THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY STYLE

C. Custance.Who took thee this letter, Margerie Mumblecrust?M. Mumble.A lusty gay bachelor took it me of trust,And if ye seek to him he will love your doing.C. Custance.Yea, but where learned he that manner of wooing?M. Mumble.If to sue to him, you will any pains take,He will have you to his wife (he saith) for my sake.C. Custance.Some wise gentleman, belike. I am bespoken:And I thought verily this had been some tokenFrom my dear spouse Gawin Goodluck, whom when him please,God luckily send home to both our hearts’ ease.M. Mumble.A joyly man it is, I wot well by report,And would have you to him for marriage resort;Best open the writing, and see what it does speak.C. Custance.At this time, nurse, I will neither read ne break.M. Mumble.He promised to give you a whole peck of gold.C. Custance.Perchance, lack of a pint when it shall be all told.M. Mumble.I would take a gay rich husband, and I were you.C. Custance.In good sooth, Madge, e’en so would I, if I were thou.But no more of this fond talk now, let us go in,And see thou no more move me folly to begin.Nor bring me no more letters for no man’s pleasure,But thou know from whom.M. Mumble.I warrant ye shall be sure.Ralph Roister Doister

C. Custance.Who took thee this letter, Margerie Mumblecrust?

M. Mumble.A lusty gay bachelor took it me of trust,

And if ye seek to him he will love your doing.

C. Custance.Yea, but where learned he that manner of wooing?

M. Mumble.If to sue to him, you will any pains take,

He will have you to his wife (he saith) for my sake.

C. Custance.Some wise gentleman, belike. I am bespoken:

And I thought verily this had been some token

From my dear spouse Gawin Goodluck, whom when him please,

God luckily send home to both our hearts’ ease.

M. Mumble.A joyly man it is, I wot well by report,

And would have you to him for marriage resort;

Best open the writing, and see what it does speak.

C. Custance.At this time, nurse, I will neither read ne break.

M. Mumble.He promised to give you a whole peck of gold.

C. Custance.Perchance, lack of a pint when it shall be all told.

M. Mumble.I would take a gay rich husband, and I were you.

C. Custance.In good sooth, Madge, e’en so would I, if I were thou.

But no more of this fond talk now, let us go in,

And see thou no more move me folly to begin.

Nor bring me no more letters for no man’s pleasure,

But thou know from whom.

M. Mumble.I warrant ye shall be sure.

Ralph Roister Doister

Summary.We can thus see the material that lay to the hand of Shakespeare and his fellows. It was almost of uniform development and of ancient and diverse origin; it was frequently coarse and childish, but its material wasabundant and vital. The time was at hand, and so was the genius of the master to give this vast body a shape and impulse. Almost in a day, after centuries of slow ripening, the harvest came, with a wealth and excellence of fruition that is one of the marvels of our literature.

1. Poetry.In English poetry there was a marked decadence in style. In the works of Lydgate, Skelton, and Hawes the meters often became mere doggerel; there was little trace of real poetical imagination and phrasing; and the actual vocabulary is not striking. Compared with that of Chaucer, their work seems childish and inept. Many reasons have been advanced to explain this rapid collapse. The most obvious one is the sheer lack of talent: there is nobody to carry on the Chaucerian tradition with any great credit. Another cause is probably the rapid decay of the use of the finale, which in the meter of Chaucer was an item of much moment. Pronunciation of English was rapidly changing, and the new race of poets had not the requisite skill to modify the old meter to suit the new age. In Scottish poetry there is much activity. To a large extent the Scottish poets were content to imitate the mannerisms of Chaucer. In one respect, indeed, they carried his descriptive-allegorical method too far, and made their poems lifeless. Such were the less successful poems of Dunbar (The Golden Targe), and of Gawain Douglas (The Palice of Honour). On the other hand, peculiar Scottish features were not lacking: a breezy and sometimes vulgar humor, bred, perhaps, of the ruder folk and the bleaker air; a robust independence and common sense; a note of passion and pathos; and a sense of the picturesque both in nature and in man. We find such features illustrated, wholly or in part, in such poems as Lyndsay’sSatyre of the Thrie Estatis, in Dunbar’sLament for the Makaris, and at the close of Henryson’sTestament of Cresseid.

2. Prose.The development of prose style was marked by a number of small improvements which in the aggregaterepresented no small advance. Unlike the poetry of the time, prose suffered from no retrogression. There was a perceptible increase in skill, due to increased practice; there was a growing perception of the beauties of rhythm and cadence; and, in the purely formal sense, there was the appearance of the prose paragraph. Above all, the chief prose styles—the ornate, the middle, and the plain—are appearing faintly but perceptibly. With their arrival the rapid development of English prose is assured.

1. The following prose passages are early examples of ornate, middle, and simple styles. Analyze them carefully with respect to their sentence-construction, vocabulary, and rhythm, and show how each deserves its name.

(1) Forasmuch as this honourable audience now is here assembled to prosecute the funeral observances and ceremonies about this most noble prince late our king and sovereign, king Henry the seventh. And all be it I know well mine unworthiness and inabilities to this so great a matter, yet for my most bounden duty, and for his gracious favour and singular benefits exhibit unto me in this life, I would now after his death right affectuously some thing say, whereby your charities the rather might have his soul recommended. And to that purpose I will entreat the first psalm of thedirige, which psalm was written of the holy king and prophet king David, comforting him after his great falls and trespasses against Almighty God and read in the church in the funeral obsequies of every Christian person when that he dieth.Fisher,Funeral Sermon on Henry VII

Fisher,Funeral Sermon on Henry VII

(2) Maistres Alyce, in my most hartywise, I commend me to you. And whereas I am enfourmed by my son Heron of the losse of my barnes and our neighbours’ also with all the corn that was therein; albeit (saving God’s pleasure), it is gret pitie of so much good corne lost; yet sith it hath liked hym to sende us such a chaunce, we must and are bounden, not only to be content, but also to be glad of his visitacion. He sente us all that we have loste, and sith he hath by such a chaunce taken it away againe, his pleasure be fulfilled! Let us never grudge thereat, but take it in good worth and hartely thank him as well for adversitie as for prosperitie.More,Letter to his Wife

More,Letter to his Wife

(3) Now-a-dayes the judges be afraid to heare a poore man against the rich, insomuch they will either pronounce against him, or so drive off the poore man’s sute, that he shall not be able to go thorow with it. The greatest man in a realme cannot so hurt a judge as the poore widdow; such a shrewd turne she can do him. And with what armour, I pray you? She can bring the judge’s skinne over his eares, and never lay hands upon him. And how is that? “The teares of the poore fall downe upon their cheekes, and go up to heaven,” and cry for vengeance before God, the judge of widdowes, the father of widdowes and orphanes. Poore people be oppressed even by lawes. Wo worth to them that make evill lawes against the poore!Latimer,Sermons

Latimer,Sermons

2. Point out in what respects the style and sentiment of each of the following extracts represent its age and nationality. Write a critique on the passages taken together: point out their common features.

(1) Now there was made, fast by the tower’s wallA garden fair; and in the corners setAn herbere[74]green, with wandis long and smallRailed about, and so with treis setWas all the place, and hawthorn hedges knetThat lyf[75]was none walking there forbyeThat might within scarce any wight espy.And therewith cast I doun mine eye againWhere as I saw walking under the towerFull secretly, now comen her to pleyne[76]The fairest or the freshest younge flowerThat e’er I saw methought before that hourFor which sudden abate[77]anon astartThe blood of all my body to my heart.James I of Scotland,The Kingis Quhair

(1) Now there was made, fast by the tower’s wall

A garden fair; and in the corners set

An herbere[74]green, with wandis long and small

Railed about, and so with treis set

Was all the place, and hawthorn hedges knet

That lyf[75]was none walking there forbye

That might within scarce any wight espy.

And therewith cast I doun mine eye againWhere as I saw walking under the towerFull secretly, now comen her to pleyne[76]The fairest or the freshest younge flowerThat e’er I saw methought before that hourFor which sudden abate[77]anon astartThe blood of all my body to my heart.James I of Scotland,The Kingis Quhair

And therewith cast I doun mine eye again

Where as I saw walking under the tower

Full secretly, now comen her to pleyne[76]

The fairest or the freshest younge flower

That e’er I saw methought before that hour

For which sudden abate[77]anon astart

The blood of all my body to my heart.

James I of Scotland,The Kingis Quhair

(2) Thus I, Colin Clout,As I go about,And wandering as I walk,I hear the people talk:Men say for silver and goldMitres are bought and sold.There shall no clergy opposeA mitre nor a crose,But a full purse—A straw for God’s curse!What are they the worse?For a simoniacIs but a hermoniac,And no more ye may makeOf simony men sayBut a child’s play;Over this the foresaid layReport how the pope mayA holy anchorite callOut of a stony wall.Skeleton,Colin Clout

(2) Thus I, Colin Clout,

As I go about,

And wandering as I walk,

I hear the people talk:

Men say for silver and gold

Mitres are bought and sold.

There shall no clergy oppose

A mitre nor a crose,

But a full purse—

A straw for God’s curse!

What are they the worse?

For a simoniac

Is but a hermoniac,

And no more ye may make

Of simony men say

But a child’s play;

Over this the foresaid lay

Report how the pope may

A holy anchorite call

Out of a stony wall.

Skeleton,Colin Clout

(3) He came all so stillWhere his mother was,As dew in AprilThat falleth on the grass.He came all so stillTo his mother’s bower,As dew in AprilThat falleth on the flower.He came all so stillWhere his mother lay,As dew in AprilThat falleth on the spray.Mother and maiden,Was never none like she!Well may such a lady,God’s mother to be!Anonymous

(3) He came all so stillWhere his mother was,As dew in AprilThat falleth on the grass.

(3) He came all so still

Where his mother was,

As dew in April

That falleth on the grass.

He came all so stillTo his mother’s bower,As dew in AprilThat falleth on the flower.

He came all so still

To his mother’s bower,

As dew in April

That falleth on the flower.

He came all so stillWhere his mother lay,As dew in AprilThat falleth on the spray.

He came all so still

Where his mother lay,

As dew in April

That falleth on the spray.

Mother and maiden,Was never none like she!Well may such a lady,God’s mother to be!Anonymous

Mother and maiden,

Was never none like she!

Well may such a lady,

God’s mother to be!

Anonymous

(4) My father was sae waik of bluid and baneThat he deit,[78]wherefore my mother made greate mane;Then she deit within ane day or two,And there began my poverty and wo.Our gude grey meir was baitand[79]on the field,And our land’s laird took her for his heryield.[80]The vicar took the best cow by the heidIncontinent, when my father was deid.And when the vicar heard tell how that my motherWas deid, fra hand, he took till him the other.Lyndsay,Satyre of the Thrie Estatis

(4) My father was sae waik of bluid and bane

That he deit,[78]wherefore my mother made greate mane;

Then she deit within ane day or two,

And there began my poverty and wo.

Our gude grey meir was baitand[79]on the field,

And our land’s laird took her for his heryield.[80]

The vicar took the best cow by the heid

Incontinent, when my father was deid.

And when the vicar heard tell how that my mother

Was deid, fra hand, he took till him the other.

Lyndsay,Satyre of the Thrie Estatis

3. The following series of translations of Matthew iii, 1–4, illustrates the development of Biblical style. Write a short comment upon them, comparing them and pointing out the development.

(a) (1) In þo dayes come Ihone baptist prechand in desert of þe Iewry, & seyand, (2) Do [gh]e penaunce; forwhy þe kyngdome of heuyne sal come negh. (3) Þis is he of whome it was seide be Isay þe prophete, sayand, Þe voice of þe cryand in þe desert, redye [gh]e þe way of God, right make [gh]e þe lityl wayes of him.’ (4) & Ihone his kleþing of þe hoerys of camels, & a gyrdyl of a skyn about his lendys; & his mete was þe locust & hony of þe wode.Anonymous, 1300

Anonymous, 1300

(b) (1) In thilke days came Ioon Baptist, prechynge in the desert of Iude, sayinge, (2) Do [gh]e penaunce, for the kyngdom of heuens shal nei[gh] (orcume ni[gh]e). (3) Forsothe this is he of whome it is said by Ysaye the prophet, A voice of a cryinge in desert, Make [gh]e redy the wayes of the Lord; make [gh]e ri[gh]tful the pathes of hym. (4) Forsothe that ilk Ioon hadde cloth of the heeris of cameylis, and a girdil of skyn aboute his leendis; sothely his mete weren locustis, and hony of the wode.Wyclif,First Version, 1384

Wyclif,First Version, 1384

(c) (1) In tho daies Ioon Baptist cam, and prechide in the desert of Iudee, and seide, (2) Do [gh]e penaunce, for the kyngdom of heuenes shal nei[gh]e. (3) For this is he, of whom it is seid bi Ysaie, the prophete, seyinge, A vois of a crier in desert, Make [gh]e redi the weies of the Lord; make [gh]e ri[gh]t the pathis of hym. (4) And this Ioon hadde clothing of camels heeris, and a girdil of skynne aboute his leendis; and his mete was honysoukis and hony of the wode.Wyclif,Second Version, 1388

Wyclif,Second Version, 1388

(d) In those dayes Ihon the baptyser cam and preached in the wyldernes of Iury, saynge, Repent, the kyngedom of heven ys at hond. Thys ys he of whom it ys spoken be the prophet Isay, whych sayth; the voice of a cryer in wyldernes, prepaire ye the lordes waye, and make hys pathes strayght. Thys Ihon had hysgarment of camelles heere, and a gyrdyll of a skynne about hys loynes. Hys meate was locustes and wyldhe ony.Tyndale, 1526

Tyndale, 1526

(e) In those dayes Ihon the Baptyst came and preached in the wildernes of Jury, saynge: Amende youre selues, the kyngdome of heuen is at honde. This is he, of whom it is spoken by the prophet Esay, which sayeth: The voyce of a cryer in the wyldernes, prepare the Lordes waye, and make his pathes straight. This Ihon had his garment of camels heer, and a lethren gerdell aboute his loynes. Hys meate was locustes and wylde hony.Coverdale, 1536

Coverdale, 1536

(f) In those dayes came Iohn the Baptyst, preaching in the wyldernes of Iewry, saying, Repent of the life that is past, for the kyngdome of heauen is at hande, For thys is he, of whom the prophet Esay, spake, which sayeth, the voyce of a cryer in the wyldernes, prepare ye the waye of the lorde: make hys pathes strayght. This Iohn had hys garment of camels heer and a gyrdell of a skynne aboute hys loynes. His meate was locustes and wylde hony.The Great Bible, 1539

The Great Bible, 1539

4. In the following series of extracts from the early plays comment upon the general standard of style, and point out any development that is apparent. Pay particular attention to the meter.

(1) (From the Chester play-cycle, dating probably from the fourteenth century.)

Ham’s Wife.And I will go to gather slich[81]The ship for to clean and pitch;Anointed it must be, every stitch,Board, tree, and pin.Japhet’s Wife.And I will gather chips here,To make a fire for you, in fear,And for to dight[82]your dinner,Against you come in.[Here they make signs as though they were working with divers instruments.Noah.Now in the name of God I will begin,To make the ship that we shall in,That we be ready for to swim,At the coming of the flood,These boards I join together,To keep us safe from the weather,That we may roam both hither and thither,And safe be from this flood....God.Noah, take thou thy company,And in the ship hie that you be,For none so righteous man to meIs now on earth living.The Deluge

Ham’s Wife.And I will go to gather slich[81]

The ship for to clean and pitch;

Anointed it must be, every stitch,

Board, tree, and pin.

Japhet’s Wife.And I will gather chips here,

To make a fire for you, in fear,

And for to dight[82]your dinner,

Against you come in.

[Here they make signs as though they were working with divers instruments.

Noah.Now in the name of God I will begin,

To make the ship that we shall in,

That we be ready for to swim,

At the coming of the flood,

These boards I join together,

To keep us safe from the weather,

That we may roam both hither and thither,

And safe be from this flood....

God.Noah, take thou thy company,

And in the ship hie that you be,

For none so righteous man to me

Is now on earth living.

The Deluge

(2) (From a sixteenth-century interlude.)

Bale[speaking as Epilogue]. The matters are such as we have uttered here,As ought not to slide from your memorial;For they have opened such comfortable gear,As is to the health of this kind universal,Graces of the Lord and promises liberal,Which he gives to man for every age,To knit him to Christ, and so clear him of bondage.Bale,God’s Promises

Bale[speaking as Epilogue]. The matters are such as we have uttered here,

As ought not to slide from your memorial;

For they have opened such comfortable gear,

As is to the health of this kind universal,

Graces of the Lord and promises liberal,

Which he gives to man for every age,

To knit him to Christ, and so clear him of bondage.

Bale,God’s Promises

(3) (A historical play.)

For non other cawse God hath kyngs constytuteAnd gevyn them the sword, but forto correct all vyce.I have attempted this thing to executeUppon transgressers accordyng unto justyce;And be cawse I wyll not be parcyall in myn offyceFor theft and murder to persones spirytuall,I have ageynst me the pristes and the bysshoppes allA lyke dysplesure in my fathers tyme ded fall,Forty yeres ago, for ponyshment of a clarke.No cun[`s]ell myght them to reformacyon call,In ther openyon they were so stordy and so starke,But ageynst ther prynce to the pope they dyd so barke,That here in Ynglond in every cyte and towneExcommunycacyons as thonder bolts came downe.Bale,Kynge Johan

For non other cawse God hath kyngs constytute

And gevyn them the sword, but forto correct all vyce.

I have attempted this thing to execute

Uppon transgressers accordyng unto justyce;

And be cawse I wyll not be parcyall in myn offyce

For theft and murder to persones spirytuall,

I have ageynst me the pristes and the bysshoppes all

A lyke dysplesure in my fathers tyme ded fall,

Forty yeres ago, for ponyshment of a clarke.

No cun[`s]ell myght them to reformacyon call,

In ther openyon they were so stordy and so starke,

But ageynst ther prynce to the pope they dyd so barke,

That here in Ynglond in every cyte and towne

Excommunycacyons as thonder bolts came downe.

Bale,Kynge Johan

(4) (From the earliest comedy.)

R. Roister.Now, nurse, take this same letter here to thy mistress,And as my trust is in thee, ply my business.M. Mumble.It shall be done.Mathew Merygreeke.Who made it?R. Roister.I wrote it each whit.M. Mery.Then needs it no mending.R. Roister.No, no.M. Mery.No, I know your wit,I warrant it well.M. Mumble.It shall be delivered.But if ye speed, shall I be considered?M. Mery.Whough! Dost thou doubt of that?M. Mumble.What shall I have?M. Mery.An hundred times more than thou canst devise to crave.M. Mumble.Shall I have some new gear? for my old is all spent.M. Mery.The worst kitchen-wench shall go in ladies’ raiment....[Here they sing, and go out singing.Udall,Ralph Roister Doister

R. Roister.Now, nurse, take this same letter here to thy mistress,

And as my trust is in thee, ply my business.

M. Mumble.It shall be done.

Mathew Merygreeke.Who made it?

R. Roister.I wrote it each whit.

M. Mery.Then needs it no mending.

R. Roister.No, no.

M. Mery.No, I know your wit,

I warrant it well.

M. Mumble.It shall be delivered.

But if ye speed, shall I be considered?

M. Mery.Whough! Dost thou doubt of that?

M. Mumble.What shall I have?

M. Mery.An hundred times more than thou canst devise to crave.

M. Mumble.Shall I have some new gear? for my old is all spent.

M. Mery.The worst kitchen-wench shall go in ladies’ raiment....

[Here they sing, and go out singing.

Udall,Ralph Roister Doister

5. Trace the influence of the Church upon the early English drama, and account for the decay of the Church influence.

6. Point out some of the effects of the Reformation that are apparent in the literature of the day.

7. In what respects is the period 1450–1550 a period of literary decadence, and in what respects does it show an advance?

8. Account for the sudden appearance of Scottish literature, and for its rapid rise to such a high standard.

9. In what respects was the Scottish literature of the time imitative, and in what respects was it original?

10. “As the Romance decays, the Drama develops.” Is this quite true? If so, can you account for the fact?

11. “The most original and powerful poetry of the fifteenth century was composed in popular form for the ear of the common people.” Discuss this statement with reference to the ballads, the carols, the songs, and the dramas of the time, as they compare with the other poetry of the day.

12. “It is doubtful if anyone in the fifteenth century thought of prose as a medium of artistic expression.” Comment upon this statement.

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