THEINTRODUCTIONContaining some historical Observations on Laws, and other Occurrences concerning Hermaphrodites.
Containing some historical Observations on Laws, and other Occurrences concerning Hermaphrodites.
An indolent Person is always the most credulous of Novelty, at the same Time that his Supineness hinders him from examining into the Truth of any Rumour whatsoever. And this Kind of Passion is of the meanest Class, not only as it argues some Contempt or Neglect of Truth, but also as it is productive of a very great Evil, in setting a Limit or Bar to the Progress of Knowledge, and is therefore a vast Disadvantage to Society in general; from such aone as this, not the least publick Good, no more than private Benefit to himself, can flow; and the Man who has not a Desire to cultivate that innate Curiosity, which is every one’s Property, is unmindful of one of the greatest Duties incumbent on him; but when it is duly and honourably modified, and employed in the Search of useful Affairs only, it qualifies him for social Life, and renders him capable of being of Service in his Generation.
Though one may be informed of a Matter which in itself is really Fact, yet if an Absurdity should arise in the Narration, it would be laudable to enquire whether it is to be ascribed to the Relater or to the Thing told; but as there is nothing which, when true, can admit of any Absurdity, there is therefore the greater Right to be discontented with what is not easily understood; and it would even amount to a Crime to neglect taking Notice of such Accounts, especially if any Thing monstrous or improbableis blended with them. Shall we, for Example, sit down with some Authors, and say, thatHares[2]are always of both Sexes; that theRhinoceros[3]is always Male; that theVulture[4]is always Female; that of all Animals[5], Goats, Sheep, Horses, Men, and Hares, are most liable to become Hermaphrodites? and shall we go on to copy or quote them in a Strain of Approbation? no; rather let us examine them thoroughly, lest by assenting to any Part of them, that does not square with Nature and Reason, we shall find our Judgments very deservedly arraigned, and the sagacious Part of the World much displeased.
The constant Application of some great Men, (with whom this Island formerly has been, and is, at present, blessed) to the Study of Physical Affairs, is a glorious Example to encourage all younger Students to imitate their Steps, in the Pursuit of natural Knowledge, and, consequently, the publick Good, according to the different Turns of Mind, and those Studies that most delight them. Would such attain to a true Notion of the Animal Structure? let the Labours and Example of those great AnatomistsDouglas[6],Cheselden[7],Nichols[8], andNesbit[9], be their Guides. Would their Curiosity expand itself in the general Field of Natural History? SirHans Sloaneshews of this to form inimitable Scenes. Or would they endeavour tobring Physiological Learning into a clear Light by Dint of mechanical Reasoning, the celebratedMead[10]and learnedStuart[11], with many others of our most honourable College, point out the way: would they, in fine, dive into mathematical Streams, the certain Directors to Truth, how many Examples of this Sort, as well as of those already mentioned, can ourRoyal Society, the most famous in the learned World, produce.
All these are the Stars directing to the Haven of Science here, whom, if observed with Attention, it is no wonder if their Followers emulate to overturn Errors, and undeceive the Crowd that is hurried along through Mazes and Labyrinths of Misrepresentations, to hunt out the Truth, which is often very intricatelyenvironed round with dark Veils of Ignorance or Superstition.
Such were the Motives and Considerations that prompted me to endeavour to wrest, from the Jaws of Scandal and Reproach, poor human Nature, which has, from Time to Time, suffered great Disgrace, and many of whose innocent Children have been punished, and even put to Death, for having been reputed Hermaphrodites; Ignorance of the Fabrick of the Body has been the first great Occasion of those Evils, destroying Evils, which exist not only amongst the most ignorantAmericans, but also amongst the Litterati themselves in other Parts of the World.
What, but Ignorance or Superstition, could perswade Men to imagine, that poor human Creatures (which were only distorted in some particular Part, or had any thing unusual appearing about them, from some morbid Cause affecting them, either in the Uterus, or after their Births)were Prodigies or Monsters in Nature? What, but Ignorance and Superstition, could urge Men to make Laws for their Destruction or Exclusion from the common Benefits of Life? in fine, what, but these very Causes, could make several harsh Laws continue still in Force against them in many Places, which suppose those Women that happen to beMacroclitorideæ, to be capable of exercising the Functions of either Sex, with regard to Generation; and, further, restrain them under severe Penalties to stick to that Sex only which they should choose? as if poor Women could exercise the Part of any other Sex but their own.
TheRomans, soon after the Foundation of their City, had Laws made against theirAndrogyniremarkably severe; for whensoever a Child was reputed one of these, his Sentence was to be shut up in a Chest alive, and thrown into the Sea[12],which was as often put in Execution as any of these unfortunate Children were discovered. The Inhabitants about the Gulph ofFlorida[13]hold them also in great Contempt, believing them to be something so evil as not to deserve the Comforts of Life; and though they do not destroy them yet they deal as badly by them, for when they go to make War, as many of these supposed Hermaphrodites as can be found are obliged to carry their Provisions; they are also compelled to bear the Dead, and those sick of malignant Diseases, to proper Places, and attend them under very rigorous Circumstances.
Nothing is more certain, than that the Causes above-mentioned have had no small Share in the propagating a Belief among the People of their Existence; and this appears by a Custom, that long prevailed amongst thePagansinItaly,who, upon the Birth of such Children, as were thought Hermaphrodites, always consulted their Religious and Wise-Men[14]what to do with them. A remarkable Instance of this Kind happened in a Town inCampaniainItaly, calledFrusino, where a Child being born of a monstrous Size, and another atSinuessawhose Sex was doubtful, insomuch, that they could neither judge it Male nor Female, it was laid before the Magistrates, who immediately sent for some of theAurispices, out ofHetruria, and they pronounced it, ‘Fædum ac turpe prodigium[15],’ whereupon it was thrown into the Sea according to the aforesaid Law. But this was not enough, for as by the Superstition of these Soothsayers and thePontifices, such Children were thought to portend some Evil, there wasa Ceremony that always succeeded their Destruction, which was performed by twenty-seven Virgins, who marched in Procession, singing about the City, and offered Sacrifices toJuno, to avert the Evil which they imagined was boded by the Child’s Birth.
This happened many Times afterwards inItaly; and even the Christian EmperorConstantine, according toEusebius[16], made Laws against them; for about this Time the RiverNilenot flowing so much over the Lands as usual, the Blame was laid to theirAndrogyniwho worshipped and bathed in it amongst the People; whereupon the Law made against them was, that they should be looked upon as a spurious Breed, and destroyed[17].
‘When the People ofEgypt, and particularly those ofAlexandria, worshipped the River (Nile), a Law was issued out against certain Men of an effeminate Nature, who worshipped among them; whereby all those commonly accounted Androgyni were to be destroyed, as an uncertain and spurious Race, nor was it permitted even to look on those that had such lascivious Disorders.’
Some time after the Law was made, the River began to flow freely, and swelled again over the Banks, as before. The Superstition of the Inhabitants was gratified, who, no doubt, owed the Restoration of the Waters to the cruel Law made against those miserable human Creatures.
In order more clearly to illustrate under what Restrictions such, as were reputed Hermaphrodites, lay, touching theJewish, as well as the Canon and Civil,Laws of later Date, I have taken fromCasper Bauhinus[18]as many Tracts as he has collected, in his own Words as follows; whereby the Reader will be the better informed, how much these erroneous Notions concerning them prevailed from the beginning.
‘In theHebrewLaw there is often mention made of Hermaphrodites, although they were not very sollicitous about the Causes of their confused Natures. The Word Androgynus was very familiar amongst them, which, they say, signifies one having the Parts of Generation of both Sexes, one ofwhich, however, they allow to be more luxuriant than the other. Hence arise some Disputes amongst them concerning the Laws they are subject to, which I have translated from theTalmudin the following Words.
‘Androgyni are in their Natures to be esteemed partly as Men, partly as Women; partly as both Man and Woman; and partly as neither Man nor Woman, but as they appear in their proper Persons.
I. ‘They are like Men in five Respects according to the Law of the Book ofMoses: 1. By polluting whatsoever Man or other Thing which they touch, or that touches them, whensoever they have emitted their Semen; as Men pollute every Thing in such Cases, according to that Law: 2. They are obliged to marry their Brother’s Widows, not having Children, as Men are: 3. They are to go dress’d, from Head to Foot, after the Manner of Men, and to shave their Heads as Men, not as Women, for Intemperance Sake: 4. They are permitted tomarry Women, as other Men do, and not to marry Men: 5. They are obliged to observe all the Precepts of the Law ofMoses, asJewishMen are, but not as Women, who are not subject to all, because of those Things which their different Seasons require.’
II. ‘They are further likened to Women in seven Respects according to the Law ofMoses: 1. By polluting every Man, and all Things they shall touch or are touched by, in the Time of their Menses: 2. Because it is notlawful for them to converse with Men alone in any private Place: 3. Because they may shave their Heads in a circular Manner as Women; and, besides, may spread out their Beards, which the Law ofMosesforbids to Men: 4. Because they are permitted to walk among the Dead as Women, which is forbidden to Men: 5. Because they cannot bear witness, as Women cannot: 6. Because, as Women, they are forbidden all unlawful Copulation: 7. Because, as Women, it is unlawful for them to marry a Priest of the Seed ofAaron, whereby they are vitiated.
III. ‘They are to be esteemed as Men and Women in six Respects: 1. If they are assaulted by any Person, the Matter is to be agreed on according to the utmost of the Damage: 2. If they are inadvertently killed by any, the Person is to retire into one of the privileged Places, ordered for Security in such Cases, there to remainuntil the Death of the High-Priest, as if he had killed a Man or Woman, according to the Law ofMoses; but if wilfully murdered, the Murderer ought to die as for murdering a Man or Woman: 3. When a Woman brings forth an Androgynus, she ought to be accounted unclean seven Days, as for a Male Child; again, other seven Days for a Female Child, that is, the Days of Uncleanness and Purification ought to be numbered as for the bringing forth of a Son and Daughter, according to the Law ofMoses: 4. An Androgynus, if of a sacerdotal Race, is a Partaker of Sacrifices like other Menthat are so, according to the Law ofMoses: 5. They have share of both paternal and maternal Inheritances, and also in such other Inheritances as they may claim by Law as a Man and Woman: 6. When any Androgyni have a Desire to forsake worldly Affairs, it ought to be well attested, and they becomeNazaritesby their Vow.
IV. ‘They are finally, in three other Respects, to be treated as neither Mennor Women, but as a Person proper to itself, having a Right to neither Sex in particular: 1. Though an Androgynus should strike or calumniate another, he is not obliged to make any Satisfaction according to the Law ofMosesthat regards Men or Women, but as a singular Person ought to make Reparation according to the Sentence and Agreement of proper Judges; 2. If any Androgyni shall declare their Vows to the Lord, according to the Estimation of their Persons, and shall dedicatesuch Estimation or Value to the Temple of God, if it is not made according toMoses’s express Law as of Men and Women, let it be done according to the Judgment of a Priest, regarding their particular Persons, or as it can be best agreed on by such as preside in the Temple of God: 3. But if any should declare of themselves their Desire of being devoted to God, separated from worldly Things, or bind themselves by the Vow of aNazarite, then if such Persons are neither Man nor Woman, their own Words shall be of no effect, nor ought they to be devoted to God; these are from the Talmud of theJews.
‘The RabbiMeirsays, an Androgynus is a Creature of a particular Kindin itself; nor were some wise Men willing to determine whether they are Men or Women; butObthurata’s Opinion is otherwise, who says they are sometimes Men, sometimes Women, according as the Appearance is of the Parts of either Sex.’
‘Having recounted some Laws and Privileges of theJewsconcerning Hermaphrodites, we are now to propose certain Questions, taken from the Canon and Civil Laws, referring thosewho would know more, to the Writings of the Authors from whom we have gathered them,&c.’
Quest.I. ‘Whether a Man’s or Woman’s Name should be given to an Hermaphrodite at it’s Baptism?Ans.If there seems to be more of a Male Nature than the other, a Man’s Name; otherwise, that of a Female; but if it be doubtful, it lies at the Discretion of him who gives the Name.
Q.II. ‘How often should an Hermaphrodite confess?Ans.Once a Year as a Man or Woman.
Q.III. ‘Can an Hermaphrodite contract Marriage?Ans.It is granted according to the Predominancy of Sex, which ought to be regarded; but if the Sexes seem equal, the Choice is left to the Hermaphrodite.
Q.IV. ‘Are Hermaphrodites comprehended in the Statutes requiring Consent of Friends upon contracting with Women?Ans.The Statute concerns not a mixed Person.
Q.V. ‘Can an Hermaphrodite be a Witness?Ans.No; except in Cases wherein a Woman may.
Q.VI. ‘Can an Hermaphrodite be a Witness to a Testament or Last Will?Ans.The predominating Sex will shew that,viz.if more potent inthe Male Sex he may; if the Sexes are equal, or more Female, not,&c.
Q.VII. ‘Whether an Hermaphrodite ought to stand in Judgment as a Man or Woman?Ans.An Oath should first be taken which Member is predominant, and the Person admitted accordingly; but if both are equally powerful, not to be admitted, according to the holy Church.
Q.VIII. ‘Can an Hermaphrodite be promoted to holy Orders?Ans.An Hermaphrodite is driven from this Promotion because of Deformity or Monstrosity; but if more masculine than feminine, the Character may be conferred, though not Ordination, nor a Power of Administration.
Q.IX. ‘Can an Hermaphrodite be Rector of a University?Ans.No; for there cannot be a married Clergyman, nor an Hermaphrodite, nor one less than twenty Years of Age.
Q.X. ‘Can an Hermaphrodite be a Judge?Ans.An Hermaphrodite is reckoned among the Infamous, to whom the Gates of Dignity ought not to be open.
Q.XI. ‘Can an Hermaphrodite be an Advocate?Ans.No, being infamous.
Q.XII. ‘Can an Hermaphrodite be an Arbitrator?Ans.Yes, whether there appears more of the Male, or more of the Female Sex, or an Equality of both,&c.
Q.XIII. ‘Can an Hermaphrodite fall under Penalties?Ans.If the Male Sex is predominant, he comes in as a Male. Another Author says, Male or Female Sex predominating, when occupying the Possession of another by Force, they are under the Law. Another: There is no need of disputing the Sex in this Case.
Q.XIV. ‘Can Hermaphrodites pretend to be ignorant of their Constitutions?
Q.XV. ‘Can Hermaphrodites succeed in Copyholds?Ans.In the Affirmative, if more Male than Female. Others: though that Sex does not predominate by the Appearance of the Pudenda, yet if they seem, in otherWorks of Manhood, as Agility of Body, to be equal to Men, they may succeed in such Inheritance; for that they who resemble perfect Persons ought not to be accounted altogether imperfect, because that Imperfection is concealed, but Perfection is evident and manifest, therefore to be chosen. Others: that the Laws granting Feudes to the descending Males, do not include Hermaphrodites. Another: If, from Custom, Women cannot succeed in a Feude or Copyhold, so an Hermaphroditecannot; which is to be understood of those only in whom the female Sex is most apparent; where such Hermaphrodites, who are more Female, are compared to Females, and those more masculine to Men, therefore the Law is to be determined accordingly.
Q.XVI. ‘How should an Hermaphrodite serve in any Office?Ans.In whatsoever Manner they best can themselves, and not by a Substitute,&c.’
Q.XVII. ‘Can Hermaphrodites chuse, on their Parts, any one of their Brothers to succeed them?Ans.They may gratis, but not for Gratification,&c.
‘Whosoever would know more of the Laws concerning Hermaphrodites, may consult the Doctors and Expounders of the Law; these being sufficient concerning them.’
We have not even in our own Kingdom been free from the same prejudiced Care, in providing Laws against them; for as we had borrowed many from other Nations, and added them to our own, so we find one among them concerning Hermaphrodites, mentioned byCoke[21]in his Commentary uponLittleton, where he speaks of them thus[22]:
‘Every Heir is either a Male, or Female, or an Hermaphrodite, that is, both Male and Female. And an Hermaphrodite, which is also called an Androgynus, shall be Heir, either as Male or Female, according to that Kind of the Sex which doth prevail, and accordingly ought to be baptized.’
Would not any one imagine that these supposed Androgyni, instead of being of the same Nature with us, (however morbid or deformed their Parts of Generation might be) were rather another Race of Animalssui generis, than what they really are? when a String of Laws, compiled with so much Accuracy, and in such a formal Manner, concerning them, has been exhibited and increased in all Ages; and is it not Matter of great surprize, to think that none had ever undertaken to convince the World of the Superstition and Vanity of such Laws? since those that were already in force, in all Nations, were as sufficientto bind a morbid Subject in all Cases, as a sound one; which alone is the Question here.
Though the World was lead on to credit and countenance those Whims tillCicero’s Time, and supposing none were found able or willing to set People right in this Opinion before him; yet we may, with great Assurance, ask, why the Learned since him should neglect the Hint given by that wise Man in his BookDe Divinatione, where we find him making a Banter of several Superstitions then in Vogue with theRomans; among which he does not forget to enumerate theAndrogyni[23]. ‘Quid cum Cumis Apollo sudavit, capuæ victoria? Quid ortus Androgyni? nonne fatale quoddam Monstrum fuit?’ Sure this, as well as any other Matter, worth the Notice of that noble Author, ought well to bespeak the Attention and Consideration of the whole World after him.
SeveralJewishRabbins, and most of theHebrewsbefore them, were of Opinion, thatAdamwas first made anAndrogynus[24], on the fore Part a Male, and behind a Female; that these were afterwards separated, and the female Part calledEve. This was their Manner of explaining those Passages of the Old Testament, ‘Male and Female created he them;’ and again, ‘Thou hast formed me behind and before:’ These Opinions gave Birth to many others afterwards, as well among the Pagan Philosophers, as among many Christian Divines; some of whom, in the Time of PopeInnocentthe Third were so far Followers of the Rabbins, that they thought the Sexes inAdamwould neverhave been divided if he had not sinned; which was granting thatAdamwas created an Hermaphrodite, and that the two Sexes were taken asunder afterwards. Others[25]of these believed so firmly that Hermaphrodites existed, that they took Pains to confute the above Opinion, only fearing lest such should assume to themselves to have been the first human Creatures made, from the Words above-mentioned, ‘God created Man Male and Female,&c.’ and consequently the most worthy.
From all these Things we see how little it is to be wondered at, that the Majority of the World should be thus riveted in their Notions of Hermaphrodites, since it appears, that Doctors of theJewish,Pagan, and Christian Churches have been Promoters of them from Time to Time, by Doubts and Sentiments in themselves so trivial, as not to deserveany Credit from an impartial and judicious Reader.
Credulities of this Nature, though upon the most insignificant and ill-grounded Assertions, generally make great Progress in the Minds of Men and are sometimes so deeply rooted, that the Vicissitudes of many Ages have not been sufficient to open Mens Eyes, or make them sollicitous for the Truth. Of this Sort was the Notion of Witches in the World; for it is plain from Record, that many poor Women were condemned to the Flames or Gallows by the greatest Sages in the Law; and the Sentences against them were so arbitrary as never to be mitigated, but hurled them to Destruction without the least Regret or Pity from the Witnesses of such Barbarity; and yet how easy would it have been to discern (if Men gave themselves the Liberty to reflect a little upon the Nature of the Thing) that no Guilt, nor any such preternatural Knowledge as was said to center in them, could proceedfrom those ignorant simple People, that were always the Subjects of this Cruelty.
Thus it often fared with our reputed Hermaphrodites, who have been banished, tormented, abused, and employed in such Offices as were in themselves severe; cut off from the common Privileges and Freedoms enjoyed by the Publick wheresoever they have been; yea, and put to Death in an inhuman and pityless Manner. But the Disgrace which hangs over human Nature, from Mens harbouring such strange Notions of one another, is almost as bad; and more especially so, when several who are ranked among Men of Science shall espouse these Chimeras, or at least confess a Doubt concerning the Thing: So that it is not to be wondered at, if the weak-minded and injudicious should be impressed with a Belief of Reports of this Kind, and thereby lose all Humanity towards such Objects; and no wonder modest Ears should be grated withthe Stories of such Creatures, since they are more frequently exposed to vast Numbers of the indiscreet Part of the World, than to Men of Knowledge and Decency.
Since this is the Case, and since Authors, of no little Account among the Learned, have taken great Pains to confirm the Certainty of the Existence of Hermaphrodites in human Nature, and, at the same Time, differ so much from each other concerning them; it could not but be very well worth while to attempt finding the Truth of what, I so much mistrusted, was asserted without any just Foundation, and what I could not but esteem a Scandal thrown upon the whole Race of Mankind; and therefore, upon seeing the Fœtus whose Description, with an Observation upon all female Fœtus’s, concludes the following Pages, I was the more encouraged to read upon and consider the Subject; and finding myself unable to reconcile the Accounts of Authors to Truth, andthe Nature of Hermaphroditism to the Physiology of human Bodies, I was still the more eager to endeavour at being satisfactory to others as well as myself, about what has been so long a Riddle.
The Arrival of theAngolanWoman in Town encouraged this Undertaking, both from the Belief of the Vulgar concerning her, and the Sentiments of others, who would allow her no Sex but the Masculine; which rendered it not an unseasonable Time to make a further Progress in this Essay towards reducing the Matter to a Certainty, which (however deficient) I hope, will be in some Measure acceptable to all Lovers of Truth in Natural History.
BOOKS printed forJ. Walthoe.DrFreind’s History ofPhysick, from the Time ofGalen, to the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century; chiefly with regard to Practice. In a Discourse written to DrMead. TheThird Edition, in 2 Vols. 8vo.R. Welsted, M. D.de Medicina Mentis.Commentarium Nosologicum Morbos Epidemicos & Aëris Variationes in UrbeEboracensiper sedecim Annos grassantes complectens.AutoreCliftono Wintringham, M. D.AnExperimental Enquiryon some Parts of theAnimal Structure. ByClifton Wintringham, jun.T. Lucretius Carusof the Nature of Things. Translated into English Verse byThomas Creech,M. A.The Sixth Edition. Illustrated with Notes, making a complete System of the Epicurean Philosophy, 2 Vols. 8vo.A New Method of ImprovingCold, Wet, and BarrenLands, particularly Clayey Grounds.This Treatise contains, 1. The best Methods of draining wet Lands, either arising from their Situation or Springs. 2. Directions for burning Turf, Mole-hills, and Clay, for the Improvement of such Lands. 3. The many Advantages that arise from boggy Grounds by turning them into Plantations, according to the Nature of the Soil, and Situation of the Place. 4. Directions for making of Fishponds and Ditches for feeding or breeding Fish, and carrying off the Water. 5. The Method of burning barren Land in North-Britain. 6. How to ascertain the Value of Hilly Grounds, a Thing extremely useful to Landlord and Tenant. 7. Directions for making Gardens in Clayey Grounds, and a certain Method of improving Fruit-Trees. The Whole illustrated with Eight Copper-Plates, exhibiting the Figures of the Instruments necessary for such Improvements.Price sewed 2s.and 6d.Observations on the differentStrataofEarthsandMinerals. ByJohn Strachey, Esq;F. R. S.Price 1s.
BOOKS printed forJ. Walthoe.
DrFreind’s History ofPhysick, from the Time ofGalen, to the Beginning of the Sixteenth Century; chiefly with regard to Practice. In a Discourse written to DrMead. TheThird Edition, in 2 Vols. 8vo.
R. Welsted, M. D.de Medicina Mentis.
Commentarium Nosologicum Morbos Epidemicos & Aëris Variationes in UrbeEboracensiper sedecim Annos grassantes complectens.AutoreCliftono Wintringham, M. D.
AnExperimental Enquiryon some Parts of theAnimal Structure. ByClifton Wintringham, jun.
T. Lucretius Carusof the Nature of Things. Translated into English Verse byThomas Creech,M. A.The Sixth Edition. Illustrated with Notes, making a complete System of the Epicurean Philosophy, 2 Vols. 8vo.
A New Method of ImprovingCold, Wet, and BarrenLands, particularly Clayey Grounds.
This Treatise contains, 1. The best Methods of draining wet Lands, either arising from their Situation or Springs. 2. Directions for burning Turf, Mole-hills, and Clay, for the Improvement of such Lands. 3. The many Advantages that arise from boggy Grounds by turning them into Plantations, according to the Nature of the Soil, and Situation of the Place. 4. Directions for making of Fishponds and Ditches for feeding or breeding Fish, and carrying off the Water. 5. The Method of burning barren Land in North-Britain. 6. How to ascertain the Value of Hilly Grounds, a Thing extremely useful to Landlord and Tenant. 7. Directions for making Gardens in Clayey Grounds, and a certain Method of improving Fruit-Trees. The Whole illustrated with Eight Copper-Plates, exhibiting the Figures of the Instruments necessary for such Improvements.Price sewed 2s.and 6d.
This Treatise contains, 1. The best Methods of draining wet Lands, either arising from their Situation or Springs. 2. Directions for burning Turf, Mole-hills, and Clay, for the Improvement of such Lands. 3. The many Advantages that arise from boggy Grounds by turning them into Plantations, according to the Nature of the Soil, and Situation of the Place. 4. Directions for making of Fishponds and Ditches for feeding or breeding Fish, and carrying off the Water. 5. The Method of burning barren Land in North-Britain. 6. How to ascertain the Value of Hilly Grounds, a Thing extremely useful to Landlord and Tenant. 7. Directions for making Gardens in Clayey Grounds, and a certain Method of improving Fruit-Trees. The Whole illustrated with Eight Copper-Plates, exhibiting the Figures of the Instruments necessary for such Improvements.Price sewed 2s.and 6d.
Observations on the differentStrataofEarthsandMinerals. ByJohn Strachey, Esq;F. R. S.Price 1s.