9th. Never leave the rear of a work so exposed that the enemy may turn it.
10th. Always make the angles of a work in the directions least exposed to attacks, and consequently always present a front to the most exposed.
11th. The garrison should never be drawn up more than two deep; and an ordinary pace of two feet is usually allowed for each file, and from 6 to 8 paces from each piece of ordnance.
12th. If a work is so large as to be defended by a battalion or two, a reserve should be allowed of about one sixth of the number.
13th. The space within a work should always be sufficient for the men to move and lie down. Every soldier will require at least 18 square feet, and every field gun at least 216 square feet.
14th. Provided the line is not made too extensive, the more inward space there is the better.
15th. A parapet to resist cannon shot should never be less than 12 feet thick; and for musquet shot not less than 6 feet.
16th. The height of the parapet must be regulated by the situation of the work, and of the adjoining ground; with this consideration, that its height above the banquette does not exceed 4¹⁄₂ feet.
17th. The depth and breadth of the ditch must be regulated by the quantity of earth required for the parapet and banquette.
18th. Atête de pont, or work to cover the embarkation of troops, or the passage of a river, should, if possible, be made where the line of the river or coast forms a kind of re-entering angle; that the flanks of the corps, as well as those of the works, may be covered.
To carry on the work.—The number of workmen must be proportioned to the time allotted for carrying on the work, the quantity of labor, and the number of hands capable of being employed at the same time. When the ditches are broad, the workmen may be posted in two rows; but if narrow, only in one. In the first case, the earth will be thrown by those who are on the outward edge of the ditch to the second row, and by them upon the parapet; for which reason the second row, to keep pace with the first, ought to be twice as numerous. The workmen should never be placed nearer than 2 paces, or 4 feet, from each other; and two men with shovels should be preceded by one with a pickaxe. If more than usual expedition be required, one man with a wheelbarrow, or basket, may be added to six or eight with shovels. Another row of workmen should also be placed upon the parapet, to spread the earth and beat it down, as it is thrown up.
In fixing the fascines, three men will be sufficient for every 24 feet of the work,who should be provided with mallets, a saw, and a handbil, or hatchet.
In order to form some idea of the time in which a field work may be completed, compute the number of cubic feet of earth to be excavated, thus; multiply half the sum of the breadth of the ditch at top and at bottom, by the depth, for the number of square feet in the profile; and this multiplied by the distance between the workmen in feet will give the number of cubic feet each man has to dig: or being multiplied by the length of the ditch, gives the cubic contents of the ditch. Now one man is supposed to be able to move 216 cubic feet of earth in a day, during the summer; but this is not always the case. If a field work be completed in 24 hours, it will be as much as the most diligent workmen are capable of. This time is generally allowed for the formation of a weak profile; 48 hours for that of a stronger, with a revetement of fascines; and 72 for the strongest.
The different slopes for the works must depend upon the nature of the soil, and the materials of which the work is composed. The interior slope of the parapet, though it be fascined, should be ¹⁄₆ of its height; exterior about ²⁄₃ its height. The slope of the banquette equal to its height. The slope of the scarp or counterscarp of the ditch, should be from half its height to its full height, according to the soil. The superior slope of the parapets must entirely depend upon the situation of the work, and that of the surrounding country. The interior slope of the parapet is generally lined with fascines, to keep up the earth; but it is not absolutely necessary to fascine the exterior slope, if the soil be pretty stiff. The embrasures are generally made 20 inches wide on the inside, and 9 feet on the outside; they must always be lined with something to retain the earth; turf is generally preferred, as fascines are so apt to take fire.
The manner of making the materials for field works, may be seen under the headsFascines,Gabions,Hurdles, &c. and the manner of estimating the quantity of materials for works of this kind, may be seen under the wordBattery. SeeAm. Mil. Lib.
Fortification....Permanent.
A parapet, to resist cannon should never be less than 18 feet thick in earth, and 8 or 9 in masonry. A wall need only be two feet thick in masonry to resist musquetry. The parapet should always be 4¹⁄₂ feet above the banquette, and 7¹⁄₂ or 8 feet above the rampart, or terre-plein.
TheRampartshould always be sufficiently wide to allow for the platform, and for two carriages passing each other; about 9 fathoms at top. A parapet of earth, though it takes more room, is always preferable to one of masonry, when it can be raised; though the only objection to the masonry, is the number of splinters it produces.
EntireRevetementsof masonry are not advantageous for the same reason. The masonry of revetments should not be so high as to be seen or battered from a distance; earth parapets are battered in vain, as the earth forms a natural slope.
The bestScarpis made of masonry, either in wet or dry ditches, be the earthen one ever so well fraized or palisaded. The earthen one may be stormed without making a breach. The scarp should be 30 or 35 feet high.
TheCounterscarpshould also be of masonry, and not less than 12 feet high. The inconveniences of an earth or low counterscarp, are the impossibility of defending to the last the covert way; as the enemy may descend into the ditch, and again mount the covert way, and so get in the rear of the traverses. The enemy may find his way along the natural slope of an earth counterscarp, and is not delayed by a tedious operation of getting into the ditch. Besides the natural slope of the end of an earth traverse prevents its effectually covering the covert way.
Ditches are generally 15 or 18 toises wide. Dry ditches are always preferable to wet ones, on account of the shelter they afford the troops, and the ready communication with the outworks, without the constant trouble and danger of bridges.
TheCovert wayshould be 5 toises wide; less would croud the troops, and more would allow room for the enemy to erect batteries in it.
The whole of the glacis should be seen, not only from the crest of the parapet, but from the embrasures in the parapet.
TheTenaille, must not be so high as to prevent the flank guns in one bastion seeing the breach that may be made in the collateral one.
Ravelinsare best without flanks; their faces directed to 10 toises from the shoulders of the bastions.
The crest of the parapet of the body of the place should be 8 feet above the crest of the glacis, to command it across a ditch of 15 or 20 toises.
The crest of the parapet of the ravelin is 3 feet lower than that of the body of the place, in order that it may be more effectually commanded from the place; and therefore to enable the parapet of the ravelin to command its own glacis, the ditch is only made 10 toises, and this glacis is a foot lower than that of the body of the place.
There must be an equilibrium of defence established through every front of a fortified place; for it will be needless to strengthen any particular front, if the others from their weakness be left exposed. The following remarks may enable an observer to appreciate the value of particular works, in the proper application and arrangement of which that equilibrium consists.
Intrenchmentswithin the works add much to their defence. In large bastions with obtuse flanked angles, the best intrenchment is formed of the front of a fortification, or of two demi-bastions and a curtain, connecting the angles formed by the flank and curtain. If this intrenchment be advanced to the shoulders of the bastion, so as to include its flanks, as is often the case, it will be subject to be taken in the rear, by the fire from the counter batteries opposed to the flanks. But in bastions with acute flanked angles which do not afford sufficient space for this kind of intrenchment, Cormontaigne proposes one in the form of a cavalier, whose faces and flanks are parallel to those of the bastion. The first kind of intrenchment does not operate in the defence of the place, till after the passage of the ditch; till which time it remains entire, and then capable of a very great defence. The second kind becomes a support to the bastion from the first commencement of the siege; but it is therefore subject to have its defence destroyed at a distance. Nor is its defence equal to that of the other form.
Counterguardsshould possess the three following properties: 1st. They must cover effectually the principal work before which they are placed; at least that part of it, which can be battered in breach. 2d. They must be lower than the work which they cover; but not so low as to permit its revetement to be seen. 3d. They must be so narrow as not to afford room for the besiegers to erect batteries in them, against the work which they cover, and therefore not leave the besiegers a choice of positions. The counterguards in Coehorn’s system are only of earth, through which it is necessary to make an opening, before the capital work can be battered.
HornorCrown works, unless to occupy some important point, to strengthen some weak side, or to afford more room for a confined garrison are rather a weak than a strong arm to a place. This is particularly the case when they are constructed with smaller, and consequently weaker fronts, than that part of the body of the place which they cover: as they facilitate, when taken, the approaches to the body of the place. This is remedied by constructing their fronts of the same strength as the front or fronts which they cover. They also facilitate the taking of the place, by exposing the revetement of the work on which their branches are directed to be battered in breach, along the ditches of those branches. This is a great evil, even to an outwork, but is of serious consequence if they rest upon the body of the place. This defect has been remedied by placing these works altogether outside of the covert way, and allowing their ditch no communication with those in the rear. In this case their gorge must be made very secure to prevent its being turned.
AnAdvanced Covert way, is esteemed amongst the best means of adding to the defence of places. Besides the advantages common to the usual covert way, it has many peculiar to itself. It however seems necessary to ensure to it the many advantages of which it is susceptible, (beside being properly palisaded,) that it should be secured in the rear by a wet ditch, as the only means of giving it an inaccessible counterscarp, and at the same time keeping it under the fire of the musquetry of the place. This kind of covert way is generally supported by redoubts upon the capitals of the bastions and ravelins which from their position cannot mask the fire of the place; and being mounted with artillery, oblige the besiegers to commence their attack at a great distance, and very much to extend their operations; and as their establishment upon this covert way must effectually mask the fire of their first batteries, it must greatly increase their labor. The retreat from these redoubts must be secured by an underground passage.
Counterminesare undoubtedly one of the first means of strengthening places. For this article we refer to the wordMines.
Detached redoubts, when circumstances of situation favor them, are employed with great success. They are usually detached and totally unconnected with any of the works of the place, by any covert way or other above ground work; and have for objects, either the opposing an additional obstacle to the besiegers at the point they occupy, or the rendering the adjoining fronts inaccessible, by an enfilade or reverse fire upon the approaches. They also afford at their gorge, a most excellent rendezvous and retreat for sorties; upon the level of the country, and without the difficulty of filing troops through the barrier of a covert way.
But in order to insure to the detached work or works, all these advantages, it is necessary that they should be either totally inaccessible to the besiegers, by reason of the natural difficulties of their situation, as in an inundation, morass, &c. or be made secure by art, from being taken by storm, and only attackable by regular approaches. They should be under cover of the fire of the place; but if their distance be too great for that, an intermediate work must be established to give them support. Their best form is that of a bastion with retired flanks; and a strong system of countermines the most effectual way of prolonging their resistance.
General remarks...The larger the flanked angles of works, the more direct will be their fire, and that of their covert way, upon the approaches; the greater extent will they oblige the besiegers to occupy in their parallels and batteries; and the more will they oblige the besiegers to expose themselves to the fire of the fronts collateral to the one attacked. Faces ofworks directed to inaccessible situations, such as rivers, lakes, &c. from whence they cannot be enfiladed by ricochet batteries, add greatly to the strength of a front.
If the flanked angle of a ravelin be so advanced as to see in reverse any battery erected upon the crest of the glacis, or in the covert way of the bastions, it will increase the strength of that front; because it will oblige the besiegers to gain possession of the ravelin, before they can make any lodgment, from which they can batter the bastions. This is the case in Cormontaigne’s system: and a place thus fortified, obliges the besiegers to attack and gain two ravelins to get at the bastion between them. Beside, if this system be applied to a right line, or to a polygon of many sides, the prolongations of the faces of the bastions will be intercepted by the flanked angle of the ravelins, and consequently make the establishment of enfilading batteries against them very difficult. A work which admits of a breach being made in it (particularly the body of the place) at a distance, very much facilitates its being taken. The ditch of the ravelin affords an opening through which the besiegers may make a breach in the face of the bastion from the glacis, opposite the flanked angle of the ravelin, and is therefore subject to this defect. A counterguard before the bastion, lessens this evil, by transferring the breach from the body of the place to the ravelin; but it requires a counterguard also before the ravelin, effectually to cure it. A crown or horn work also produces this evil; its remedy was given, in speaking of those works.
The direction of the flanks or faces of a work is not so material as relating to the fire of artillery, as to that of musquetry; for artillery is never fired without being pointed, but musquetry is fired mechanically, and perpendicular to the parapet, without much attention to the object to be struck.
A work in the neighborhood of a height must be defiladed[8]from that height, that is, instead of being built upon a horizontal plane, it must be erected upon an imaginary inclined plane, passing from somewhere in the interior of that work, over the most commanding points of the height: and every part of the works must bear the same relation to this inclined plane, that they would do, to a horizontal plane in a level country.
[8]The French use the worddefilein a contrary sense toenfile;and as we admit the words enfilade and enfiladed from the latter, we cannot refuse the terms defilade and defiladed from the former.
[8]The French use the worddefilein a contrary sense toenfile;and as we admit the words enfilade and enfiladed from the latter, we cannot refuse the terms defilade and defiladed from the former.
A work is not therefore always to be condemned, because it is in the neighborhood of a height; for if it be properly defiladed from that height, it will receive a great advantage over the approaches of the besiegers, carried on down an inclined plane towards it. But a work to be properly constructed in the neighborhood of heights, must not uniformly preserve the same distance from those heights, unless their summits be all upon the same level; but must approach them at their lowest parts, and recede from them as they rise; thus will the necessary plane of defilement preserve nearly the same degree of obliquity throughout.
Dimensions of Walls and their Counterforts, from 10 to 50 Feet high, having a Slope of ¹⁄₅ their Height.
The heights in the above table are taken only from the bottom of the ditch, and do not include the foundations.
When the rampart is partly walled and partly turfed; then ¹⁄₅ of the height of the turfed part must be added to the breadth of the wall at the top given in the table.
The bases of all inward slopes of earth should be equal to their height, if not more.
The bases of all outward slopes of earth ²⁄₃ of their height.
The superior slopes of all parapets ¹⁄₆ of their breadth.
The slope of all walls, or revetements ¹⁄₅ of their height.
Though the above principles given for the erection of field works may assist an officer’s recollection who may be employed on that duty, the memorandums given respectingpermanentfortification pretend to no such object: but may serve to remind an officer, if he should visit a fortification, of its essential requisites; and may assist his observations in passing round the works.
FORTIN,FORTLETT, orFORTILAGE. SeeField-Fort.
FORTRESS, any place strongly fortified.
FORWARD, a word of command,which is given when a regiment, or company has been interrupted in its regular movement, and the march is continued. On this occasion every succeeding division must preserve its proper distance and mark time until the wordForward, is given. This frequently occurs in the passage of obstacles, and in the winding of roads, streets, &c.,
RightorLeft-
shouldersForward, an absurd word of command, used in the British exercise. It is a gross misconception of the Frenchline of science, which requires the whole body to face in the given inclination; every man must see that it is impossible for a soldier to march either with ease or grace in such a position. SeeLine of Science.
FOSSE, in fortification. SeeDitch.
Fossespleins d’eau,Fr.Wet Ditches. SeeFortification.
Fossessecs,Fr.Dry ditches.
Fossesrevétus,Fr.Ditches that are lined.
Fossesnon revétus,Fr.Ditches that are not lined.
FOUCADE,FOUGADE, a small mine.
FOUGASS, inmining, a small mine, from 6 to 8 feet under ground: It is generally placed under the glacis or dry ditches.
FOUGETTE.Fr.Indian sky-rocket, a species of fire-work which is frequently used by the Asiatics. The author of a late military production in France makes the following observations relative to advantages which might be derived from this weapon against cavalry, and for the defence of fortified places, or intrenchments. He observes, that the fougette, in shape, resembles a sky-rocket, whose flight is gradually brought to run along an horizontal direction. By throwing several fougettes into parks of artillery and upon the caissons, &c. considerable damage might be occasioned from the fire which would inevitably be communicated to some part. A fougette forces itself immediately forward, cuts as it penetrates, by the formation of its sides, which are filled with small spikes, becomes combustible and on fire at all its points; and possesses within itself a thousand various means by which it can adhere to whatever object it is destined to set on fire or to destroy. This weapon would be more effectual, because it might be more variously applied, to defend the mouth of a harbor against an enemy’s shipping, than red-hot balls can ever prove. Fougettes might be used on board ships of war, but there would certainly be some danger in the experiment; although, in my humble opinion, a little experience would effectually remove that difficulty; in which case ships might run along a coast, and easily destroy the wooden works that are sometimes erected upon it. They would in the first place occasion more havoc than red-hot balls; and in the next, they might be used whilst the vessel was in full sail; which cannot be done in the first instance. By means of their natural velocity they would do more execution in a less space of time, than the most active piece of ordnance could effect; and they would require fewer hands, as the only necessary operation would be to light and dart them forward. As a defensible weapon it must naturally be allowed, that, where a small body of men is attacked, the fougette might be adopted with considerable advantage.—The writer of this article, who, we find, is likewise the inventor of a fougette which has been submitted to the French government, continues to argue much in favor of its adoption. If, adds he, our enemies should imitate the invention, we must then have recourse, especially in sea-fights to those pieces of ordnance which are calculated to do more execution at a distance; and it will then be our business to contrive fougettes that shall reach their shipping, by means of a greater degree of force and velocity which might be given to them, than they would be capable of attaining. SeeRocket.
FOUILLER,Fr.To search. In a military sense, it signifies to detach small bodies of infantry round the flanks of a column that is marching through a wood, for the purpose of discovering an ambuscade, and of giving timely notice that it may be avoided. The same precaution is necessary when a body of men advances towards or enters a village.
FOUNDATION, in military architecture, is that part of a building which is under ground, or the mass of stone, brick, &c. which supports a building, or upon which the walls of a superstructure are raised: or it is the coffer or bed dug below the level of the ground, to raise a building upon; in which sense, thefoundationeither goes to the whole area or extent of the building, as when there are to be vaults, galleries, casemates, or the like; or is drawn in cuts or trenches, as when only walls are to be raised. Sometimes thefoundationis massive, and continued under the whole building, as in the antique arches and aqueducts; but it is more usually in spaces, or intervals; in which latter case, insulated pillars, bound together by arches, should be used.
There are several things to be well considered in laying thefoundationof a military building. We must first examine the bed of the earth upon which we are to build, and then the under fillings or substruction. We are not to rest upon any seeming solidity, unless the whole mould through which we cut has likewise been solid; and in such cases, allow ¹⁄₆th part of the height of the building for the hollowing or under-digging, unless there be cellars under ground, in which case it may be something less. There are many ways to try the firmness of theground; but the following, in our opinion, is the best. Take an iron crow, or such a borer as well-diggers use, which at once will point out the goodness and tenacity of the ground.
Engineers should use the utmost diligence in this point; for, of all the errors that may happen in building, those are the most pernicious which are committed in the foundation, because they bring with them the ruin of the whole building; nor can they be amended without very great difficulty.
Foundationsare either natural, or artificial: natural, as when we build on a rock, or very solid earth; in which case we need not seek for any other strengthening; for these, without digging, or other artificial helps, are of themselves excellentfoundations, and most fit to uphold the greatest buildings. But if the ground be sandy or marshy, or have lately been dug, in such case recourse must be had to art. In the former case, the engineer must adjust the depth of thefoundationby the height, weight, &c. of the building: ¹⁄₆th part of the whole height is looked upon as a medium; and as to the thickness, double that of the width of a wall is a good rule. If you build upon mossy and loose earth, then you must dig until you find sound ground. This sound ground, fit to support a building, is of divers kinds: in some places so hard, as scarcely to be cut with iron; in other places very stiff; in other places blackish, which is accounted the weakest; in others like chalk, and in others sandy: but of all these, that is the best which requires most labor in cutting or digging, and when wet, does not dissolve into dirt.
If the earth to be built upon is very soft, as in moorish grounds, or such that the naturalfoundationcannot be trusted, then you must get good pieces of oak, whose length should be the breadth of the trench or about 2 feet longer than the wall; these must be laid across the foundation about 2 feet asunder, and being well rammed down, lay long planks upon them; which planks need not lie so broad as the pieces are long, but only about four inches on a side wider than the basis, or foot of the wall is to be. But if the ground be so very bad, that this will not do, then you must provide good piles of oak of such a length as will reach the good ground, and whose diameter must be about ¹⁄₁₂th part of their length. These piles must be driven down by an engine for that purpose, and must be placed as close as one can stand by another; then lay planks upon them, and pin them fast. But if the ground be faulty in some parts, and firm in others, you may turn arches over those loose places, which will discharge them of the weight. You must not forget to place the piles under the inner, as well as the outer walls; for if these should sink, it would be a means to make the outer walls crack, and so ruin the whole building.
Having thus far considered the bed of the earth on which the building is to be erected, we shall next consider the substruction, as it was called by the ancients; but our modern engineers call it thefoundation. This is the ground-work of the whole edifice, which must sustain the walls, and may be termed artificial, as the other was natural; with regard to which, the following things are most necessary to be observed: 1. That the bottom be exactly level; therefore lay a platform of good boards. 2. That the lowest ledge or row be all of stone, the broader the better, laid closely without mortar; which is a general caution for all parts of a building that are contiguous to board or timber, because lime and wood are utter enemies to one another, and, if unfit confiners any where, they are more especially so in the foundation. 3. That the breadth of thefoundationbe at least double the breadth of the wall which is to be raised upon it: but even in this case art should give way to discretion: and the foundation may be made either broader, or narrower, according as the ground and the ponderosity of the edifice require. 4. That thefoundationbe made to diminish as it rises, but yet so that there may be as much left on the one side as on the other; so that the middle of that above may be perpendicularly over the middle of that below, which should in like manner be observed in diminishing the walls above ground; for by this means the building will become much stronger than it would be if the diminution were made by any other way. 5. That you should never build on the ruins of an old foundation, unless you are well assured of its depth, and that its strength is sufficient to bear the building.
The stones in thefoundationshould be laid as they naturally lay in the quarry, for they have the most strength in their natural position. This should be observed in all parts of a building, because all stones have a cleaving grain; consequently, if the horizontal position of the stones in the quarry should be placed vertically in the building, the superincumbent weight would be apt to cleave them, and so render the building ruinous.
FOUNDER, a person, who casts cannon, &c.
FOUNDERING, a disorder in horses, which may be considered under two heads, viz.
Founderingin the feet, which is an universal rheumatism, or defluxion of humors upon the sinews of a horse’s feet; so that in the course of time the hoofs become stiff and callous, and the horse has no sense or feeling of them. This disorder is generally brought on by hard riding. Sometimes it proceeds from sudden heats and colds; and frequently fromthe horse being watered when he is very hot. Too tight a shoe, or frequent travelling upon hard flinty ground, will likewise produce this disorder.
Founderingin the chest, a disorder which may be occasioned by crudities collected in the stomach, or by other infirmities which obstruct the free action of the lungs. It is discovered by the horse not being able to bend his joints, and, when once laid, by not being able to rise again. A swelling in the legs is likewise symptomatic of it.
FOUNDERY,-FOUNDRY,
in military matters, the art of casting all kinds of ordnance, such as cannon, mortars, howitzers, &c. It likewise signifies the place or work-house wherein these operations are performed. At present all pieces of artillery are cast solid, and bored afterwards. Formerly guns were bored perpendicularly, but at present in a horizontal position: the boring instrument is fixed immoveably, and forced into the gun or mortar by a mechanical power. The piece of artillery is turned round by a large wheel, and at the same time the gun is bored, the outside is turned and polished, by another very curious machine for that purpose, invented by the very ingenious Messrs. Verbruggen, founders at Woolwich. Guns were first founded in England in 1587.
FOURAGE,Fr.Forage. In the artillery, it is used figuratively to signify hay, straw, or any thing else of vegetable growth, which is used to ram into the bore of a cannon for the purpose of cleansing it.
Aller auFourage, to go a foraging.
FOURAGER,Fr.To forage, or look about for provender and provisions.
Fouragerlikewise means among the French to ravage, desolate, pillage, and waste a country for the purpose of throwing the inhabitants into disorder. The word is derived fromforas agere, or to seek for forage in the fields.
Fourageur,Fr.foragers, or men employed to procure forage, &c. for an army. They are generally escorted. Hence the expression: so many men have been ordered to escort the foragers. The body of foragers has been charged by the enemy’s cavalry.
FOURBISSEURS,Fr.a sword cutler. The French familiarly say of two persons who are extremely intimate,Ces gens sont tête-a-tête comme des fourbisseurs, meaning, that, like sword cutlers, (who when they work sit closely opposite to each other) they are putting their heads together.
Se battre a l’épée qui est chez le fourbisseur, to fight with a sword which is still in the cutler’s hands; signifying figuratively to dispute about any thing that does not concern either party.
FOURGON,Fr.a sort of waggon. It likewise signifies a poker.
FOURNEAU,Fr.furnace, also the chamber of a mine.
FOURIER,Fr.A quarter master belonging to a cavalry or infantry regiment. In France there werefouriers-majorsof cavalry who composed a part of the cavalry staff. Serjeant fourier, and corporal fourier, answer to our quarter master serjeant.
FOURNIMENT,Fr.A horn which holds about one pound of gun-powder to prime cannon. It is likewise used by cavalry and infantry soldiers, who hang it across their shoulder. The artillerists keep it in a belt.
FOURCHETTESà mousquet,Fr.Rests for a musquet. They are sometimes used to relieve men who do duty on the rampart of a town.
CheminFourchu, a cross way.
PaixFOURREE,Fr.a peace suddenly patched up.
PaysFOURRE,Fr.a country thick set with hedges, &c. properly called a close country.
FOURREAUde pistolet, a holster.
FauxFourreaude pistolet, pistol bag.
Fourreaud’epéethe scabbard of a sword.
Fourmiller,Fr.to swarm with.La France fourmille en braves soldats—France swarms with brave soldiers;L’Angleterre fourmille en braves marins—England swarms with brave seamen.
FOURde campagne. A field oven.
FOUR, a place of confinement in Paris to which vagabonds and persons who could not give any satisfactory account of themselves were committed; and when once shut up had their names enregistered, and were enlisted for the service of the old French government. Afourin this acceptation of the term means a room arched over without having the least aperture to receive day light. There were several such places of confinement in Paris. They owed their invention to a Monsieur D’Argenson, and were supposed to add annually two thousand men at least to the king’s regular army; by which means the capital was relieved from a multitude of thieves, pick-pockets, &c.
FOURNITURESdes vivres,Fr.SeeStores, &c.
FOYER,Fr.Focus, or centre of the chamber. SeeMine.
FRAISE, infortification, a kind of stakes or palisades placed horizontally on the outward slope of a rampart made of earth, to prevent the work being taken by surprise. They are generally 7 or 8 feet long, and about 5 inches thick. When an army intrenches itself, the parapets of the retrenchments are often fraised in the parts exposed to an attack.
ToFraisea battalion, is to line, or cover it every way with pikes, that it may withstand the shock of a body of horse.
FRAISER,Fr.To plait, knead or drill....In a military sense to fraise or fence; asfraiser un battalion, is to fraise or fence all the musquetry-men belonging to a battalion with pikes, to oppose the irruption of cavalry should it charge them in a plain. At present it means to secure a battalion by opposing bayonets obliquely forward, or cross-ways in such a manner as to render it impossible for a horseman to act against it.
Fraises,Fr.SeeFraisean adopted English term.
FRANCHES,Fr....Les compagnies franches, free companies, were bodies of men detached and separated from the rest of the army, having each a chief, or commandant. They consisted chiefly of dragoons, hussars, &c. and their peculiar duty was to make irruptions into an enemy’s country; and may not improperly be called land pirates, as their chief occupation was to harrass and plunder the enemy and his adherents, in whatever manner they could, without paying any regard to military forms. The persons who composed these corps were termed partisans. They always accompanied the main army in time of war, and were distributed among the different garrison towns in France during peace. They were common to every power in Europe; the Pandours and Hulans were of this description. They were the worst afflictions of war; and generally as fatal to theirfriendsas theirenemies.
FRAY, a battle, combat, or duel.
FRICTION, inmechanics, the rubbing of the parts of engines and machines against each other, by which a considerable part of their effect is destroyed.
It is hardly possible to lay down general rules for computing the quantity of friction, because it depends upon a multiplicity of circumstances, as the structure, firmness, elasticity, &c. of bodies rubbing against each other. Some authors make the friction upon a horizontal plane, equal to ¹⁄₃d of the weight to be moved; while others have found it to be considerably less. But however this be, the doctrine of friction, as ascertained by the latest experiments, may be summed up in the following manner.
1. When one body rests on another upon a horizontal plane, it presses it with its whole weight, which being equally reacted upon, and consequently the whole effect of its gravity destroyed by the plane, it will be absolutely free to move in any horizontal direction by any the least power applied thereto, provided both the touching surfaces be smooth.
2. But since we find no such thing as perfect smoothness in the surfaces of bodies, arising from their porosity and peculiar texture, it is easy to understand, that when two such surfaces come together, the prominent parts of the one will, in some measure, fall into the concave parts of the other; and therefore, when an horizontal motion is attempted in one, the fixed prominent parts of the other will give more or less resistance to the moving surface, by holding and retaining its parts; and this is what we call friction.
3. Now since any body will require a force equal to its weight, to draw it over a given obstacle, it follows that the friction arising to the moving body, will always be in proportion to its weight only, and not to the quantity of the surface, by which it bears upon the resisting plane or surface. Thus if a piece of wood 4 inches wide, and 1 thick, be laid upon another fixed piece of the same wood, it will require the same weight to draw it along, whether it be laid on its broad or narrow side.
4. For, though there be 4 times the number of touching particles on the broad side (cetæris paribus) yet each particle is pressed with only ¹⁄₄th of the weight, that those are on the narrow side, and since 4 times the number multiplied by one fourth of the weight, it is plain the resistance is equal in both places, and so requires the same force to overcome it.
5. The reason why friction is proportional to the weight of the moving body, is, because the power applied to move the body must raise it over the prominent parts of the surface on which it is drawn; and this motion of the body, as it is not upright, will not require a power equal to its whole weight; but being in the nature of the motion on an inclined plane, it will only require a part of its own weight, which will vary with the various degrees of smoothness and asperity.
6. It is found by experiment, that a body, may be drawn along by nearly ¹⁄₃d of its weight; and if the surfaces be hard and well polished, by less than ¹⁄₃d part; whereas, if the parts be soft or rugged, it will require a much greater weight.
The ingenious Mr. Emerson, in his Principles of Mechanics, has given the following rules deduced from experiments; but they require some variation under different circumstances, which must be left to the judgment of the artist.
1. Wood and all metals, when greased, have nearly the same friction; and the smoother they are, the less friction they have; yet metals may be so far polished as to increase friction by the cohesion of their parts.
Wood slides easier upon the ground in wet weather than in dry, and easier than iron in dry weather; but iron slides easier than wood, in wet weather. Lead makes a great deal of resistance. Iron or steel running in brass, makes the least friction of any. In wood acting against wood, grease makes the motion twice as easy, or rather ²⁄₃ds easier. Wheel-naves, greased or tarred, go 4 times easier than when wet.
Metals oiled make the friction less than when polished, and twice as little as when unpolished.
In general, the softer or rougher the bodies, the less or greater their friction.
2. As to particular cases: a cubic piece of soft wood of 8 pounds weight, moving upon a smooth plane of soft wood, at the rate of 3 feet per second; its friction is about ¹⁄₃d of the weight of it; but if it be rough, the friction is little less than one half the weight.
Upon the same supposition, other soft wood upon soft wood very smooth, the friction is bout ¹⁄₄th of the weight.
Soft wood upon hard, or hard wood upon soft, ¹⁄₅th or 1-half of the weight. Hard wood upon hard wood, ¹⁄₇th or ¹⁄₈th of the weight.
Polished steel moving upon steel or pewter, ¹⁄₄th of the weight; moving on copper or lead, ¹⁄₅th of the weight; on brass, ¹⁄₅th of the weight. Metals of the same sort have more friction than different sorts.
The friction,cæteris paribus, increases with the weight almost in the same proportion. The friction is also greater with a greater velocity, but not in proportion to it, except in very few cases. A greater surface also causes somewhat more friction, with the same weight and velocity; yet friction may sometimes be increased by having too little surface to move on; as upon clay, &c. where the body sinks.
3. The friction arising from the bending of ropes about machines, differs according to their stiffness, the temper of the weather, degree of flexibility, &c., but,cæteris paribus, the force or difficulty of bending a rope is as the square of the diameter of the rope, and its tension, directly; and the diameter of the cylinder or pulley it goes about, reciprocally.
A rope of 1 inch diameter, whose tension or weight drawing it is 5 pounds, going over a pully 3 inches diameter, requires a force of 1 pound to bend it.
4. The resistance of a plane moving through a fluid is as the square of the velocity; and puttingv= velocity in feet in a second; it is equal to the weight of a column of the fluid, whose base is the plane, and heightvvb4.And in a globe it is but half so much.
5. As to the mechanic powers, the single lever makes no resistance by friction; but if, by the motion of the lever in lifting the fulcrum, or place of support, be changed further from the weight, the power will be decreased thereby.
6. In any wheel of any machine, running upon an axis, the friction on the axis is as the weight upon it, the diameter of the axis, and the angular velocity. This sort of friction is but small.
7. In the pully, ifp,q, be 2 weights, andqthe greater; andw=4pqpxqthenwis the weight upon the axis of the single pulley; and it is not increased by the acceleration of the weightq, but remains always the same.
The friction of the pullies is very considerable, when the sheaves rub against the blocks; and by the wearing of the holes and axles.
The friction of the axis of the pulley is as the weightw, its angular velocity, the diameter of the axis directly, and the diameter of the pully inversely. A power of 100 pounds, with the addition of 50 pounds, will only draw up 500 with a tackle of 5; and 15 pounds over a single pully will draw up only 14 pounds.
8. In the screw, there is a great deal of friction: those with sharp threads have more friction than those with square threads; and endless screws have more than either. Screws, with a square thread, raise a weight with more ease than those with a sharp thread.
In the common screw the friction is so great, that it will sustain the weight in any position given, when the power is taken off; and therefore the friction is at least equal to the power. From whence it will follow, that in the screw, the power must be to the weight or resistance, at least as twice the perpendicular height of a thread to the circumference described by one revolution of the power; if it be able to raise the weight, or only sustain it. This friction of the screw is of great use, as it serves to keep the weight in any given position.
9. In the wedge, the friction is at least equal to the power, as it retains any position it is driven into; therefore in the wedge, the power must be to the weight at least as twice the base to the height, to overcome any resistance.
10. To find the friction of any engine, begin at the power, and consider the velocity and the weight at the first rubbing part; and estimate its quantity of friction by some of the foregoing articles; then proceed to the next rubbing part, and do the same for it, and so on through the whole.
And note that something more is to be allowed for increase of friction by every new addition to the power.
FRILL. An ornamental appendage to the shirt which officers and soldiers generally wear with regimentals. A small aperture is usually made at the top to admit the hook and eye of the uniform coat. Detached frills for the privates are certainly preferable to those which are fixed to the shirts, as three per week, at the regular times allotted for a change of linen, would answer every purpose of cleanliness.
FRISE.Fr.SeeChevauxde Frize.
FRISRUTTER. An instrument made of iron, and used for the purpose ofblocking up an haven, or a river. The following description of it is among General Monk’s observations on political and military affairs.
The beams through which the upright bars pass must be twelve feet in length, and the upright bars that go through the beam must be of that length, so that when one of these iron frisrutters is let down into an haven or river, the perpendicular bars of this iron instrument shall be deep enough to reach at high water within five feet of the surface. SeeChevaux-de-Frize.
FROCK, the undress regimental coat is very often so called.
FRONDE,Fr.a sling. This weapon was used in France by the Huguenots at Sancerre, as late as the year 1572, in order to save their powder. There are two sorts, one which is used in throwing a stone from the arm, and the other that was fixed to a lever, and was so contrived, that a large quantity of stones might be thrown out of a machine, either from a camp into a besieged town, or from a town into the enemy’s camp. This machine has been used since the invention of cannon.
The fronde or sling was used by the Romans on three different occasions, viz. when they sent their light-armed men, calledvelites, forward to skirmish before a general engagement; when they wished to drive the enemy from under the walls of a town which they were preparing to storm, and finally to harrass and wound the men in the enemy’s works. This weapon, in fact, together with the bow and arrow, may be numbered among the primitive arms of mankind.
FRONT, a word of command signifying, that the men are to turn to their proper front; this movement is performed at once by revolving on the left heel, without first planting the right foot, as in the facings. If the battalion has been faced to the right, the men turn on this word a quarter circle to the left; if faced to the left, they turn a quarter circle to the right, if they have been faced to the right, or left about, they turn a half circle to the right. When the battalion is marching by files, or is put through its right or left facings, as, To the Right, Face, To the Left, Face, the wordfrontis some times used to restore it to its natural situation in line. In displaying, or, to use the French term, indeploying, from close or open column, or in executing either of those movements from line, the wordfrontprecedeshalt.
Frontof a regiment, the foremost rank of a battalion, squadron, or any other body of men. To front every way, is when the men are faced to all sides.
Quatre hommes de front, four men in front.
Frontof a fortification. SeeFace.
Front d’un bataillon,Fr.The front of a battalion, consisting of the leading man of each file. This term is variously used in the French service, asUn battalion qui fait front de tous côtés, et presente les armes par tout. A battalion which is fronted towards every quarter and presents arms in every direction.Un battalion est sur son frontsignifies, that a battalion is drawn up so that it presents its natural front in line.
Frontgive-point, a movement of the sword used by the cavalry. SeeSword Exercise.
Rear-Frontis the disposition of a body of men in line, or column, so that the natural formation of the battalion is changed with regard to aspect, but not to shape. Those files, which in the first telling off were leaders, become followers. It sometimes happens, that to save time a column is ordered suddenly to face about and retire; in this case the different companies march rear front. In the conversion of a regiment, and during the various manœvres, the divisions, &c. frequently appearrear front. They are restored to their natural order by the countermarch. Thus a battalion standing in open column, the right in front, when faced about stands rear front; when countermarched it resumes its original or natural formation, and stands left in front with its proper leading files. When a battalion retiring in line, fires by wings or alternate companies, every retrograde movement is maderear front.
FRONTIER, the limits, confines, or boundaries of any country. SeeBarrierTowns.
FUEL, the matter or aliment of fire; any thing capable of ignition.
There is a certain and regulated allowance of fuel made by government, to regiments and companies.
When there is a sufficient number of rooms in a barrack to allow of one to a subaltern of infantry, a full allowance of fuel and candles may be issued for the same.
The weekly deliveries of fuel and candles for every room are not to exceed the given quantities.
FUGEL-MAN, (an incorrect method of pronouncingflugel-man) a well drilled intelligent soldier advanced in front of the line, to give the time in the manual and platoon exercises. The wordflugelis derived from the German, and signifies a wing; the man having been originally posted on the right wing.
FUGITIVE, one who runs from his post, station or duty.
ToFUMIGATE, in a general acceptation of the term, to medicate or heal by vapours; to correct any infected building, or limited circumference of atmosphere, by smoke, impregnated with antiputrescent particles of heat. Hospitals are strictly ordered to be attended to on this head; especially when any contagious disorder has prevailed. But in no instance ought this important precaution tobe so scrupulously observed as when troops are embarked for any space of time.
FUMIGATION, the act of fumigating or conveying smoke into any confined place.
The frequent fumigation of every ship on which troops, or prisoners of war are embarked, is deemed highly material, in order to prevent mischief from confined air. The materials for fumigation may be brimstone with saw-dust; or the brimstone may be thrown over hot coals. Nitre, to which a little vitriolic acid is added; or common salt, with the same addition of vitriolic acid. Gun-powder wetted, or the heated loggerhead in the pitch pot.
This operation should always be performed under the immediate eye of the medical officer on board, to prevent improper quantities of the articles being used.
FUND. SeeStock Purse.
FUNERALS. SeeBurials.
FUNNEL, any pipe or passage of communication from one place to another.
ToFURL, in regard to military flags or colors, is opposed to their exposure; and is used, to express the act of folding them so as to be cased.
FURLOUGH, a leave of absence. Every non-commissioned officer and soldier who obtains leave of absence from his regiment must be provided with a proper voucher to satisfy the commanding officer of any place or party, that he has the sanction of his superiors to pass and repass within a given period.
The following is an eligible form:
According to the authority vested in me by law, I ———— lieutenant colonel ———— commanding the ———— quartered at ———— do issue the following.
“Permit the bearer ———— private ———— in the above regiment and in captain ———— to pass to ———— in the state of ———— county of ———— for the space of ———— ending the ———— of ———— and then to return to ———— as no excuse will be taken but that of sickness, for his over-staying his furlough; and that to be certified by an officer of the army, or civil magistrate; he behaving as becometh. He is —— feet —— inches high, —— years of age, ———— complexion, ———— hair, ———— eyes, &c.”
All soldiers found half a mile from a camp or garrison, going towards an enemy’s country, or quarters, without a pass, are deemed and treated as deserters.
FURNACE. In a general acceptation of the term, any vessel or utensil for maintaining a strong and searching fire, either of coal or wood.
Furnaceis sometimes applied, but improperly so, to that used in the melting of iron, and by some authors it is confounded with iron forges; although there is a considerable difference between them. SeeFoundry.
Furnacein mining, signifies a hollow, or excavation which is made in the earth and is charged with gun-powder, for the purpose of blowing up a rock, wall, or any part of a fortification.
MineFurnacesmust be made under that part of the glacis belonging to the covert way, which faces the quarter from whence the besiegers will make their principal attacks, the instant they can be ascertained by the opening of the trenches. Several small ones must likewise be sunk under the glacis of the outworks, in order to blow up the lodgments which the enemy may have made when he has carried the advanced posts. Mine furnaces are moreover extremely useful in the defence of the covert way, especially to overthrow the saps and lodgments, together with the batteries that may have been erected by the besieging enemy. For a scientific explanation of this article, see Foissac’s last edition ofTraité de la défense des places par le Maréchal Vauban,tom.ii. pages 202, 224, 240.
FURNITURE. In a general sense means all sorts of moveables made use of for the comfort, or decoration of a house. In a military sense it applies to certain articles which are allowed in barracks, to which are added household utensils, according to the number of rooms.
By the British regulations, commissioned and warrant officers’ rooms of cavalry and infantry are to have a closet, 1 table, 2 chairs, a coal box, coal tray, bellows, fire irons and fender.
Non-commissioned officers and private mens’ rooms of cavalry and infantry are to be furnished with bedsteads, mattrasses, or paillasses, bolsters, blankets, sheets, rugs, round towel, closet or shelves, 1 table, rack for arms, set of fire-irons, a fender and three forms.
The followingutensilsare also allowed for each room: 2 iron pots with wooden lids, 2 pair of iron pot hooks, 2 iron trivets, 2 wooden ladles; an iron flesh-fork, and a frying-pan, 2 large bowls or platters; 8 small bowls or porringers, 8 trenchers and 8 spoons for cavalry rooms; 12 of each of the three last articles for infantry rooms; a water bucket, coal-tray, candlestick, tin can for beer, large earthen pan for meat, box or basket for carrying coals; 2 drinking horns; a wooden urinal, broom and mop.
The guard rooms of cavalry and infantry are furnished with a water bucket, candlestick, tin can for beer, drinking horns; also with fire irons and a coal-tray, from 1st Sept. to 1st May, when they are to be taken into store.
The rooms of the quarter masters and serjeants of cavalry, and the serjeant major, and quarter master serjeant of infantry, to be furnished with the necessary bedding and utensils, in the same manner as is allowed to the soldiers’ rooms.
Each stable of cavalry for 8 horses is provided with 2 pitchforks, 2 shovels, 1lantern, 1 wheel-barrow, 2 water buckets; and allowed 4 brooms per month.
HorseFurniture, ornaments and embellishments which are adopted by military men when they are mounted for service or parade, consisting chiefly of housins, saddle cloth, &c. The following are the usual distinctions in the British service:
Cavalry—cloth trimmed with silver, or gold. Privates in cavalry regiments—large saddle cloths, the centre of which is yellow, with a border to agree with the facings of the regiment. The tenth regiment of light dragoons is an exception to this general custom. The privates of that corps have a large piece of broad blue cloth which is thrown over the saddle, and covers the horse’s loins.
At the commencement of the present war, officers were dispensed from wearing furnitures at reviews, because it was judged very properly that the expence of 14 or 15 guineas for an article which was worn one day in the year, was at such a moment unnecessary.
FUSES, in artillery, are chiefly made of very dry beach wood, and sometimes of horn-beam taken near the root. They are turned rough and bored at first, and then kept for several years in a dry place. The diameter of the hole is about ¹⁄₄th of an inch; the hole does not go quite through, having about ¹⁄₄ of an inch at the bottom; and the head is made hollow in the form of a bowl.
The composition for fuses is, salt petre 3, sulphur 1, and mealed powder 3, 4, and sometimes 5. This composition is driven in with an iron driver, whose ends are capped with copper, to prevent the composition from taking fire; and to keep it equally hard; the last shovel-full being all mealed powder, and 2 strands of quick match laid across each other, being driven in with it, the ends of which are folded up into the hollow top, and a cap of parchment tied over it until it be used.
When these fuses are driven into the loaded shell, the lower end is cut off in a slope, so that the composition may inflame the powder in the shell. The fuze must be of such a length as to continue burning all the time the shell is in its range, and to set fire to the powder as soon as it touches the ground, which occasions the shell instantly to burst into many pieces.
When the distance of the battery from the object is known, the time of the shell’s flight may be computed to a second or two; which being ascertained, the fuse may be cut accordingly, by burning two or three, and making use of a watch, or of a string by way of a pendulum, to vibrate seconds.
Fusee, according to the French acceptation of the word, is applied to various purposes, and belongs to various instruments of destruction which are used in war. The fusee is differently made by different artificers. Some make it consist of one pound of gunpowder, and two or three ounces of charcoal well mixed together; others of four pounds of gun-powder, two of saltpetre, and one of sulphur. It must be generally remarked, that the time a bomb, or grenade, will take to burst after it has been thrown out of the mortar, must depend entirely upon the length and quality of the fusee.
Fuseesà bombes,Fr.bomb fuses. The intent and object of these fuses, are to communicate fire to the gun-powder, with which the bomb is filled, in order to force it to burst and separate in broken pieces on any given spot. These fuses are usually made in the shape of a wooden pipe or tap, out of the linden tree, the alder, or any other dry and solid wood, and are afterwards filled with a slow combustible composition. The materials are increased, or diminished, according to the nature of their application. Fuses are sometimes made of copper, and they must not have the least aperture or fissure.
There are fuses for bombs of 12, of 10, and of 8 inches diameter. Fuses for bombs of 12 inches diameter, are 8 inches 4 lines long, being 1 inch 8 lines broad at the thick, and 1 inch 2 lines broad at the thin end; the breadth or diameter of the light, or aperture, is 5 lines. Fuses decrease nearly 1 inch in length and 2 lines in diameter, according to the calibre of the bomb. The diameters of the lights or apertures, only diminish one half line.
The composition for bomb fuses consists of seven parts of priming powder to four of salt-petre, and three of sulphur. These different materials are (each separately) first passed through a silk sieve; and after they have been well mixed together, the whole mass is thrown into a moderate sized hair sieve, and again passed through.