ENROLLED,-ENROLLMENT,
SeeInlisted.
ENSCONCE, to cover as with a fort.
ENSEIGNE,Fr.the colors, originally derived from the Latin wordInsignire. The French designate all warlike symbols under the termenseigne; but they again distinguish that word by the appellations ofdrapeaux, colors, andétendarts, standards.Drapeauxor colors are particularly characteristic of the infantry;étendartsor standards belong to the cavalry. We make the same distinctions in our service. SeeColors.
Enseignede vaisseau,Fr.The lowest commissioned officer in the French navy.
ENSHIELD, to cover from the enemy.
ENSIFORM, having the shape of a sword.
ENSIGN, in the military art, a banner, under which the soldiers are ranged according to the different regiments they belong to. SeeColors.
Ensign, orensign-bearer, is an officer who carries the colors being the lowest commissioned officer in a company of foot, subordinate to the captain and lieutenant. The word ensign is very ancient, being used both by the Greeks and Romans, and amongst both foot and horse. Ensigns belonging to the foot, were either the common ones of the whole legion, or the particular ones of the manipuli. The common ensign of the whole legion was an eagle of gold or silver, fixed on the top of a spear, holding a thunderbolt in his talons as ready to deliver it. That this was not peculiar to the Romans, is evident from the testimony of Xenophon, who informs us, that the royal ensign of Cyrus was a golden eagle spread over a shield, and fastened on a spear, and that the same was still used by the Persian kings. In the rustic age of Rome, the ensigns were nothing more than a wisp of hay carried on a pole, as the wordmanipulusproperly signifies. The ensign of the cavalry was a dragon; but there were some of cloth, somewhat like our colors, distended on a staff; on which the names of the emperors were generally depicted. The religious care the soldiers took of their ensigns, was extraordinary: they worshipped them, swore by them (as at present several European powers do) and incurred certain death if they lost them. The Turks and Tartars make use of horses tails for their ensigns, whose number distinguishes the rank of their commanders; for the Sultan has 7, and the Grand Vizier only 3, &c.
ENTERPRIZE, in military history, an undertaking attended with some hazard and danger.
ENTERPRISER, an officer who undertakes or engages in any important and hazardous design. This kind of service frequently happens to the light infantry, light horse, and hussars.
ENTIRE, orrankEntire, a line of men in one continued row on the side of each other. When behind each other, they are said to be in file. SeeIndianfiles.
ENTONNOIR,Fr.the cavity or hole which remains after the explosion of a mine. It likewise means the tin-case or port-feu which is used to convey the priming powder into the touch-hole of a cannon.
ENTREPOSTS,Fr.magazines and places appropriated in garrison towns for the reception of stores, &c. In a mercantile sense it means an intermediate public warehouse, where goods were deposited, and from whence they might be forwarded to different quarters within or beyond the immediate confines of a country.
ENTREPRENEUR,Fr.SeeContractor.
ENVELOPE, in fortification, a work of earth, sometimes in form of a single parapet, and at others like a small rampart: it is raised sometimes in the ditch, and sometimes beyond it. Envelopes are sometimesen zic-zac, to inclose a weak ground, where that is practicable, with single lines, to save the great charge of horn works, crown works, and tenailles, or where room is wanting for such largeworks. These sort of works are to be seen at Besancon, Douay, Luxembourg, &c. Envelopes in a ditch are sometimes calledsillons,contregardes, conserves,lunettes, &c. which words see.
ToENVIRON, to surround in a hostile manner, to hem in, to besiege.
EPAULE, in fortification, denotes the shoulder of a bastion, or the place where its face and flank meet, and form the angle, called the angle of the shoulder. SeeFortification.
EPAULEMENT, in fortification, is a kind of breast work to cover the troops in front, and sometimes in flank. In a siege, the besiegers generally raise an epaulement of 8 or 10 feet high, near the entrance of the approaches, to cover the cavalry, which is placed there to support the guard of the trenches. These works are sometimes made of filled gabions, or fascines and earth. This term is frequently used for any work thrown up to defend the flank or a post, or any other place. It is sometimes taken for a demi-bastion, and at other times for a square orillon to cover the cannon of a casemate. SeeFortification.
EPAULETTES, are shoulder knots, worn by officers; those for the officers are made of gold or silver lace, with rich fringe and bullions, those of non-commissioned are of cotton or worsted. They are badges of distinction worn on one or both shoulders. When a serjeant or corporal is publicly reduced, the shoulder-knot is cut off by the drum major in the front or circle of the battalion.
Among the French, all the degrees of rank, from a cadet to a general officer, were so minutely marked out by the epaulette, that a common centinel might instantly know what officer approached his station, and could pay the prescribed honors without hesitation or mistake.
All officers above the rank of captain wear two in the United States army and militia; captains wear one on the right shoulder: lieutenants and ensigns on the left; serjeants and corporals wear as captains and lieutenants.
Epaulettes have been introduced into the British navy.
The following are the gradations of rank as distinguished by epaulettes.
Masters and commanders have one epaulette on the left shoulder.
Post captains under three years, one epaulette on the right shoulder.
And after having been post three years, two epaulettes.
Rear admirals have one star on the strap of the epaulette, vice admirals two stars, and admirals three stars.
EPEE,Fr.a sword.
EPERON,Fr.a spur.
EPICYCLOID, a curve formed by the revolution of the periphery of a circle along the convex or concave part of another circle.
EPIGNARE,Fr.a small piece of ordnance which does not exceed one pound in calibre.
EPREUVE,Fr.SeeProof.
EPROUVETTE, is a machine to prove the strength of gunpowder. There are different sorts of eprouvettes, according to the fancy of different nations who use them. Some raise a weight, and others throw a shot, to certain heights and distances.
EPTAGON. SeeHeptagon.
EQUANGULAR, having equal angles.
EQUATION, an expression of the same quantity in two dissimilar terms, but of equal value. SeeAlgebra.
EQUERRE,Fr.a sort of rule which is absolutely necessary to the miner in order to make his descent at right angles.
EQUERRY, the master of the horse. It likewise means any person who is appointed to attend horses.
EQUESTRIANstatue, the inanimate resemblance, in bronze, stone, or marble, of any person mounted on horseback.
Equestrianorder, among the Romans, signified their knights or equites; as also their troopers or horsemen in the field; the first of which orders stood in contradistinction to the senators, as the last did to the foot; each of these distinctions was introduced into the state by state cunning.
EQUILIBRIUM, equality of weight or powder.
ToEQUIP, to furnish an individual, a corps, or an army, with every thing that is requisite for military service, such as arms, accoutrements, uniforms, &c. &c.
EQUIPAGE, in a military sense, is all kinds of furniture made use of by the army; such as
Camp-Equipage,-Field-Equipage,
are tents, kitchen furniture, saddle horses, baggage waggons, bat horses, &c.
EQUIPMENT, the act of getting completely equipped, or supplied with every requisite for military service.
EQUITES, an order of equestrian knights introduced among the Romans by Romulus.
ESCADRON,Fr.Squadron. This term is derived from the Italianscaraorscadra, corrupted from the Latin quadrum. Froissart was the first French writer that made use of the wordescadronto signify a troop of horse drawn out in order of battle. The term escadron is more ancient thanbattalion. SeeSquadron.
ESCALADE. SeeScalade.
Escaladed’un soldatwas used in the old French service to express the act of a soldier who got into a town, camp, or quarters, by scaling the ramparts, &c. When discovered in the act of so doing, the centinels had orders to fire at him; and if apprehended, he was tried and condemned to death.
ESCALE,Fr.a machine used to apply the petard.
ESCARMOUCHE,Fr.SeeSkirmish.
ESCARPE, is the outward slope or talus of the rampart.
ESCARPMENT. SeeDeclivity.
ESCORT, in the art of war. SeeConvoy.
ESCORTS,Fr.SeeConvoy.
ESCOUADE,Fr.in the old French service generally meant the third part of a company of foot or a detachment. Companies were divided in this manner for the purpose of more conveniently keeping the tour of duty among the men.
The word escouade is, however, more specifically applicable to the old distribution of a French artillery company, which was divided into three parts called escouades. The first, containing double the complement of the rest, was composed of 24 artillerists or bombardiers, including two serjeants, two corporals, two anspessades or lance corporals of the same profession, and twenty-four soldiers calledsoldats apprentis. The second escouade was composed of twelve miners or sappers, including one serjeant, one corporal, and one anspessade or lance corporal of the same profession, and twelvesoldats apprentis.
The third escouade was composed of twelve workmen or artificers in wood or iron attached to the artillery, amongst whom were included one serjeant, one corporal and one anspessade or lance corporal of the same trade, together with twelvesoldats apprentis. We have corrupted the terra and called it squad. SeeSquad.
ESCOUT. SeeSpy.
ESCUAGE, an ancient feudal tenure by which the tenant was bound to follow his lord to war or to defend his castle.
ESPADON, in old military books, a kind of two-handed sword, having two edges, of a great length and breadth; formerly used by the Spanish.
ESPION,Fr.a spy.
ESPLANADE, in fortification, the sloping of the parapet of the covert-way towards the field, and is therefore the same as the glacis of the counterscarp; but begins to be antiquated in that sense, and is now only taken for the empty space between the glacis of a citadel, and the first houses of the town.
ESPONTOON,Fr.A sort of half pike. On the 10th of May, 1690, it was ordered by the French government that every espontoon, or half pike, should be 8 feet in length. The colonels of corps as well as the captains of companies always used them in action. The officers of the British army have likewise been provided with this weapon: but it has been replaced by the strait sword in both countries; and is generally exploded.
ESPRINGAL, in the ancient art of war, a machine for throwing large darts, generally called muchettæ.
ESPRITde Corps,Fr.this term is generally used among all military men in Europe. It may not improperly be defined a laudable spirit of ambition which produces a peculiar attachment to any particular corps, company or service. Officers without descending to mean and pitiful sensations of selfish envy, under the influence of a trueEsprit de corpsrise into an emulous thirst after military glory. The good are excited to peculiar feats of valor by the sentiments it engenders, and the bad are deterred from ever hazarding a disgraceful action by a secret consciousness of the duties it prescribes.
ESQUADE. SeeSquad.
ESQUIRE. SeeArmiger.
S’ESQUIVER,Fr.to steal away.
ESSES, in the train of artillery, are fixed to draught chains and made in the form of an S, one end of which is fastened to the chain, and the other hooks to the horses harness, or to a staple: they serve likewise to lengthen and piece chains together.
ESSUYERle feu,Fr.to remain exposed to the fire of cannon or musquetry.
ESTABLAGE,Fr.the harness which is between the two shafts of a cart, and serves to support them.
ToESTABLISH, To fix, to settle. It is likewise a technical phrase, to express the quartering of any considerable body of troops in a country. Thus it is common to say: The army took up a position in the neighborhood of —— and established its head quarters at ——.
ESTABLISHMENT, in a military sense, implies the quota of officers and men in an army, regiment, troop, or company.
Peace-Establishment, is the reduction of corps to a certain number, by which the aggregate force of a country is diminished, and its expenditure lessened.
War-Establishment, is the augmentation of regiments to a certain number, by which the whole army of a country is considerably increased.
ESTAFFE, contribution money.
ESTIMATE, army estimates are the computation of expences to be incurred in the support of an army for a given time.
ESTOFETTE, a military courier, sent express from one part of an army to another.
ESTOILE. SeeEtoile.
ESTRADE,Fr.a road or way. This word is derived from the Italianstrada, which signifies road, street, or way. Some writers take its etymology fromEstradicts, a class of men on horseback, who were employed in scouring the roads, and in procuring intelligence respecting the movements of an army. SeeBatteur d’Estrade.
ETAIMorETAIN,Fr.Tin, A white metal of a consistency less hard than silver, but firmer than lead. It isused in the casting of cannon. The best quality is found in Cornwall.
ETANCONS,Fr.Stays, supporters. Large pieces of wood which are fixed vertically in the cavities of mines, for the purpose of sustaining the weight of earth that is laid upon the galleries.
ETAPE,Fr.subsistence, or a soldier’s daily allowance. SeeSubsistence.
ETAPIERS,Fr.were military purveyors, who accompanied the French armies or were stationed in particular places to supply the troops on their march.
ETAT-Major,Fr.Staff. Etat major in the French service, is a more comprehensive term than staff appears to be in our acceptation of the word. As we have in some degree adopted the term, it cannot be superfluous to give a short account of its origin, &c. Among the French, according to the Author of theRecueil Alphabetique de tous les termes propres à l’art de la guerre, état-major signifies a specific number of officers who are distinguished from others belonging to the same corps. It did not follow that every regiment was to have its staff, as the king had the power of appointing or suppressing staff officers at pleasure.
Theétat-major général de l’infanterie, or the general staff of the infantry, was created under Francis I. in 1525. That of the light cavalry under Charles IX. in 1565. That of the dragoons under Louis XIV. in 1669.
Theétat-majorof an infantry regiment, was composed of the colonel, the major, the aid-major, quarter-master, the chaplain, the provost-marshal, the surgeon, and the attendant commissary, who was calledle commissaire à la conduite. To these were added the lieutenant of the provostship, the person who kept the regimental register, or the greffier, the drum-major, six archers, and the executioner. By this establishment it is presupposed, that a provostship, was allowed in the regiment, which was not a general regulation, but depended upon the king’s pleasure.
Theétat-major, or staff of an old French regiment ofcavalry, according to theOrdonnance, or military regulation which was issued on the 4th of November in 1651, consisted of themestre de camp, or colonel of the horse, the major and the aid-major. It is therein particularly stated, that the état-major of a cavalry regiment shall not have a provostship, a chaplain, a surgeon, nor any other subordinate officer under that denomination.
Every fortified town or place had likewise its appropriate état-major, consisting of a certain number of officers who were subject to specific and distinct regulations.
By an order dated the 1st of August, 1733, the officers belonging to the état major of a garrison town, or citadel, were strictly forbidden to absent themselves more than four days from their places of residence, without especial leave from the king, nor for four days, unless they obtained permission from the governor or commandant of the town or citadel. SeeAmer. Mil. Lib.Art.Staff.
ETENDART.Fr.Standard. This word derives its name from the circumstance of its application, being constantly stretched out,étenduor displayed. This etymology does not appear to hold good with our translation of the word.
ETERCILLON,ou arcboutant,Fr.Buttress. A piece of wood which is placed transverse, or horizontally in the galleries of a mine, in order to sustain the earth on both sides; but most especially to keep the chamber well closed, and to support the corners of the gallery.
ETIQUETTE, a French term, primarily denoting a ticket, or title affixed to a bag, or bundle of papers, expressing its contents. It is also used, when applied to the Spanish and some other courts to signify a particular account of what is to be done daily in the king’s household. It likewise denotes those forms that regulate the decorum of conduct towards persons of various ranks and stations. In the Austrian service, military etiquette is punctiliously attended to; and in the old French service the utmost deference was paid to a superior officer by an inferior, at all times, and on all occasions.
ETOILES,Fr.small redoubts, which are constructed by means of angles rentrant and angles sortant, and have from five to eight saliant points. Each one of their sides or faces may contain from 12 to 25 toises. This species of fortification has fallen into disuse, not only because etoiles do not possess the advantage of having their angle rentrant effectually flanked, but because they have been superceded by square redoubts, which are sooner built, and are applicable to the same purposes of defence.
ETOUPILLE,Fr.an inflammable match, composed of three threads of very fine cotton, which is well steeped in brandy mixed with the best priming gunpowder.
EVACUATE, in military history, a term made use of in the articles of capitulation granted to the besieged at the time they surrender to the besiegers; and is the same as quitting a place.
EVENT,Fr.Vent. This word is particularly applicable to the vent or cavity which is left in cannon, or other fire arms, after they have been proved and found defective. The vent is sometimes round and sometimes long. Vents are frequently so exiguous, that they appear like the lines of a small fibre, through which water will ooze, and smoke evaporate. These pieces, whether of ordnance, or of musquetry, are of course rejected.
EVIDENCE, a declaration madeviva voceof what any person knows of his own knowlege relative to the matter in question. Military men are obliged to attend and give evidence before courts-martial, without any expence to the prosecutor, or prisoner.
HearsayEvidence, the declaration of what one has heard from others. As in all other courts of ordinary judicature, this species of evidence is not admissible in courts-martial.
EVOCATI, were a class of soldiers among the Romans, who, after having served their full time in the army, entered as volunteers to accompany some favorite general. Hence they were likewise calledemeriti and beneficiarii.
EVOCATION. A religious ceremony which was always observed among the Romans, at the commencement of a siege, wherein they solemnly called upon the gods and goddesses of the place to forsake it, and come over to them. When any place surrendered, they always took it for granted, that their prayer had been heard, and that theDii Penates, or the household gods of the place had come over to them.
EVOLUTION, in the art of war, the motion made by a body of troops, when they are obliged to change their form and disposition, in order to preserve a post, occupy another, to attack an enemy with more advantage, or to be in a condition of defending themselves the better. That evolution is best, which, with a given number of men, may be executed in the least space, and consequently in the least time possible.
Evolutionof the moderns, is a change of position, which has always for its object either offence or defence. The essentials in the performance of an evolution are, order, directness, precision, and the greatest possible rapidity.
Evolutionsmay be divided into two classes, the simple and the compound; simple evolutions are those which consist in simple movements, which do not alter the shape or figure of the battalion, but merely afford a more or less extended front or depth, keep it more or less closed to its flanks or centre, turn its aspect to flank or rear, or break it into divisions, subdivisions, sections, or files, in order that it may unfold itself, or defile and resume its proper front or order of battle. All the various ways of defiling, forming line, opening to right and left, closing or deploying, doubling the ranks or files, or changing front upon either of the flanks by conversion, are called simple evolution.
Compound evolutions are those which change the shape and figure of battalions, break them into divisions or companies, separate the companies from the main body, and again replace or rejoin them; in a word which afford the means of presenting a front at every direction.
Compound evolutions are practised either by repeating the same simple evolution several times, or by going through several simple evolutions, or moving in different modes with different parts of the same corps, which ultimately tend to the same object.
TheEvolutionsof the ancientswere formed and executed with uncommon good sense and ability. Considering the depth and size of the Grecian phalanx, it is astonishing how the different parts could be rendered susceptible of the most intricate and varied evolutions. The Roman legion, though more favorable to such changes and conversions, from being more loose and detached, did not execute them upon more sound or better principles.
Evolution(in geometry) the equalevolutionof the periphery of a circle, or any other curve, is such a gradual approach of the circumference to rectitude, as that all its parts do meet together, and equally evolve or unbend; so that the same line becomes successively a less arch of a reciprocally greater circle, till at last they turn into a straight line.
Evolutionof powers(in algebra) extracting of roots from any given power, being the reverse of involution.
EXAGON. SeeHexagon.
EXAMINER. One who scrutinizes.
EXCAVATION, the act of cutting or otherwise making hollows; also the cavity formed. In military matters, it is generally applied to the place from whence the earth or other substance has been taken by mining.
EXAMPLE, any act or word which disposes to imitation. The example of a superior officer has considerable influence over the mind of an inferior; but in no instance does it appear more important than in the good and bad behaviour of a non-commissioned officer or corporal. These characters, therefore, should be particularly correct in their duties, tenacious of every principle of military honor, and remarkable for honesty. Old soldiers should likewise direct their attention to the strict observance of rules and regulations, as young recruits always look up to them for example.
EXAMINATION, a scrutiny or investigation of abilities, conduct, &c. All officers of artillery and engineers should undergo an examination in mathematics, fortification, and gunnery, prior to their having commissions. Surgeons and assistant surgeons should be examined before a medical board.
EXAUCTORATIO, in the Roman military discipline, differed from the missio, which was a full discharge, and took place after soldiers had served in the army 20 years; whereas the exauctoratio was only a partial discharge: they lost their pay indeed, but still kept under their colors or vexilla, though not under the aquila or eagle, which was the standardof the legion: whence instead oflegionarii, they were calledsubsignani, and were retained till they had either served their full time, or had lands assigned them. The exauctoratio took place after they had served 17 years.
EXCELLENCY, a title absurdly given to kings and emperors, in Europe, and with equal falsehood and absurdity given to governors, ambassadors, generals, and other persons.
EXCHANGE, in a military sense, implies the removal of an officer from one regiment to another, or from full to half pay, andvice versa: It is usual on these occasions for individuals belonging to the latter class to receive a pecuniary consideration. SeeDifference.
Exchangeof prisoners, the act of giving up men, that have been taken in war, upon stipulated conditions which are subscribed to by contending powers.
Exchange, in a general sense, signifies any contract or agreement whereby persons or things are exchanged for others.
EXCHEQUER. The public office from whence all monies are issued for the use of the English army. With respect to the militia, it is enacted that the money paid for that particular service, shall be kept apart from all other money.
Officers belonging to the exchequer, are not to take any fees for receiving, or issuing such money.
EXCITE. SeeAnimate.
EXCUBIÆ, in antiquity, the watches and guards kept in the day by the Roman soldiers. They differed from thevigiliæwhich were kept in the night.
EXECUTER,Fr.The French use this verb technically. They say,exécuter et servir une piéce. See the particular method of so doing, underTirerle canon, to fire a gun or cannon.
Executer,Fr.to execute, to put to death.
EXECUTION.MilitaryExecutionis the pillaging or plundering of a country by the enemy’s army.
MilitaryExecutionalso means every kind of punishment inflicted on the army by the sentence of a court martial; which is of various kinds. When a soldier is to be punished with death, a detachment of about 200 men from the regiment he belongs to form the parade, when a file of grenadiers shoots the prisoner to death.
Every nation has different modes of military execution.
EXEMPT, men of 45 years of age are exempt from serving in the militia. An aid-de-camp and brigade major are exempt from all regimental duties while serving in these capacities. Officers on courts martial are sometimes exempt from all other duties until the court is dissolved. The people calledQuakers, and all others who are religiously scrupulous, are by the laws of the U. States exempt from militia duty, an indulgence which they have hitherto repaid with extreme ingratitude.
EXEMPTION, the privilege to be free from some service or appearance. Thus officers in the British militia who have served during the war, according to prescribed regulations, are exempted from being balloted for.
EXEMTS,Fr.so called originally, from being exempted from certain services, or entitled to peculiar privileges.
Exemtsdu ban et arriere banpersons exempted from being enrolled for that particular service, were so called. They consisted of the domestic attendants belonging to the palace, those attached to the princes and princesses of the blood; all persons actually serving his majesty, together with the sons of officers who were in the army.
Exemtsdes gardes du corps. Exempts belonging to the body guards. They were twelve in number, and held the rank of captains of cavalry, taking precedence of all captains whose commissions were of a younger date to the brevet of the exempts.
These brevet commissions were given away under the old government of France.
Exemtsdes maréchaussées. Certain persons employed to keep the public peace.Maréchausséemeans in a literal sense, marshalsey. But the functions of the exempts were of a nature peculiar to France. They held their situations under commissions, bearing the great seal, which were forwarded to them by the secretary at war. The privileges they enjoyed were to be exempted from all taxes, &c. but they could not institute any species of criminal information without the concurrence of the greffier or sheriff.
EXERCISE, in military affairs, is the practice of all those motions and actions, together with the whole management of arms, which a soldier is to be perfect in, to render him fit for service, and make him understand how to attack and defend. Exercise is the first part of the military art; and the more it is considered the more essential it will appear. It disengages the human frame from the stiff rusticity of simple nature, and forms men and horses to all the evolutions of war. The honor, merit, appearance, strength, and success of a corps depend wholly upon the attention which has been paid to the drill and exercise of it, according to prescribed rules and regulations; while on the other hand we see the greatest armies, for want of being exercised, instantly disordered, and that disorder increasing in spite of command; the confusion oversets the art of skilful masters, and the valor of the men only serves to precipitate the defeat: for which reason it is the duty of every officer to take care, that the recruits be drilled as soon as they join the corps.
The greatest advantage derived from the exercise, is the expertness with whichmen become capable of loading and firing, and their learning an attention to act in conformity with those around them. It has always been lamented, that men have been brought on service, without being informed of the uses of the different manœuvres they have been practising; and that having no ideas of any thing but the uniformity of the parade, they instantly fall into disorder and confusion when they lose the step, or see a deviation from the straight lines they have been accustomed to at exercise. It is a pity to see so much attention confined to show, and so little given to instruct the troops in what may be of use to them on service. Though the parade is the place to form the characters of soldiers, and to teach them uniformity, yet when confined to that alone, it is too limited and mechanical for true military use.
The great loss which the British troops sustained in Germany, America, and the West Indies, during the war of 1783, from sickness, as well as from the enemy, was chiefly owing to a neglect of exercise. An army whose numbers vanish after the first 4 months of a campaign, may be very ready to give battle in their existing period; but the fact is, that although fighting is one part of a soldier’s business, yet bearing fatigue, and being in health, is another, and at least as essential as the first. A campaign may pass without a battle; but no part of a campaign can be gone through without fatigue, without marches, without an exposure to bad weather; all of which have exercise for their foundation; and if soldiers are not trained and enured to these casualties, but sink under them, they become inadequate to bodily fatigue, and eventually turn out a burthen to the country.
It is not from numbers, nor from inconsiderate valor, that we are to expect victory; in battle she commonly follows capacity, and a knowlege of arms. We do not see, that the Romans made use of any other means to conquer the world, than a continual practice of military exercises, an exact discipline in their camps, and a constant attention to cultivate the art of war. Hence, both ancients and moderns agree, that there is no other way to form good soldiers but by exercise and discipline; and it is by a continual practice and attention to this, that the Prussians arrived at that point of perfection which was long so much admired in their evolutions, and manual exercise.
Formerly in the British service every commander in chief, or officer commanding a corps, adopted or invented such manœuvres as he judged proper, excepting in the instance of a few regulations for review: neither the manual exercise, nor quick and slow marching were precisely defined by authority. In consequence when regiments from different parts were brigaded, they were unable to act in line till the general officer commanding had established some temporary system to be observed by all under his command.
These inconveniences were at length obviated by the rules and regulations compiled by general Dundas on the system of the Prussian discipline, as established by Frederic the Great.
During the American revolution, a committee of officers was appointed by congress to digest a system of discipline for the military forces of the United States. A considerable body of materials were thrown together by the several officers, which proving too voluminous, amounting to three volumes folio, Baron Steuben, an officer who had been in the Prussian service, was appointed to make a digest, which was afterwards adopted, and continues still to be the only regulation for discipline. This work which is very brief, was of much use where there was no sort of order established, or rather where utter disorder prevailed; but is not by any means adapted to the uses of a good discipline in the present state of military knowlege. It is confined to the duties of a regiment of infantry only, and is in fact no more than an abstract modification of the Prussian system of 1741. The war department of the United States, has had the provision of a more enlarged and competent system under preparation for three or four years, and the commander in chief (general Wilkinson) had made great progress in a general arrangement of a system comprehending all the details of drill, exercise, manœuvre, formations of separate, and co-operating bodies, and of various kinds of troops; as well as the police of camps, garrisons, rank, and rotation; and other regulations, but public service having called him off to the southern frontier, and general Dearborne having resigned, the system of Steuben remains, while the new discipline of Europe has become known to all the volunteer corps of the Union, commanded by intelligent officers; and the old discipline of Steuben, has from actual deficiency been superceded.
InfantryExercise, includes the use of the firelock and practice of the manœuvres for regiments of foot, according to the regulations issued by authority.
When a regiment of foot is drawn up, or paraded for exercise, the men are placed two and sometimes three deep, which latter is the natural formation of a battalion. In order to have the manual exercise well performed, it is in a particular manner requisite, that the ranks and files be even, well dressed, and the file leaders well covered: this must be very strictly attended to both by the major, and his adjutant: all officers also, on service in general, where men are drawn up under arms, or without, must be careful, that the ranks and files are exactly even; and the soldiers must learn to dress themselves at once, without the necessity of being directed to do it. Thebeauty of all exercise and marching, consists in seeing a soldier carry his arms well, keep his firelock steady and even in the hollow of his shoulder, the right hand hanging down, and the whole body without constraint. The musquets when shouldered, should be exactly dressed in rank and file; the men must keep their bodies upright, and in full front, not having one shoulder too forward, or the other too backward. The distances between the files must be equal, and not greater than from arm to arm, which gives the requisite room for the motions. The ranks are to be two paces distant from each other. Every motion must be done with life, and all facings, wheelings, and marchings, performed with the greatest exactness. Hence a regiment should never be under arms longer than three hours without rest. SeeFirings,ManualandManœuvres.
CavalryExercise, is of two sorts, on horseback, and on foot. The squadrons for exercise are sometimes drawn up three deep, though frequently two deep; the tallest men and horses in the centre and front. When a regiment is formed in squadrons, the distance of 24 feet, as a common interval, is always to be left between the ranks; and the files must keep boot top to boot top. The officers commanding squadrons must, above all things, be careful to form with great celerity, and, during the whole time of exercise, to preserve their several distances. In all wheelings, the flank which wheels, must come about in full gallop. The men must keep a steady seat upon their horses, and have their stirrups at a fit length.
Cavalry SwordExercise. SeeSword Exercise.
ArtilleryExercise, is the method of teaching the corps of artillery the use and practice of all the various machines of war, viz.
Exerciseof the light field pieces, teaches the men to load, ram, and spunge the guns well; to elevate them according to the distance, by the quadrant and screw; to judge of distances and elevations without the quadrant; how to use the port fire, match, and tubes for quick firing; how to fix thebricoleandprolonge, and use them in advancing, retreating, and wheeling with the field pieces; how to fix and unfix the trail of the carriage on the limbers, and how to fix and unfix the boxes for grape shot on the carriages of each piece.
Exerciseof the garrison and battering artillery, is to teach the men how to load, ram, and spunge; how to handle the handspikes in elevating and depressing the metal to given distances, and for ricochet; how to adjust the coins, and work the gun to its proper place; and how to point and fire with exactness, &c.
MortarExercise, is of two different sorts, viz. with powder and shells unloaded, and with powder and shells loaded; each of which is to teach the men their duty, and to make them handy in using the implements for loading, pointing, traversing, and firing, &c. SeePractice.
HowitzExercise, differs but little from the mortar, except that it is liable to various elevations; whereas that of the mortar is usually fixed to an angle of 45°; but the men should be taught the method of ricochet firing, and how to practise with grape shot: each method requiring a particular degree of elevation. SeePractice.
Exerciseof guns with reduced numbers.When 15 men are attached to the service of a gun in the field, they may be classed to the right and left sides of the gun; or they may be placed in a kind of roster, by a succession of numbers from 1 to 15; the two first numbers of each gun being the first and second gunner; and the remaining 13 as aids. This numerical distribution, upon a little practice, will be found as easy as the regulation of the guard duties, and is well calculated for service where discipline is good. It is by this arrangement also well suited to use, where there are men not well disciplined, as these can be placed on the remotest numbers. So it is also well calculated for horse artillery, where it will require some men to take care of the horses; and it is also well adapted to service where men are lost by the casualties of war.
Supposing, therefore, that a 12 pound gun with 15 men, is required to exercise with 9 men. The six numbers, beginning with the 4th aid of the left, or Nos. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, that is, the fourth of the left, fifth and sixth aids of the right and left, in the practice; they are either employed on other service, or engaged in securing the horses, or in preserving and securing the caisson. The first gunner has provided a return of the names and stations of each man at the gun. They are posted as follows: and the numbers which precede their stations are the numbers of their roster, and they should be prepared to answer by their number, whenever called for.
A reference to the number prefixed to these stations, simplifies the return, and points out the duty of each, which may be done by either telling them off in ranking,or giving them a ballot with their number on it, or any other arbitrary sign that may be devised. It is proposed then to post the artillerists to a gun on the march; and so of several guns. A twelve pounder is detached with 15 men, and they are numbered, it is required to know the stations of the artillerists according to their numbers, and according with the dipositions of the men to the same duties.
First rule, all the odd numbers are on the right side of the gun; all the even numbers on the left side. This is their position inbattery, and prepared for action. The next rule is their positions in advancing.
Line of march.Nos. 2, 4, 6, and 8, are on the left, which numbers correspond with the second gunner, the first, second, and third aids of the left; so on the right of the gun, are the Nos. 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9, answering to the first gunner of the right, and the first, second, third, and fourth aids of the right, making in all nine. The other six aids, that is to say, the fourth aid of the left, the fifth aids of right and left, the sixth aids of right and left, and the thirteenth aid, are thus dispensed with, and may be thus dispensed with, unless the men are required with their bricoles to manœuvre the gun; if this is done with horse, their aid is only required with the horses, and it exemplifies the excellent adaptation of the means of this new discipline to its proposed end.
The third rule is, to find the men, and their stations by their numbers, it is only requisite to refer to the precedingtable of numbers, 1 and 2 are stationed opposite the trail, they are the two gunners; 3 and 4 are opposite the muzzle in the march, they load and ram the cartridge and shot; 5 and 6 are opposite the breech; they have charge of the port fire and priming; 7 and 8 march opposite the axletree of the limber; they are the third aids of right and left, and have to supply ammunition, and move the tumbril on unlimbering; they are purveyors of the gun; 9 leads the limber horse, and takes charge of the tumbril when the gun is in battery.
Duties of nine men as numbered in battery.
Heavy guns.—The duties and positions are the same, only that 4 aids 3 in ramming home the charge.
Howitzers.—The positions and duties are nearly the same as at the heavy guns; only that 3 spunges, uncaps the fuze, and puts in the shell; 4 takes the sheep-skin out of the piece, lays it on the ground, with the woollen side up, loads with cartridge, wipes the bottom of the shell, (when 2 holds it up) puts in the sheep-skin again, and pulls it out with his left hand, on the wordReady: He stops the muzzle with it immediately, when the piece is fired; 6 serves the vent; 5 fires; 1 commands; 7 carries the slow match and bucket; 8 serves 4 with cartridges from a cartouch; 9 serves 3 with shells from the limber, which he lays on the sheep-skin. As from unavoidable accidents, the number of men attached to a gun may be reduced, it will be necessary, if the vacancies happen amongst those doing the most essential duties, to immediately replace them by those doing the most subordinate duties.
The following method of distributing the duties amongst a smaller number of men, will be equally applicable to all kinds of field ordnance.
To limber up, light Guns and Howitzers.
The whole of the men face towards the gun; 1 unships the traversing handspikes; the limber is brought up by 9, rather to the sight of the gun, and then turned to the left about; 7 and 8 raise the trail, and place it on the limber, in which they areassisted by 3 and 4 bearing down on the muzzle, and 5 and 6 at the wheels; 2 chains the limber.
Heavy Field Guns, or Howitzers.—The only difference from the above is, that 3 and 4 assist 7 and 8 to raise the trail, and 9 aids 5 and 6 at the wheels; 1 stands to the carriage wheels.
To unlimber, Light Guns and Howitzers.
The whole face towards the gun; 1 unchains the limber; 2 and 7 lift the trail off the pintle, and set it on the ground, in which they are assisted, as in limbering up, by 3, 4, 5, and 6; 2 ships the traversing handspikes, and the whole assume the position for action. The limber is led by 9 and the driver, 25 yards to the rear, and there turned to the left about. The leading horse is unhooked by the driver, and tied to the rear of the limber.
Heavy Field Guns, and Howitzers.—The same as the light ones, except that 5 and 6 assist 2 and 7 to raise the trail, and 8 and 9 stand to the gun wheels.
It must be understood, that simply tolimber up, or tounlimber, means that the gun is to be placed upon its limber, or lifted off, without changing its direction: but, guns may be limbered up to thefront, to theright, or to theleft, according as it is intended to advance in any of those directions; and unlimbered to therear, to prepare for action to thefront, to theleftfor action to theright, and to therightfor action to theleft. To limber up, or to unlimber, in any of these situations, is exactly the same as those already given, except that in the first, previous to limbering up, the trail is thrown round by No. 1, assisted by 2, if necessary, into the direction specified by the word of command, and the limber is brought up to that side to meet it; and in the second, the trail, after being taken off the limber, is carried round to therear,right, orleft, according as the word of command expresses, before it is put to the ground, and the limber goes round to the rear of the gun.
It must be constantly kept in mind, that thefrontof a gun, or line of guns, or column of guns, is that to which the men at the gun front, without any respect to the situation of the gun or carriage. The trail of the carriage, when moved round to the rear, or the contrary, whether in limbering up, or unlimbering, must always be carried round to theright, and the limber, or a horse, when brought up to advance or retire a gun, must always be brought up on therightside, and go off on theleft; and whenever the limber is turned about, it must be to theleftabout. By attending to these precautions, the greatest confusion is avoided.
Prepare to advance with a horse and prolonge.
Light pieces.—3 gives his spunge to 5; 3 and 4 unhook the chain traces from the breast of the carriage, and lay them over the spokes of the wheels; the driver brings up a horse to the front, by the right; 3 and 4 unhook the horses traces from the back band, and hook them to the gun, and then take post outside the wheels; 3 takes his spunge; 7 and 8 hook the traces to the swingle-trees.
Heavy pieces.—This is done with two horses, one before the other; 3 and 4 hook the horses, the driver rides to the rear horse, and 6 and 8 hook the rear horse to the gun; 1 and 9 look to the unfixing length and fastening of the prolonge.
Prepare for action.—The different numbers exactly undo what they had just done; 1 and 9 beginning to loose the prolonge as soon as the gun is fronted or about to be limbered.
Prepare to advance with a limber.
The only difference between this and advancing with a horse, is, that the limber is brought up to the front; and 9 or 15 brings up the prolonge, and, takes a turn on the lashing rings of the trail; or if the gun is to be limbered, it is laid on as in the drill.
Exercise with heavy ordnance in a Battery.