease used in frying should first be cut into pieces and then put into the saucepan with one pint of water per every ten lbs.The object of the water is to assist in the melting, and this it does by filtering into the grease, vaporising, and thereby causing the latter to swell. So long as the water has not completely evaporated, the grease only undergoes the action of liquefaction,i.e., the dissolution of its molecules; but its thorough cooking process, ending with its purification, only begins when all the water is gone.The grease is cooked when (1) the membranes which enveloped it alone remain intact and are converted into greaves; (2) it gives off smoke which has a distinct smell.At this stage it has reached such a high temperature that it is best to remove it from the fire for about ten minutes, so that it may cool; then it must be strained through a sieve, or a coarse towel, which must be tightly twisted.264—THE VARIOUS DEGREES OF HEAT REACHED BY THE FRYING MEDIUM, AND THEIR APPLICATIONThe temperature reached by a frying medium depends upon[125]the latter’s constituents and its purity. The various degrees may be classified as moderately hot, hot, very hot.The expression “boiling hot” is unsuitable, seeing that fat never boils. Butter (an occasional frying medium) cannot overreach 248° F. without burning, whereas if it be thoroughly purified it can attain from 269° to 275° F.—a temperature which is clearly below what would be needed for work on a large scale.Animal greases used in ordinary frying reach from 275° to 284° F. when moderately hot, 320° F. when hot, and 356° F. when very hot; in the last case they smoke slightly.Pork-fat (lard), when used alone, reaches 392° F. without burning. Very pure goose dripping withstands 428° F.; and, finally, vegetable fats may reach, without burning, 482° F. in the case of cocoa-nut butter, 518° F. with ordinary oils, and 554° in the case of olive oil.The temperature of ordinary frying fat may be tested thus: it is moderately hot when, after throwing a sprig of parsley or a crust of bread into it, it begins to bubble immediately; it is hot if it crackles when a slightly moist object is thrust into it; it is very hot when it gives off a thin white smoke perceptible to the smell.The first temperature, “moderately hot,” is used (1) for all products containing vegetable water the complete evaporation of which is necessary; (2) for fish whose volume exacts a cooking process by means of penetration, previous to that with concentration.In the first degree of heat with which it is used the frying fat therefore only effects a kind of preparatory operation.The second temperature, “hot,” is used for all products which have previously undergone an initial cooking process in the first temperature, either for evaporation or penetration, and its object is either to finish them or to cover them with a crimped coating.It is also applicable to those products upon which the frying fat must act immediately by concentration—that is to say, by forming a set coating around them which prevents the escape of the contained substances.Objects treated with this temperature are: all thosepanés à l’anglaiseor covered with batter, such as variouscroquettes,cromesquis, cutlets, and collops à la Villeroy, fritters of all kinds, fried creams, &c.In this case the frying medium acts by setting, which in certain cases is exceedingly necessary.1. If the objects in question arepanés à l’anglaise,i.e.,[126]dipped in beaten eggs and rolled in bread-crumbs, the sudden contact of the hot grease converts this coating of egg and bread-crumbs into a resisting crust, which prevents the escape of the substances and the liquefied sauce contained within.If these objects were plunged in a fat that was not sufficiently hot, the coating of egg and bread-crumbs would not only imbibe the frying medium, but it would run the risk of breaking, thereby allowing the escape of the very substances it was intended to withhold.2. The same holds with objects treated with batter. Hence the absolute necessity of ensuring that setting which means that the covering of batter solidifies immediately. As the substances constituting these various dishes are cooked in advance, it follows that their second heating and the colouring of the coating (egg and bread-crumbs or batter) take place at the same time and in a few minutes.The third temperature, “very hot,” is used (1) for all objects that need a sharp and firm setting; (2) for all small objects the setting of which is of supreme importance, and whose cooking is effected in a few minutes, as in the case of whitebait.265—FRYING MEDIUM FOR FISHEvery frying medium, used for work on a large scale, which has acquired a too decided colouring through repeated use, may serve in the preparation of fish even until its whole strength is exhausted.Oil is best suited to the frying of fish, especially the very small kind, owing to the tremendous heat it can withstand without burning, for this heat guarantees that setting which is so indispensable.Except in this case, however, the temperature of the frying medium should be regulated strictly in accordance with the size of the fish to be fried, in order that its cooking and colouring may be effected simultaneously.ExceptNonatsand whitebait, which are simply rolled in flour, fish to be fried are previously steeped in slightly salted milk and then rolled in flour. From this combination of milk and flour there results a crisp coating which withholds those particular principles that the fish exude while cooking.When finished, fried fish are drained, dried, slightly salted, and dished on a serviette or on paper, with a garnish of fried parsley-sprays and sections of channelled lemon.266—THE QUANTITY OF THE FRYING MEDIUMThis should always be in proportion to the quantity or size[127]of the objects to be fried, bearing in mind that these must always be entirely submerged.Without necessarily exaggerating, the quantity should invariably be rather in excess of the requirements, and for this reason, viz., the greater the amount of fat, the higher will be the temperature reached, and the less need one fear a sudden cooling of the fat when the objects to be treated are immersed. This sudden cooling is often the cause of great trouble, unless one be working over a fire of such fierceness that the fat can return in a few seconds to the temperature it was at before the objects were immersed.267—THE CARE OF THE FRYING MEDIUMEvery time a frying fat is used it should, after having been melted, be strained through a towel, for the majority of objects which it has served to cook must have left some particles behind them which might prove prejudicial to the objects that are to follow.Objects that are “panés” always leave some raspings, for instance, which in time assume the form of black powder, while those that have been treated with flour likewise drop some of their coating, which, in accumulating, produces a muddy precipitate on the bottom of the utensil.Not only do these foreign substances disturb the clearness of the fat and render it liable to burn, but they are exceedingly detrimental to the objects that are treated later.Therefore, always strain the fat whenever it is used—in the first place because the proper treatment of the objects demands it, and, secondly, because its very existence as a serviceable medium depends upon this measure.268—GRATINSThis culinary operation plays a sufficiently important part in the work to warrant my detailing at least its leading points.The various kinds of the order “Gratins” are (1) the Complete Gratin; (2) the Rapid Gratin; (3) the Light Gratin; (4) Glazing, which is a form of Rapid Gratin.269—COMPLETE GRATINThis is the first example of the series; it is that whose preparation is longest and most tiresome; for its principal constituent, whatever this is, must be completely cooked. Its cooking must moreover be coincident with the reduction of the sauce, which is the base of the gratin, and with the formation of the gratin proper,i.e., the crimped crust which forms on the surface and is the result of the combination of the sauce[128]with the raspings and the butter, under the direct influence of the heat.In the preparation of complete gratin, two things must be taken intoaccount:—(1) The nature and size of the object to be treated, and (2) the degree of heat which must be used in order that the cooking of the object, the reduction of the sauce, and the formation of the gratin may be effected simultaneously.The base of complete gratin is almost invariably ordinary or Lenten duxelle sauce (No.223), in accordance with the requirements.The object to be treated with the gratin is laid on a buttered dish, surrounded with slices of raw mushrooms and chopped shallots, and covered with duxelle sauce. The surface is then sprinkled with raspings, and copiously moistened with melted butter. Should the piece be large, the amount of sauce used will be proportionately greater, and the reverse, of course, applies to medium or smaller sizes.Take note of the following remarks in the making of completegratins:—1. If too much sauce were used in proportion to the size of the object, the latter would cook and the gratin form before the sauce could reach the correct degree of consistence by means of reduction. Hence it would be necessary to reduce the sauce still further on the stove, and thereby give rise to steam which would soften the coating of the gratin.2. If the sauce used were insufficient, it would be reduced before the cooking of the object had been effected, and, more sauce having to be added, the resulting gratin would be uneven.3. The larger the piece, and consequently the longer it takes to cook, the more moderate should be the heat used. Conversely, the smaller it is, the fiercer should the fire be.When withdrawing the gratin from the oven squeeze a few drops of lemon-juice over it, and besprinkle it with chopped parsley.270—RAPID GRATINProceed as above, with duxelle sauce, but the products treated with it, viz., meats, fish, or vegetables, are always cooked and warmed in advance. All that is required, therefore, is to effect the formation of the gratin as quickly as possible.To do this, cover the object under treatment with the necessary quantity of salt, besprinkle with raspings and butter, and set the gratin to form in a fierce oven.[129]271—LIGHT GRATINThis is proper to farinaceous products, such as macaroni, lazagnes, noodles, gnocchi, &c., and consists of a combination of grated cheese, raspings, and butter. In this case, again, the only end in view is the formation of thegratincoating, which must be evenly coloured, and is the result of the cheese melting. A moderate heat is all that is wanted for this kind ofgratin.Also considered as lightgratinsare those which serve as the complement of stuffed vegetables such as tomatoes, mushrooms, egg-plant, and cucumber. With these thegratinis composed of raspings sprinkled with butter or oil, and it is placed in a more or less fierce heat according to whether the vegetables have already been cooked or partially cooked, or are quite raw.272—GLAZINGSThese are of two kinds—they either consist of a heavily buttered sauce, or they form from a sprinkling of cheese upon the sauce with which the object to be glazed is covered.In the first case, after having poured sauce over the object to be treated, place the dish on another dish containing a little water. This is to prevent the sauce decomposing and boiling. The greater the quantity of butter used, the more intense will be the heat required, in order that a slight golden film may form almost instantaneously.In the second case, the sauce used is always a Mornay (No.91). Cover the object under treatment with the sauce, besprinkle with grated cheese and melted butter, and place in fairly intense heat, so that a slight golden crust may form almost immediately, this crust being the result of the combined cheese and butter.273—BLANCHINGSThe essentially unsuitable term blanchings is applied in the culinary technology of France to three classes of operations which entirely differ one from the other in the end they have in view.1. The blanching of meats.2. The blanching, or, better, the parboiling of certain vegetables.3. The blanching of certain other vegetables, which in reality amounts to a process of cooking.The blanching of meatsobtains mostly in the case of calf’s head and foot and the sweet-bread of veal, sheep’s and lambs’[130]trotters, and lamb’s sweet-bread. These meats are first set to soak in cold, running water until they have quite got rid of the blood with which they are naturally saturated. They are then placed on the fire in a saucepan containing enough cold water to abundantly cover them, and the water is gradually brought to the boil.For calf’s head or feet, boiling may last for fifteen or twenty minutes; veal sweet-bread must not boil for more than ten or twelve minutes; while lamb sweet-bread is withdrawn the moment the boil is reached.As soon as blanched, the meats are cooled in plenty of fresh water before undergoing their final treatment.The blanching of cocks’ combsis exceptional in this, namely, that after the combs have been cleansed of blood—that is to say, soaked in cold water, they are placed on the fire in cold water, the temperature of which must be carefully kept below 113° F. When this degree is approached, take the saucepan off the fire and rub each comb with a cloth, dusted with table-salt, in order to remove the skins; then cool the combs with fresh water before cooking them.Many people use the blanching process with meats intended for “blanquette” or “fricassée.” I regard this procedure as quite erroneous, as also the preliminary soaking in cold water.If the meats or pieces of poultry intended for the above-mentioned preparations be of a good quality (and no others should be used), they need only be set to cook in cold water, or cold stock, and gradually brought to the boil, being stirred repeatedly the while. The scum formed should be carefully removed, and, in this way, perfectly white meats and stock, with all their savour, are obtained.As to meats or pieces of poultry of an inferior quality, no soaking and no blanching can make good their defects. Whichever way they are treated they remain dry, gray, and savourless. It is therefore simpler and better to use only the finest quality goods.An excellent proof of the futility of soaking and blanching meats intended for “fricassées” and “blanquettes” lies in the fact that these very meats, if of good quality, are always perfectly white when they are braised,poëled, or roasted, notwithstanding the fact that these three operations are less calculated to preserve their whiteness than the kind of treatment they are subjected to in the case of “blanquettes” and “fricassées.”Mere routine alone can account for this practice of soaking[131]and blanching meats—a practice that is absolutely condemned by common sense.The term “blanching” is wrongly applied to the cooking of green vegetables, such as French beans, green peas, Brussels sprouts, spinach, &c. The cooking of these, which is effected by means of boiling salted water, ought really to be termed “à l’anglaise.” All the details of the procedure, however, will be given when I deal with the vegetables to which the latter apply.Lastly, under the name of “blanching,” there exists another operation which consists in partly cooking certain vegetables in plenty of water, in order to rid them of any bitter or pungent flavour they may possess. The time allowed for this blanching varies according to the age of the vegetables, but when the latter are young and in season, it amounts to little more than a mere scalding.Blanching is chiefly resorted to for lettuce, chicory, endives, celery, artichokes, cabbages, and the green vegetables; carrots, turnips, and small onions when they are out of season. In respect of vegetable-marrows, cucumbers, and chow-chow, blanching is often left to the definite cooking process, which should then come under the head of the “à l’anglaise” cooking.After the process of blanching, the vegetables I have just enumerated are always cooled—that is to say, steeped in cold water until they are barely lukewarm. They are then left to drain on a sieve, previous to undergoing the final cooking process to which they are best suited, this generally being braising.[132]6. Vegetables and GarnishesVarious Preparations.274—THE TREATMENT OF DRY VEGETABLESIt is wrong to soak dry vegetables. If they are of good quality, and the produce of the year, they need only be put into a saucepan with enough cold water to completely cover them, and with one oz. of salt per five quarts of water.Set to boil gently, skim, add the aromatic garnish, quartered carrots, onions, with or without garlic cloves, and a faggot, and set to cook gently with lid on.Remarks.—If the vegetables used are old or inferior in quality, they might be put to soak in soft water; but this only long enough to swell them slightly,i.e., about one and one-half hours.A prolonged soaking of dry vegetables may give rise to incipient germination, and this, by impairing the principles of the vegetables, depreciates the value of the food, and may even cause some harm to the consumer.275—BRAISED VEGETABLESVegetables to be braised must be firstblanched, cooled, pared, and strung.Garnish the bottom of a saucepan withblanchedpork-rind, sliced carrots and onions, and a faggot, and cover the sides of the utensil with thin slices of bacon. Lay the vegetables upon the prepared litter, and leave them to sweat in the oven for about ten minutes with lid on. The object of this oven-sweating is to expel the water. Now moisten enough to cover with white stock, and set to cook gently.This done, drain, remove string, and cut to the shape required. Lay them in a sautépan, and, if they are to be served soon, cover them with their reduced stock from which the grease has been removed.If they are prepared in advance, simply put them aside in suitable basins, cover them with their cooking-liquor, which should be strained over them, boiling, and without its grease removed, and cover with buttered paper.Adjuncts to Braised VegetablesAccording to the case, the adjunct is either the braising-liquor, reduced and with all grease removed, or the same completed by means of an addition of meat-glaze.[133]Occasionally, it may be the braising-liquor slightly thickened with half-glaze and finished with butter and the juice of a lemon.276—LEASON OF GREEN VEGETABLES WITH BUTTERFirst thoroughly drain the vegetables and toss them over the fire for a few minutes, in order to completely rid them of their moisture. Season according to the kind of vegetable; add the butter away from the fire, and slightly toss, rolling the saucepan meanwhile on the stove with the view of effecting the leason by means of the mixing of the butter with the treated vegetables.277—LEASON OF VEGETABLES WITH CREAMVegetables to be treated in this way must be kept somewhat firm. After having thoroughly drained them, put them into a saucepan with enough boiling fresh cream to well moisten without covering them.Finish their cooking process in the cream, stirring occasionally the while.When the cream is almost entirely reduced, finish, away from the fire, with a little butter.The leason may be slightly stiffened, if necessary, by means of a few tablespoonfuls of cream sauce.278—VEGETABLE CREAMS AND PURÉESPurées of dry and farinaceous vegetables may be obtained by rubbing the latter through a sieve.Put the purée into a sautépan, and dry it over a brisk fire, adding one and one-half oz. of butter per pint of purée; then add milk or cream in small quantities at a time, until the purée has reached the required degree of consistence.For purées of aqueous vegetables, such as French beans, cauliflowers, celery, &c., a quarter of their volume of mashed potatoes should be added to them in order to effect their leason.In the case of vegetable creams, substitute for the thickening of mashed potatoes an equivalent quantity of succulent and stiff Béchamel sauce.279—GARNISHESIn cookery, although garnishes only play a minor part, they are, nevertheless, very important, for, besides being the principal accompaniments to dishes, they are very often the[134]adornment thereof, while it frequently happens that their harmonious arrangement considerably helps to throw the beauty of a fine joint or bird into relief.A garnish may consist of one or more products. Be this as it may, its name, as a rule, distinctly denotes, in a word, what it is and how it is made.In any case, it should always bear some relation to the piece it accompanies, either in the constituents of its preparation or with regard to the size of the piece constituting the dish.I merely add that, since the constituents of garnishes are strictly denoted by the name the latter bear, any addition of products foreign to their nature would be a grave mistake. Likewise, the omission of any constituent is to be avoided, as the garnish would thereby be out of keeping with its specified character.Only in very exceptional circumstances should any change of this kind be allowed to take place.The constituents of garnishes are supplied by vegetables, farinaceous products, quenelles of all kinds, cocks’ combs and kidneys, truffles and mushrooms, plain or stuffed olives, molluscs (mussels or oysters), shell-fish (crayfish, shrimps, lobster, &c.), butcher’s supplies, such as lamb’s sweet-bread, calf’s brains, and calf’s spine-marrow.As a rule, garnishes are independent of the dish itself—that is to say, they are prepared entirely apart. At other times they are mixed with it, playing the double part of garnish and condimentary principle, as in the case of Matelotes, Compotes, Civets, &c.Vegetables for garnishing are fashioned and treated in accordance with the use and shape implied by the name of the dish, which should always be the operator’s guide in this respect.The farinaceous ones, the molluscs and shell-fish, undergo the customary preparation.I have already described (Chapter X.) the preparation of quenelles and forcemeats for garnishing. Other recipes which have the same purpose will be treated in their respective order.
Grills may be divided into four classes, of which each demands particular care. They are: (1) Red-meat grills (beef and mutton); (2) White-meat grills (veal, lamb, poultry); (3) Fish; (4) Grills coated with butter and bread-crumbs.
I submit as a principle that the golden rule in grills is to strictly observe the correct degree of heat which is proper to each treated object, never forgetting that the larger and richer in nutrition the piece of meat, the quicker and more thorough must be its initial setting.
I have already explained, under braisings, the part played by, and the use of,rissolingor setting; but it is necessary to revert to this question and its bearing upon grills.
If large pieces of meat (beef or mutton) are in question, the[121]better their quality and the richer they are in juices, the more resisting must be therissoledcoating they receive. The pressure of the contained juices upon therissoledcoating of this meat will be proportionately great or small according to whether the latter be rich or poor, and this pressure will gradually increase with the waxing heat.
If the grill fire be so regulated as to ensure the progressive penetration of heat into the cooking object, this is whathappens:—
The heat, striking that surface of the meat which is in direct communication with the fire, penetrates the tissues, and spreads stratiformly through the body, driving the latter’s juices in front of it. When these reach the opposite,rissoled, or set side of the meat, they are checked, and thereupon, absorbing the incoming heat, effect the cooking of the inner parts.
Of course, if the piece of meat under treatment is very thick, the fierceness of the fire should be proportionately abated the moment the initial process ofrissolingor setting of the meat’s surface has been effected, the object being to allow the heat to penetrate the cooking body more regularly. If the fierceness of the fire were maintained, therissoledcoating on the meat would probably char, and the resulting thickness of carbon would so successfully resist the passage of any heat into the interior that, in the end, while the meat would probably be found to be completely burnt on the outside, the inside would be quite raw.
If somewhat thinner pieces are in question, a quickrissolingof their surfaces over a fierce fire, and a few minutes of subsequent cooking, will be all they need. No alteration in the intensity of the fire need be sought in this case.
Examples.—A rumpsteak or Châteaubriand, in order to be properly cooked, should first have its outsidesrissoledon a very fierce fire with a view to preserving its juices, after which cooking may proceed over a moderate fire so as to allow of the gradual penetration of the heat into the centre of the body.
Small pieces such as tournedos, small fillets, noisettes, chops, may, after the preliminary process of outsiderissoling, be cooked over the same degree of heat as effected the latter, because the thickness of meat to be penetrated is less.
The Care of Grills while Cooking.—Before placing the meats on the grill, baste them slightly with clarified butter, and repeat this operation frequently during the cooking process, so as to avoid the possible drying of therissoledsurfaces.
Grilled red meat should always be turned by means of special tongs, and great care should be observed that its surface[122]be not torn or pierced, lest the object of the preliminary precautions be defeated, and the contained juices escape.
Time of Cooking.—This, in the case of red meats, is arrived at by the following test: if, on touching the meat with one’s finger, the former resist any pressure, it is sufficiently cooked: if it give, it is clear that in the centre, at least, the reverse is the case. The most certain sign, however, that cooking has been completed is the appearance of little beads of blood upon therissoledsurface of the meat.
That superficialrissolingwhich is so necessary in the case of red meats is not at all so in the case of white, for in the latter there can be no question of the concentration of juices, since these are only present in the form of albumen—that is to say, in the form of juices “in the making,” so to speak, which is peculiar to veal and lamb.
For this kind of grills keep a moderate fire, so that the cooking and colouring of the meat may take place simultaneously.
White-meat grills should be fairly often basted by means of a brush, with clarified butter, while cooking, lest their outsides dry.
They are known to be cooked when the juice issuing from them is quite white.
Use a moderate fire with these, and only grill after having copiously sprinkled them with clarified butter or oil. Sprinkle them similarly while cooking.
A grilled fish is cooked when the bones are easily separated from the meat. Except for the fatty kind, such as mackerel, red mullet, or herrings, always roll fish to be grilled in flour before sprinkling them with melted butter. The object of so doing is to give them a golden external crust, which, besides making them more sightly, keeps them from drying.
These grills generally consist of only small objects; they must be effected on a very moderate fire, with the view of enabling them to cook and acquire colour simultaneously. They should also be frequently besprinkled with clarified butter, and turned with care, so as not to break their coating, the object of which is to withhold their contained juices.
Frying is one of the principal cooking processes, for the number of preparations that are accomplished by its means is very considerable. Its procedure is governed by stringent laws and rules which it is best not to break, lest the double danger of failure and impairment of material be incurred.
The former is easily averted if one is familiar with the process, and pays proper attention to it, while the latter is obviated by precautions which have everyraison d’être, and the neglect of which only leads to trouble.
The question of the kind of utensil to employ is not so immaterial as some would think, for very often accidents result from the mere disregard of the importance of this matter.
Very often imprudence and bluster on the part of the operator may be the cause of imperfections, the greatest care being needed in the handling of utensils containing overheated fat.
Utensils used in frying should be made of copper, or other resisting metal; they should be in one piece, oval or round in shape, and sufficiently large and deep to allow, while only half-filled with fat, of the objects being properly affected by the latter. The necessity of this condition is obvious, seeing that if the utensil contain too much fat the slightest jerking of it on the stove would spill some of the liquid, and the operator would probably be badly burnt.
Finally, utensils with vertical sides are preferable to those with the slanting kind; more especially is this so in large kitchens where, the work involving much frying, capacious receptacles are required.
Any animal or vegetable grease is suitable for frying, provided it be quite pure and possess a resisting force allowing it to reach a very high temperature without burning. But for frying on a large scale, the use of cooked and clarified fats, such as the fat of “pot-au-feu” and roasts, should be avoided.
A frying medium is only perfect when it is able to meet the demands of a protracted operation, and consists of fresh or raw fats, chosen with care and thoroughly purified by cooking.
Under no circumstances may butter be used for frying on a large scale, seeing that, even when thoroughly purified, it can only reach a comparatively low degree of heat. It may be used only forsmall, occasional fryings.
The fat of kidney of beef generally forms the base of the grease intended for frying on a large scale. It is preferable[124]to all others on account of its cheapness and the great length of time it can be worked, provided it receives the proper care.
Veal-fat yields a finer frying medium, but its resistance is small, and it must, moreover, always be strengthened with the fat of beef.
Mutton-fat should be deliberately discarded, for, if it happen to be that of an old beast, it smells of tallow, and, if it be that of a young one, it causes the hot grease to foam and to overflow down the sides of the utensil, this leading to serious accidents.
Pork-fat is also used for frying, either alone, or combined with some other kind.
In brief, the fat of kidney of beef is that which is best suited to fryings on a large scale. Ordinary household frying, which does not demand a very resisting grease, may well be effected by means of the above, combined with an equal quantity of veal-fat, or a mixture composed of the fat of kidney of beef, veal, and pork in the proportions of one-half, one-quarter, and one-quarter respectively.
The grease used for frying ought not only to be melted down, but also thoroughly cooked, so that it may be quite pure. If insufficiently cooked, it foams on first being used, and so demands all kinds of extra precautions, which only cease to be necessary when constant heating at last rectifies it. Moreover, if it be not quite pure, it easily penetrates immersed solids and makes them indigestible.
All grease used in frying should first be cut into pieces and then put into the saucepan with one pint of water per every ten lbs.
The object of the water is to assist in the melting, and this it does by filtering into the grease, vaporising, and thereby causing the latter to swell. So long as the water has not completely evaporated, the grease only undergoes the action of liquefaction,i.e., the dissolution of its molecules; but its thorough cooking process, ending with its purification, only begins when all the water is gone.
The grease is cooked when (1) the membranes which enveloped it alone remain intact and are converted into greaves; (2) it gives off smoke which has a distinct smell.
At this stage it has reached such a high temperature that it is best to remove it from the fire for about ten minutes, so that it may cool; then it must be strained through a sieve, or a coarse towel, which must be tightly twisted.
The temperature reached by a frying medium depends upon[125]the latter’s constituents and its purity. The various degrees may be classified as moderately hot, hot, very hot.
The expression “boiling hot” is unsuitable, seeing that fat never boils. Butter (an occasional frying medium) cannot overreach 248° F. without burning, whereas if it be thoroughly purified it can attain from 269° to 275° F.—a temperature which is clearly below what would be needed for work on a large scale.
Animal greases used in ordinary frying reach from 275° to 284° F. when moderately hot, 320° F. when hot, and 356° F. when very hot; in the last case they smoke slightly.
Pork-fat (lard), when used alone, reaches 392° F. without burning. Very pure goose dripping withstands 428° F.; and, finally, vegetable fats may reach, without burning, 482° F. in the case of cocoa-nut butter, 518° F. with ordinary oils, and 554° in the case of olive oil.
The temperature of ordinary frying fat may be tested thus: it is moderately hot when, after throwing a sprig of parsley or a crust of bread into it, it begins to bubble immediately; it is hot if it crackles when a slightly moist object is thrust into it; it is very hot when it gives off a thin white smoke perceptible to the smell.
The first temperature, “moderately hot,” is used (1) for all products containing vegetable water the complete evaporation of which is necessary; (2) for fish whose volume exacts a cooking process by means of penetration, previous to that with concentration.
In the first degree of heat with which it is used the frying fat therefore only effects a kind of preparatory operation.
The second temperature, “hot,” is used for all products which have previously undergone an initial cooking process in the first temperature, either for evaporation or penetration, and its object is either to finish them or to cover them with a crimped coating.
It is also applicable to those products upon which the frying fat must act immediately by concentration—that is to say, by forming a set coating around them which prevents the escape of the contained substances.
Objects treated with this temperature are: all thosepanés à l’anglaiseor covered with batter, such as variouscroquettes,cromesquis, cutlets, and collops à la Villeroy, fritters of all kinds, fried creams, &c.
In this case the frying medium acts by setting, which in certain cases is exceedingly necessary.
1. If the objects in question arepanés à l’anglaise,i.e.,[126]dipped in beaten eggs and rolled in bread-crumbs, the sudden contact of the hot grease converts this coating of egg and bread-crumbs into a resisting crust, which prevents the escape of the substances and the liquefied sauce contained within.
If these objects were plunged in a fat that was not sufficiently hot, the coating of egg and bread-crumbs would not only imbibe the frying medium, but it would run the risk of breaking, thereby allowing the escape of the very substances it was intended to withhold.
2. The same holds with objects treated with batter. Hence the absolute necessity of ensuring that setting which means that the covering of batter solidifies immediately. As the substances constituting these various dishes are cooked in advance, it follows that their second heating and the colouring of the coating (egg and bread-crumbs or batter) take place at the same time and in a few minutes.
The third temperature, “very hot,” is used (1) for all objects that need a sharp and firm setting; (2) for all small objects the setting of which is of supreme importance, and whose cooking is effected in a few minutes, as in the case of whitebait.
Every frying medium, used for work on a large scale, which has acquired a too decided colouring through repeated use, may serve in the preparation of fish even until its whole strength is exhausted.
Oil is best suited to the frying of fish, especially the very small kind, owing to the tremendous heat it can withstand without burning, for this heat guarantees that setting which is so indispensable.
Except in this case, however, the temperature of the frying medium should be regulated strictly in accordance with the size of the fish to be fried, in order that its cooking and colouring may be effected simultaneously.
ExceptNonatsand whitebait, which are simply rolled in flour, fish to be fried are previously steeped in slightly salted milk and then rolled in flour. From this combination of milk and flour there results a crisp coating which withholds those particular principles that the fish exude while cooking.
When finished, fried fish are drained, dried, slightly salted, and dished on a serviette or on paper, with a garnish of fried parsley-sprays and sections of channelled lemon.
This should always be in proportion to the quantity or size[127]of the objects to be fried, bearing in mind that these must always be entirely submerged.
Without necessarily exaggerating, the quantity should invariably be rather in excess of the requirements, and for this reason, viz., the greater the amount of fat, the higher will be the temperature reached, and the less need one fear a sudden cooling of the fat when the objects to be treated are immersed. This sudden cooling is often the cause of great trouble, unless one be working over a fire of such fierceness that the fat can return in a few seconds to the temperature it was at before the objects were immersed.
Every time a frying fat is used it should, after having been melted, be strained through a towel, for the majority of objects which it has served to cook must have left some particles behind them which might prove prejudicial to the objects that are to follow.
Objects that are “panés” always leave some raspings, for instance, which in time assume the form of black powder, while those that have been treated with flour likewise drop some of their coating, which, in accumulating, produces a muddy precipitate on the bottom of the utensil.
Not only do these foreign substances disturb the clearness of the fat and render it liable to burn, but they are exceedingly detrimental to the objects that are treated later.
Therefore, always strain the fat whenever it is used—in the first place because the proper treatment of the objects demands it, and, secondly, because its very existence as a serviceable medium depends upon this measure.
This culinary operation plays a sufficiently important part in the work to warrant my detailing at least its leading points.
The various kinds of the order “Gratins” are (1) the Complete Gratin; (2) the Rapid Gratin; (3) the Light Gratin; (4) Glazing, which is a form of Rapid Gratin.
This is the first example of the series; it is that whose preparation is longest and most tiresome; for its principal constituent, whatever this is, must be completely cooked. Its cooking must moreover be coincident with the reduction of the sauce, which is the base of the gratin, and with the formation of the gratin proper,i.e., the crimped crust which forms on the surface and is the result of the combination of the sauce[128]with the raspings and the butter, under the direct influence of the heat.
In the preparation of complete gratin, two things must be taken intoaccount:—(1) The nature and size of the object to be treated, and (2) the degree of heat which must be used in order that the cooking of the object, the reduction of the sauce, and the formation of the gratin may be effected simultaneously.
The base of complete gratin is almost invariably ordinary or Lenten duxelle sauce (No.223), in accordance with the requirements.
The object to be treated with the gratin is laid on a buttered dish, surrounded with slices of raw mushrooms and chopped shallots, and covered with duxelle sauce. The surface is then sprinkled with raspings, and copiously moistened with melted butter. Should the piece be large, the amount of sauce used will be proportionately greater, and the reverse, of course, applies to medium or smaller sizes.
Take note of the following remarks in the making of completegratins:—
1. If too much sauce were used in proportion to the size of the object, the latter would cook and the gratin form before the sauce could reach the correct degree of consistence by means of reduction. Hence it would be necessary to reduce the sauce still further on the stove, and thereby give rise to steam which would soften the coating of the gratin.
2. If the sauce used were insufficient, it would be reduced before the cooking of the object had been effected, and, more sauce having to be added, the resulting gratin would be uneven.
3. The larger the piece, and consequently the longer it takes to cook, the more moderate should be the heat used. Conversely, the smaller it is, the fiercer should the fire be.
When withdrawing the gratin from the oven squeeze a few drops of lemon-juice over it, and besprinkle it with chopped parsley.
Proceed as above, with duxelle sauce, but the products treated with it, viz., meats, fish, or vegetables, are always cooked and warmed in advance. All that is required, therefore, is to effect the formation of the gratin as quickly as possible.
To do this, cover the object under treatment with the necessary quantity of salt, besprinkle with raspings and butter, and set the gratin to form in a fierce oven.
This is proper to farinaceous products, such as macaroni, lazagnes, noodles, gnocchi, &c., and consists of a combination of grated cheese, raspings, and butter. In this case, again, the only end in view is the formation of thegratincoating, which must be evenly coloured, and is the result of the cheese melting. A moderate heat is all that is wanted for this kind ofgratin.
Also considered as lightgratinsare those which serve as the complement of stuffed vegetables such as tomatoes, mushrooms, egg-plant, and cucumber. With these thegratinis composed of raspings sprinkled with butter or oil, and it is placed in a more or less fierce heat according to whether the vegetables have already been cooked or partially cooked, or are quite raw.
These are of two kinds—they either consist of a heavily buttered sauce, or they form from a sprinkling of cheese upon the sauce with which the object to be glazed is covered.
In the first case, after having poured sauce over the object to be treated, place the dish on another dish containing a little water. This is to prevent the sauce decomposing and boiling. The greater the quantity of butter used, the more intense will be the heat required, in order that a slight golden film may form almost instantaneously.
In the second case, the sauce used is always a Mornay (No.91). Cover the object under treatment with the sauce, besprinkle with grated cheese and melted butter, and place in fairly intense heat, so that a slight golden crust may form almost immediately, this crust being the result of the combined cheese and butter.
The essentially unsuitable term blanchings is applied in the culinary technology of France to three classes of operations which entirely differ one from the other in the end they have in view.
1. The blanching of meats.
2. The blanching, or, better, the parboiling of certain vegetables.
3. The blanching of certain other vegetables, which in reality amounts to a process of cooking.
The blanching of meatsobtains mostly in the case of calf’s head and foot and the sweet-bread of veal, sheep’s and lambs’[130]trotters, and lamb’s sweet-bread. These meats are first set to soak in cold, running water until they have quite got rid of the blood with which they are naturally saturated. They are then placed on the fire in a saucepan containing enough cold water to abundantly cover them, and the water is gradually brought to the boil.
For calf’s head or feet, boiling may last for fifteen or twenty minutes; veal sweet-bread must not boil for more than ten or twelve minutes; while lamb sweet-bread is withdrawn the moment the boil is reached.
As soon as blanched, the meats are cooled in plenty of fresh water before undergoing their final treatment.
The blanching of cocks’ combsis exceptional in this, namely, that after the combs have been cleansed of blood—that is to say, soaked in cold water, they are placed on the fire in cold water, the temperature of which must be carefully kept below 113° F. When this degree is approached, take the saucepan off the fire and rub each comb with a cloth, dusted with table-salt, in order to remove the skins; then cool the combs with fresh water before cooking them.
Many people use the blanching process with meats intended for “blanquette” or “fricassée.” I regard this procedure as quite erroneous, as also the preliminary soaking in cold water.
If the meats or pieces of poultry intended for the above-mentioned preparations be of a good quality (and no others should be used), they need only be set to cook in cold water, or cold stock, and gradually brought to the boil, being stirred repeatedly the while. The scum formed should be carefully removed, and, in this way, perfectly white meats and stock, with all their savour, are obtained.
As to meats or pieces of poultry of an inferior quality, no soaking and no blanching can make good their defects. Whichever way they are treated they remain dry, gray, and savourless. It is therefore simpler and better to use only the finest quality goods.
An excellent proof of the futility of soaking and blanching meats intended for “fricassées” and “blanquettes” lies in the fact that these very meats, if of good quality, are always perfectly white when they are braised,poëled, or roasted, notwithstanding the fact that these three operations are less calculated to preserve their whiteness than the kind of treatment they are subjected to in the case of “blanquettes” and “fricassées.”
Mere routine alone can account for this practice of soaking[131]and blanching meats—a practice that is absolutely condemned by common sense.
The term “blanching” is wrongly applied to the cooking of green vegetables, such as French beans, green peas, Brussels sprouts, spinach, &c. The cooking of these, which is effected by means of boiling salted water, ought really to be termed “à l’anglaise.” All the details of the procedure, however, will be given when I deal with the vegetables to which the latter apply.
Lastly, under the name of “blanching,” there exists another operation which consists in partly cooking certain vegetables in plenty of water, in order to rid them of any bitter or pungent flavour they may possess. The time allowed for this blanching varies according to the age of the vegetables, but when the latter are young and in season, it amounts to little more than a mere scalding.
Blanching is chiefly resorted to for lettuce, chicory, endives, celery, artichokes, cabbages, and the green vegetables; carrots, turnips, and small onions when they are out of season. In respect of vegetable-marrows, cucumbers, and chow-chow, blanching is often left to the definite cooking process, which should then come under the head of the “à l’anglaise” cooking.
After the process of blanching, the vegetables I have just enumerated are always cooled—that is to say, steeped in cold water until they are barely lukewarm. They are then left to drain on a sieve, previous to undergoing the final cooking process to which they are best suited, this generally being braising.
It is wrong to soak dry vegetables. If they are of good quality, and the produce of the year, they need only be put into a saucepan with enough cold water to completely cover them, and with one oz. of salt per five quarts of water.
Set to boil gently, skim, add the aromatic garnish, quartered carrots, onions, with or without garlic cloves, and a faggot, and set to cook gently with lid on.
Remarks.—If the vegetables used are old or inferior in quality, they might be put to soak in soft water; but this only long enough to swell them slightly,i.e., about one and one-half hours.
A prolonged soaking of dry vegetables may give rise to incipient germination, and this, by impairing the principles of the vegetables, depreciates the value of the food, and may even cause some harm to the consumer.
Vegetables to be braised must be firstblanched, cooled, pared, and strung.
Garnish the bottom of a saucepan withblanchedpork-rind, sliced carrots and onions, and a faggot, and cover the sides of the utensil with thin slices of bacon. Lay the vegetables upon the prepared litter, and leave them to sweat in the oven for about ten minutes with lid on. The object of this oven-sweating is to expel the water. Now moisten enough to cover with white stock, and set to cook gently.
This done, drain, remove string, and cut to the shape required. Lay them in a sautépan, and, if they are to be served soon, cover them with their reduced stock from which the grease has been removed.
If they are prepared in advance, simply put them aside in suitable basins, cover them with their cooking-liquor, which should be strained over them, boiling, and without its grease removed, and cover with buttered paper.
According to the case, the adjunct is either the braising-liquor, reduced and with all grease removed, or the same completed by means of an addition of meat-glaze.
[133]Occasionally, it may be the braising-liquor slightly thickened with half-glaze and finished with butter and the juice of a lemon.
First thoroughly drain the vegetables and toss them over the fire for a few minutes, in order to completely rid them of their moisture. Season according to the kind of vegetable; add the butter away from the fire, and slightly toss, rolling the saucepan meanwhile on the stove with the view of effecting the leason by means of the mixing of the butter with the treated vegetables.
Vegetables to be treated in this way must be kept somewhat firm. After having thoroughly drained them, put them into a saucepan with enough boiling fresh cream to well moisten without covering them.
Finish their cooking process in the cream, stirring occasionally the while.
When the cream is almost entirely reduced, finish, away from the fire, with a little butter.
The leason may be slightly stiffened, if necessary, by means of a few tablespoonfuls of cream sauce.
Purées of dry and farinaceous vegetables may be obtained by rubbing the latter through a sieve.
Put the purée into a sautépan, and dry it over a brisk fire, adding one and one-half oz. of butter per pint of purée; then add milk or cream in small quantities at a time, until the purée has reached the required degree of consistence.
For purées of aqueous vegetables, such as French beans, cauliflowers, celery, &c., a quarter of their volume of mashed potatoes should be added to them in order to effect their leason.
In the case of vegetable creams, substitute for the thickening of mashed potatoes an equivalent quantity of succulent and stiff Béchamel sauce.
In cookery, although garnishes only play a minor part, they are, nevertheless, very important, for, besides being the principal accompaniments to dishes, they are very often the[134]adornment thereof, while it frequently happens that their harmonious arrangement considerably helps to throw the beauty of a fine joint or bird into relief.
A garnish may consist of one or more products. Be this as it may, its name, as a rule, distinctly denotes, in a word, what it is and how it is made.
In any case, it should always bear some relation to the piece it accompanies, either in the constituents of its preparation or with regard to the size of the piece constituting the dish.
I merely add that, since the constituents of garnishes are strictly denoted by the name the latter bear, any addition of products foreign to their nature would be a grave mistake. Likewise, the omission of any constituent is to be avoided, as the garnish would thereby be out of keeping with its specified character.
Only in very exceptional circumstances should any change of this kind be allowed to take place.
The constituents of garnishes are supplied by vegetables, farinaceous products, quenelles of all kinds, cocks’ combs and kidneys, truffles and mushrooms, plain or stuffed olives, molluscs (mussels or oysters), shell-fish (crayfish, shrimps, lobster, &c.), butcher’s supplies, such as lamb’s sweet-bread, calf’s brains, and calf’s spine-marrow.
As a rule, garnishes are independent of the dish itself—that is to say, they are prepared entirely apart. At other times they are mixed with it, playing the double part of garnish and condimentary principle, as in the case of Matelotes, Compotes, Civets, &c.
Vegetables for garnishing are fashioned and treated in accordance with the use and shape implied by the name of the dish, which should always be the operator’s guide in this respect.
The farinaceous ones, the molluscs and shell-fish, undergo the customary preparation.
I have already described (Chapter X.) the preparation of quenelles and forcemeats for garnishing. Other recipes which have the same purpose will be treated in their respective order.