GAUNTELOPE.-GAUNTLET.
SeeGauntelope.Run theGauntelope.
GAZETTE, a newspaper. The word is derived fromgazetta, a Venetian coin, which was the usual price of the first newspaper printed there, and which name was afterwards given to the paper itself.
The first gazette in England was published at Oxford, the court being there, in a folio half sheet, November the 7th, 1665. On the removal of the court to London, the title was changed to theLondon Gazette. The Oxford Gazette was published on Tuesdays, the London on Saturdays. And these have continued to be the days of publication ever since that publication has been confined to London.
All commissions in the British army, militia, fencible, and volunteer corps must be gazetted. The dates specified in the gazette generally agree in every point with those of the original commissions. So that by referring to the gazette, an officer may always know the precise day on which he is entitled to receive subsistence from the agent, and to assume rank in the British army. Should an erroneous statement, however, get into the gazette, or a commission be wrong dated therein, a reference to the latter will always supersede any notification in the former.
GAZONS, in fortification, are pieces of fresh earth or sods, covered with grass, and cut in the form of a wedge, about a foot long, and half a foot thick, to line the outsides of a work made of earth; as ramparts, parapets, banquettes, &c. The first bed of gazons is fixed with pegs of wood: and the second bed is so laid as to bind the former, by being placed over its joints; and so continued till the works are finished. Betwixt those sods it is usual to sow all sorts of binding weed or herbs, in order to strengthen the rampart.
GEAR, furniture, equipage, or caparison.
GEAT, the hole through which the metal is conveyed to the mould in casting ordnance.
GEBEGIS. Armorers among the Turks are so called.
GEBELUS. Every timariot in Turkey, during a campaign, is obliged to take a certain number of horsemen, who are called gebelus, and to support them at his own expence. He is directed to take as many with him as would annually cost three thousand aspres (each aspre being equal to two-pence farthing English) for subsistence.
GELD, in the English old customs, a Saxon word signifyingmoney, or tribute. It also denoted a compensation for some crime committed. Hencewergeld, in the old Saxon laws, was used for the value of a man slain; andorfgeld, for that of a beast.
GELIBACH. A sort of superintendant or chief of the gebegis, or armorers among the Turks. He is only subordinate to thetoppi bachi, or the grand-master of the Turkish artillery.
GENDARMERIE,Fr.the gendarmerie was a select body of cavalry that took precedence of every regiment of horse in the French service, and rankedimmediately after the king’s household. The reputation of the gendarmerie was so great, and its services so well estimated by the king of France, that when the emperor Charles V. in 1552, sent a formal embassy to the Court of Versailles to request a loan of money, and the assistance of the gendarmerie to enable him to repulse the Turks; Francis I. returned the following answer: “With respect to the first object of your mission, (addressing himself to the ambassador) I am not a banker; and with regard to the other, as my gendarmerie is the arm which supports my sceptre, I never expose it to danger, without myself sharing its fatigue and glory.”
The uniform of the gendarmerie, as well as of the light cavalry, under the old French government, was scarlet, with facings of the same color. The coat was formerly more or less laced with silver according to the king’s pleasure. A short period before the revolution, it was only laced on the cuff. The waistcoat of buff leather, and the bandouleer of the same, silver laced; the hat was edged with broad silver lace. The horse-cloths and holster-caps were red, and the arms of the captain embroidered on the corners of the saddle cloths, and on the front of the holsters. In 1762, a considerable body of men was raised by order of Louis XIV. The soldiers who composed it were called gensdarmes. And in 1792, the number was considerably augmented, consisting of horse and foot, and being indiscriminately called gens d’armes; but their clothing was altered to deep blue. Their pay was greater than what the rest of the army enjoyed, and when others were paid in paper currency, they received their subsistence in hard cash (en argent sonant.) They possessed these privileges on account of the proofs they were obliged to bring of superior claims to military honor, before they could be enlisted as gendarmes. It was necessary, in fact, that every individual amongst them should produce a certificate of six or eight years service.
GENDARMES(gens d’armes)de la garde, a select body of men so called during the old government of France, and still preserved in that country; but their services are applied to different purposes. They consisted originally of a single company which was formed by Henry IV. when he ascended the throne. He distinguished them from his other troops, by stiling themhommes d’armes de ses ordonnances; men at arms under his own immediate orders. They consisted of men best qualified for every species of military duty, and were to constitute a royal squadron at whose head the king himself might personally engage the enemy, as necessity might require. He gave this squadron to his son, the Dauphin, who was afterwards king of France, under the name and title of Louis XIII.
GENERAL, in a military sense, is an officer in chief, to whom the government of a country have judged proper to entrust the command of their troops. He holds this important trust under various titles, as captain-general, in England and Spain,feldt mareschal, in Germany, ormareschal, in France.
In the British service the king is constitutionally, and in his official right, captain-general. He has ten aids-de-camp; every one of whom enjoys the brevet rank of full colonel in the army. Next to the king is the commander in chief, whom he sometimes honors with the title of captain-general. During the expedition to Holland the Duke of York was entrusted with this important charge.
The natural qualities of aGeneral, are a martial genius, a solid judgment, a healthy robust constitution, intrepidity and presence of mind on critical occasions, indefatigability in business, goodness of heart, liberality, a reasonable age; if too young, he may want experience and prudence; if too old, he may not have vivacity enough. His conduct must be uniform, his temper affable, but inflexible in maintaining the police and discipline of an army.
Acquired qualities of aGeneralshould be secrecy, justice, sobriety, temperance, knowlege of the art of war from theory and practice, the art of commanding, and speaking with precision and exactness; great attention to preserve the lives and supply the wants of the soldiers, and a constant study of the characters of the officers of his army, that he may employ them according to their talents. His conduct appears in establishing his magazines in the most convenient places; in examining the country, that he may not engage his troops too far, while he is ignorant of the means of bringing them off; in subsisting them, and in knowing how to take the most advantageous posts, either for fighting, retreating, or shunning a battle. His experience inspires his army with confidence, and an assurance of victory; and his good qualities, by creating respect, augment his authority. By his liberality he gets intelligence of the strength and designs of the enemy, and by this means is enabled to take the most successful measures. He ought to be fond of glory, to have an aversion to flattery, to render himself beloved, and to keep a strict discipline and regular subordination.
The office of aGeneralis to regulate the march and encampment of the army; in the day of battle to choose out the most advantageous ground; to make the disposition of the corps; to post the artillery, and, where there is occasion, to send his orders by his aids-de-camp. At a siege he is to cause the place to be invested, to regulate the approaches and attacks, to visit the works, and to send out detachments to secure the convoy and foraging parties.
GENERALISSIMO, a supreme and absolute commander in the field. This word is generally used in most foreign languages. It was first invented by the absolute authority of cardinal Richelieu, when he went to command the French army in Italy.
Generalof the artillery. SeeOrdnance.
Generalsof horseare officers next under the general of the army. They have an absolute command over the horse belonging to an army, above the lieutenant generals.
Generalsof footare officers next under the general of the army, having an absolute command over the foot of the army.
Generalofficers. All officers above the rank of colonel in the line are so called.
General.In the German armies, and among the sovereigns of the North, there are certain generals of cavalry, and others of infantry, who take rank of all lieutenant generals. Those belonging to the infantry, in the imperial service, and who are of this description, are calledgeneral field zeugmeisters. In Russia they bear the title of generals in chief; of which class there are four belonging to the armies of that empire, two for the infantry and two for the cavalry. They are only subordinate to field marshals; which title or dignity is the same in Russia as was formerly that of marshal of France.
In the two imperial armies just mentioned, it is usual for generals, lieutenant generals, and major generals to take their routine of duty, and rise progressively in the infantry or cavalry corps, to which they were originally appointed, until they arrive at a chief command; whereas in France a major general might be employed to take charge of either infantry or cavalry, without any regard being paid to the particular line of service in which he was bred.
Generalchez les Turcs,Fr.Turkish generals.
The Turks have had brave generals. They possess experience, because from their earliest infancy they become inured to arms; because through the different stages of acknowleged service, they rise by degrees; and because their empire being very extensive, it is necessary that they should over-run several provinces for its protection, and be almost constantly engaged in skirmishes or battles. These, at least, were the original principles upon which the military code of that country was established. But abuses, the natural consequences of corruption, have since crept in amongst them; for there have been persons suddenly raised from subordinate employments under the Porte to the supreme command of armies. The primary cause of this abuse is to be found in the luxury and effeminacy of the grand signors, who are become heedless of the Mahomedan laws, and never go to war in person.
The acknowleged valor of the Turkish generals may be attributed to the following causes. To a constitution which is naturally robust, to a practical knowlege of war, and to habitual military exercises.
To these may be added the confidence with which they are inspired by the recollection of former victories; but they are influenced above all, by the secret dictates of a religion, which holds out eternal happiness to those who shall die in battle, and which teaches them to believe, that every Turk bears written on the forehead, not only the hour of his departure from this earth, but the manner of his removal.
A Turkish general possesses a power as absolute and uncontroled as that which was entrusted to the dictators of the Roman republic. He has no competitor, or equal in the charge he holds, no assistants or colleagues with whom he is directed to consult, and to whose assent or dissent, in matters of consultation, he is to pay the least regard. Not only the army under his command, but the whole country into which he marches, is subject to his orders, and bound implicitly to obey them. Punishments and rewards are equally within his distribution. If an authority so absolute as this be considered in the light of executive effect, nothing most unquestionably can so readily produce it; for the tardiness of deliberation is superseded at once by a prompt decision, before which all sorts of objections, and every species of jealousy, subside. When a project is to be fulfilled, secrecy is the natural consequence of this arbitrary system, and rational plans are not interrupted by a difference of opinion, by prejudice, or cabal.
Generalde bataille,-Generalmajor,
a particular rank or appointment, whose functions correspond with those of a ci-devant marshal of France. This situation is entrusted to a general officer, and is only known among the armies of Russia, and some other northern powers. He takes precedence in the same manner that our major generals do, of all brigadier generals and colonels, and is subordinate to lieutenant generals. The rank of brigadier general is known in France, Russia, England, Holland, and the United States. It does not exist in Austria or Sweden.
Generaldes galéres,Fr.Superintendant officer, or general of the gallies. This was one of the most important appointments belonging to the old government of France. The officer to whom it was entrusted commanded all the gallies, and vessels which bore what the French callvoiles latines(a triangle rectangular sail) in the Mediterranean. He had a jurisdiction, a marine police, and an arsenal for constructing ships under his own immediatecommand, without being in the least subordinate to the French admiralty board. When he went on board he was only inferior in rank to the admiral.
The privileges which were attached to his situation, and the authority he possessed with regard to every other marine, or sea officer, were specifically mentioned in the king’s regulations, and were distinguished by the respect and compliments that were paid to the royal standard, which this general bore, not only on board his own galley, but whenever he chose to hoist it in another.
During the reign of Louis XIV. in 1669, the Duke de Vivone, marshal of France, raised the reputation of the galley service, to a considerable degree of eminence, by gaining several hard fought engagements. His son the Duke de Mortemart succeeded him in the appointment; and the chevalier d’Orleans, grand prior of France, was general of the gallies at his decease.
Generaldes vivres,Fr.a sort of chief commissary, or superintendant general of stores, whose particular functions were to provide ammunition, bread, and biscuit for the army. There were several subordinate commissaries who watched the distribution of these stores, and saw, that the bakers gave bread of the quality they contracted for. It was likewise within the department of the superintendant general to attend to the collection of grain and flour, and to see that proper carriages and horses were always at hand to convey them to the several depots or magazines. The different camps were also supplied from the same source. SeeMunitionnaire.
Generaland staff officersare all officers as above described, whose authority extends beyond the immediate command of a particular regiment or company, and who have either separate districts at home, or commands on foreign service.
LieutenantGeneral, this office is the first military dignity after that of a general. One part of the functions belonging to lieutenant generals, is to assist the general with counsel: they ought therefore, if possible, to possess the same qualities with the general himself; and the more, as they often command armies in chief, or succeed thereto on the death of the general.
The number of lieutenant generals have been multiplied of late in Europe, in proportion as the armies have become numerous. They serve either in the field, or in sieges, according to the dates of their commissions. In battle the oldest commands the right wing of the army, the second the left wing, the third the centre, the fourth the right wing of the second line, the fifth the left wing, the sixth the centre, and so on. In sieges the lieutenant generals always command the right of the principal attack, and order what they judge proper for the advancement of the siege, during the 24 hours they are in the trenches, except the attacks, which they are not to make without an order from the general in chief. Lieutenant generals are entitled to two aids-de-camp.
LieutenantGeneralof the ordnance. SeeOrdnance.
LieutenantGeneralof artillery, is, or ought to be, a very able mathematician, and a skilful engineer, to know all the powers of artillery, to understand the attack and defence of fortified places, in all its different branches; how to dispose of the artillery in the day of battle to the best advantage; to conduct its march and retreat; as also to be well acquainted with all the numerous apparatus belonging to the train, laboratory, &c.
MajorGeneral, the next officer to the lieutenant general. His chief business is to receive orders from the general, or in his absence from the lieutenant general of the day; which he is to distribute to the brigade-majors, with whom he is to regulate the guards, convoys, detachments, &c. On him the whole fatigue and detail of duty of the army roll. It is the major general of the day who is charged with the encampment of the army, who places himself at the head of it when it marches, who marks out the ground of the camp to the quarter-master-general, and who places the new guards for the safety of the camp.
The day the army is to march, he dictates to the field officers the order of the march, which he has received from the general, and on other days gives them the parole.
In a fixed camp he is charged with the foraging, with reconnoitring the ground for it, posting the escorts, &c.
In sieges, if there are two separate attacks, the second belongs to him; but if there be only one, he takes either from the right or left of the attack, that which the lieutenant general has not chosen.
When the army is under arms, he assists the lieutenant general, whose orders he executes.
If the army marches to an engagement, his post is at the head of the guards of the army, until they are near enough to the enemy to rejoin their different corps; after which he retires to his own proper post; for the major generals are disposed on the order of battle as the lieutenant generals are, to whom however, they are subordinate, for the command of their divisions. The major general has one aid-de-camp and one brigade major.
BrigadierGeneral, is the next rank to that of major general, being superior to all colonels, and having frequently a separate command.
Generalof a district, a general officer who has the charge and superintendance of a certain extent of country, in which troops are encamped, quartered, or cantoned. He is entitled to have three aids-de-camp and one brigade major.
He receives reports, &c. from the major general, respecting the troops in his district; reviews and inspects them, likewise orders field days of the whole, brigaded, or by separate corps, when and in what part he pleases, making the necessary reports to the war-office, commander in chief, &c.
ColonelGeneral, an honorary title, or military rank, which is bestowed in foreign services. Thus theprinceof the peace in Spain was colonel general of the Swiss guards.
Brigade majorGeneral. As England and Scotland have been divided into different districts, each district under the immediate command of a general officer, it has been found necessary, for the dispatch of business, to establish an office, which shall be solely confined to brigade duties. The first brigade major general was appointed in 1797. Since which period all orders relative to corps of officers, which are transmitted from the commander in chief to the generals of districts, pass through this channel of intermediate communication.
By the British regulations, it is particularly directed, that all general officers commanding brigades, shall very minutely inspect the internal œconomy and discipline of the several regiments under their order. They are frequently to visit the hospitals and guards. On arriving in camp they are never to leave their brigades till the tents are pitched, and the guards posted; they must always encamp with their brigades, unless quarters can be procured for them immediately in the vicinity of their camp. General officers must not at any time change the quarters assigned them, without leave from head quarters.
All general officers should make themselves acquainted, as soon as possible, with the situation of the country near the camp, with the roads, passes, bridges, &c. leading to it; and likewise with the out-posts, that in case they should be ordered suddenly to sustain, or defend any post, they may be able to march without waiting for guides, and be competent, from a topographical knowlege of the country, to form the best disposition for the service. They should instruct their aids-de-camp in these particulars, and always require their attendance when they visit the out-posts.
All general officers, and others in considerable command, must make themselves thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the country, the quality of the roads, every circuitous access through vallies or openings, the relative height of the neighboring hills, and the course of rivers, which are to be found within the space entrusted to their care. These important objects may be attained by maps, by acquired local information, and by unremitting activity and observation. And if it should ever be the fate of a country, to act upon the defensive, a full and accurate possession of all its fastnesses, &c. must give each general officer a decided advantage over the commanding officer of an enemy, who cannot have examined the ground upon which he may be reduced to fight, and must be embarrassed in every forward movement that he makes. Although guides may serve, and ought always to be used in the common operations of marches, there are occasions where the eye and intelligence of the principal officers must determine the movements of troops, and enable them to seize and improve every advantage that occurs as the enemy approaches.
General officers on service abroad, or commanding districts at home, may appoint their own aids-de-camp and brigade majors. The latter, however, are to be considered as officers attached to their several brigades, not personally to the officers commanding them. The former are their habitual attendants and domestic inmates. In the selection of aids-de-camp and brigade majors, too much attention cannot be given to their requisite qualifications; and that general would not only commit an act of injustice against the interests of his country, but deserve the severest censure and displeasure of his sovereign, who through motives of private convenience, family connexion, or convivial recommendation, could so far forget his duty, as to prefer an unexperienced stripling, to a character marked by a knowlege of the profession, a zeal for the service, and an irreproachable conduct.
In the day of battle the station of a general is with the reserve, where he remains so situated that he can see every thing which is going forward; and by means of his own observation, or through the communications of his aids-de-camp, is enabled to send reinforcements, as the exigencies of the conflict may require.
The celebrated Marshal Saxe has made the following remarks on the necessary qualifications to form a good general. The most indispensible one, according to his idea, is valor, without which all the rest will prove nugatory. The next is a sound understanding with some genius; for he must not only be courageous, but be extremely fertile in expedients; the third is health and a robust constitution.
“His mind must be capable of prompt and vigorous resources; he must have an aptitude, and a talent at discovering the designs of others, without betraying the slightest trace of his own intentions. He must beseeminglycommunicative, in order to encourage others to unbosom, but remain tenaciously reserved in matters that concern his own army; he must, in a word, possess activity with judgment, be able to make a proper choice of his officers, and never deviate from the strictest line of military justice. Old soldiers must not be rendered wretchedand unhappy, by unwarrantable promotions, nor must extraordinary talents be kept back to the detriment of the service, on account of mere rules and regulations. Great abilities will justify exceptions; but ignorance and inactivity will not make up for years spent in the profession.
“In his deportment he must be affable, and always superior to peevishness, or ill-humor; he must not know, or at least seem to know, what a spirit of resentment is; and when he is under the necessity of inflicting military chastisement, he must see the guilty punished without compromise or foolish humanity; and if the delinquent be from among the number of his most intimate friends, he must be doubly severe towards the unfortunate man. For it is better, in instances of correction, that one individual should be treated with rigor (by orders of the person over whom he may be supposed to hold some influence,) than that an idea should go forth in the army, of public justice being sacrificed to private sentiments.
“A modern general should always have before him the example of Manlius; he must divest himself of personal sensations, and not only be convinced himself, but convince others, that he is the organ of military justice, and that what he does is irrevocably prescribed. With these qualifications, and by this line of conduct, he will secure the affections of his followers, instil into their minds all the impulses of deference and respect; he will be feared, and consequently obeyed.
“The resources of a general’s mind are as various as the occasions for the exercise of them are multiplied and chequered; he must be perfectly master of the art of knowing how to support an army in all circumstances and situations, how to apply its strength, or be sparing of its energy and confidence; how to post all its different component parts, so as not to be forced to give, or receive battle in opposition to settled plans. When once engaged, he must have presence of mind enough to grasp all the relative points of disposition and arrangement, to seize favorable moments for impression, and to be thoroughly conversant in the infinite vicissitudes that occur during the heat of a battle; on a ready possession of which its ultimate success depends. These requisites are unquestionably manifold, and grow out of the diversity of situations, and the chance medley of events that produce their necessity.
“A general to be in perfect possession of them, must on the day of battle be divested of every thought, and be inaccessible to every feeling, but what immediately regards the business of the day; he must reconnoitre with the promptitude of a skilful geographer, whose eye collects instantaneously all the relative portions of locality; and feels his ground as it were by instinct; and in the disposition of his troops, he must discover a perfect knowlege of his profession, and make all his arrangements with accuracy and dispatch. His orders of battle must be simple and unconfused, and the execution of his plan be as quick as if it merely consisted in uttering some few words of command; as,the first line will attack! the second will support it! or such a battalion will advance and support the line.
“The general officers that act under such a general, must be ignorant of their business indeed, if, upon the receipt of these orders, they should be deficient in the immediate means of answering them, by a prompt and ready co-operation. So that the general has only to issue out directions according to the growth of circumstances, and to rest satisfied, that every division will act in conformity to his intentions; but if, on the contrary, he should so far forget his situation as to become a drill serjeant in the heat of action, he must find himself in the case of the fly in the fable, which perched upon a wheel and foolishly imagined, that the motion of the carriage was influenced by its situation. A general, therefore, ought on the day of battle to be thoroughly master of himself, and to have both his mind and his eye rivetted to the immediate scene of action. He will by these means be enabled to see every thing; his judgment will be unembarrassed, and he will instantly discover all the vulnerable points of the enemy. The instant a favorable opening offers, by which the contest may be decided, it becomes his duty to head the nearest body of troops, and, without any regard to personal safety, to advance against his enemy’s line. [By a ready conception of this sort, joined to a great courage, general Desaix determined the issue of the battle of Marengo.] It is, however, impossible for any man to lay down rules, or to specify, with accuracy, all the different ways by which a victory may be obtained. Every thing depends upon variety of situations, casualties of events, and intermediate occurrences which no human foresight can positively ascertain, but which may be converted to good purposes by a quick eye, a ready conception, and a prompt execution.
“Prince Eugene was singularly gifted with these qualifications, particularly with that sublime possession of the mind, which constitutes the essence of a military character.
“Many commanders in chief have been so limited in their ideas of warfare, that when events have brought the contest to issue, and two rival armies have been drawn out for action, their whole attention has devolved upon a straight alignement, an equality of step, or a regular distance in intervals of columns. They have considered it sufficient to give answers to questions proposed by their aids-de-camp, to send orders in variousdirections and to gallop themselves from one quarter to another, without steadily adhering to the fluctuations of the day, or calmly watching for an opportunity to strike a decisive blow. They endeavor, in fact, to do every thing, and thereby do nothing. They appear like men, whose presence of mind deserts them the instant they are taken out of the beaten track, or are reduced to supply unexpected calls by uncommon exertions; and from whence continues the same sensible writer, do these contradictions arise? from an ignorance of these high qualifications without which the mere routine of duty, methodical arrangement, and studied discipline must fall to the ground, and defeat themselves. Many officers spend their whole lives in putting a few regiments through a regular set of manœuvres; and having done so, they vainly imagine, that all the science of a real military man consists in that acquirement. When, in process of time, the command of a large army falls to their lot, they are manifestly lost in the magnitude of the undertaking, and from not knowing how to act as they ought, they remain satisfied with doing what they have partially learned.
“Military knowlege, as far as it regards a general or commander in chief, may be divided into two parts, one comprehending mere discipline and settled systems for putting a certain number of rules into practice; and the other originating a sublimity of conception, that method may assist, but cannot give.
“If a man be not born with faculties that are naturally adapted to the situation of a general, and if his talents do not fit the extraordinary casualties of war, he will never rise beyond mediocrity.
“It is, in fact, in war as it is in painting, or in music. Perfection in either art grows out of innate talents, but it never can be acquired without them. Study and perseverance may correct ideas, but no application, no assiduity will give the life and energy of action; those are the works of nature.
“It has been my fate (observes the Marshal) to see several very excellent colonels become indifferent generals. I have known others, who have distinguished themselves at sieges, and in the different evolutions of an army, lose their presence of mind and appear ignorant of their profession, the instant they were taken from that particular line, and be incapable of commanding a few squadrons of horse. Should a man of this cast be put at the head of an army, he will confine himself to mere dispositions and manœuvres; to them he will look for safety; and if once thwarted, his defeat will be inevitable, because his mind is not capable of other resources.
“In order to obviate in the best possible manner, the innumerable disasters which must arise from the uncertainty of war, and the greater uncertainty of the means that are adopted to carry it on, some general rules ought to be laid down, not only for the government of the troops, but for the instruction of those who have the command of them. The principles to be observed, are: that when the line or the columns advance, their distances should be scrupulously observed; that whenever a body of troops is ordered to charge, every proportion of the line should rush forward with intrepidity and vigor; that if openings are made in the first line it becomes the duty of the second instantly to fill up the chasms.
“These instructions issue from the dictates of plain nature, and do not require the least elucidation in writing. They constitute the A, B, C, of soldiers. Nothing can be more simple, or more intelligible; so much so, that it would be ridiculous in a general to sacrifice essential objects in order to attend to such minutiæ. His functions in the day of battle are confined to those occupations of the mind, by which he is enabled to watch the countenance of the enemy, to observe his movements, and to see with an eagle’s, or a king of Prussia’s eye, all the relative directions that his opponents take. It must be his business to create alarms and suspicions among the enemy’s line in one quarter, whilst his real intention is to act against another; to puzzle and disconcert him in his plans; to take advantage of the manifold openings, which his feints have produced, and when the contest is brought to issue, to be capable of plunging with effect, upon the weakest part, and of carrying the sword of death where its blows is certain of being mortal. But to accomplish these important and indispensible points, his judgment must be clear, his mind collected, his heart firm, and his eyes incapable of being diverted, even for a moment, by the trifling occurrences of the day.
“I am not, however, an advocate for pitched battles, especially at the commencement of a war.A skilful general might, I am persuaded, carry on a contest between two rival nations during the whole of his life, without being once obliged to come to a decisive action.Nothing harrasses and eventually distresses an enemy so much as this species of warfare. He must, in fact, be frequently attacked, and by degrees, be broken and unnerved; so that in a short time he will not be able to shew himself.
“It must not generally be inferred from this opinion, that when an opportunity presents itself, whereby an enemy may be crushed at once, the attack should not be made, or that advantage should not be taken of the errors he may commit; all I mean to prove is, that war can be carried on without leaving any thing to chance; and in this consists the perfection and highest point of ability belongingto a general. But when a battle is risked, the triumphant party ought well to know all the advantages which may be derived from his victory. A wise general, indeed, will not remain satisfied in having made himself master of the mere field of battle. This, I am sorry to observe, is too often the custom; and, strange to say, that custom is not without its advocates.
“It is too much the practice of some governments, and as often the custom of generals, to follow the old proverb, which says,that in order to gain your ends, you must make some sacrifices, and even facilitate the retreat of your enemy. Nothing can be more impolitic or more absurd. An able surgeon might as well tamper with a mortification, and by endeavoring to save an useless limb, run the hazard of destroying all the vital parts.
“An enemy, on the contrary, ought to be vigorously pushed, harrassed night and day, and pursued through every winding he can make. By a conduct of this sort, the advancing army will drive him from all his holds and fastnesses, and the conclusion of his brilliant retreat, will ultimately turn out a complete and total overthrow. Ten thousand well trained and disciplined troops, that are sent forward from the main army, to hang upon the rear of a retiring enemy, will be able to destroy an army of an hundred thousand men, when that army has once been forced to make retrograde movements. A want of confidence in their generals, added to many other disheartening circumstances, will naturally possess the minds of the latter, while implicit faith and warm affection must influence the former. A first defeat well followed up, almost always terminates in a total rout, and finishes the contest. But some generals do not wish to bring war to a speedy issue. Public misfortunes too frequently produce private emoluments, and the accumulation of the latter is too endearing to suffer itself to be superseded by the former.”
In order to substantiate what he thus advances with much good sense, the Marshal cites the following particular instance, from among an infinity of others.
“When the French army, at the battle of Ramillies, was retiring in good order over an eminence that was rather confined, and on both sides of which there were deep ravines, the cavalry belonging to the allies followed its track leisurely, without even appearing to wish to harrass or attack its rear. The French continued their march with the same composure; retreating upon more than twenty lines, on account of the narrowness of the ground.
“On this occasion, a squadron of English horse got close to two French battalions, and began to fire upon them. The two battalions, naturally presuming that they were going to be attacked, came to the right about, and fired a volley at the squadron. What was the consequence? the whole of the French army took to its heels; the cavalry went off full gallop, and all the infantry, instead of patiently retiring over the heights, threw itself into the ravines in such dreadful disorder, that the ground above was almost instantly abandoned, and not a French soldier was seen upon it.
“Let any military man consider this notorious event, and then praise the regularity of a retreat and the prudent foresight of those who, after an enemy has been vanquished in the field, relax in their exertions, and give him time to breathe. I do not, however, pretend to maintain, that all the forces of a victorious army should be employed to follow up the pursuit; but I am decidedly of opinion, that large bodies should be detached for that purpose, and that the flying enemy should be annoyed as long as the day lasts. This must be done in good order. And let it be remembered, that when an enemy has once taken to his heels in real earnest, you may drive him before you by the mere noise of empty bladders.
“If the officer who is detached in pursuit of an enemy, begins to manœuvre after prescribed rules and regulations, and operate with slowness and precaution, he had better be recalled; for the sole purpose of his employment is to push on vigorously, to harrass and distress the foe. Every species of evolution will do on this occasion; if any can be defective, the regular system might prove so.
“I shall conclude these observations by saying, that all retreats depend wholly upon the talents and abilities of generals, who must themselves be governed by circumstances and situations; but I will venture to assert, that no retreat can eventually succeed, unless it be made before an enemy who acts with extreme caution; for if the latter follow up his first blow, the vanquished army must soon be thrown into utter confusion.”
These are the sentiments of Marshal Saxe, as far as they relate to the qualifications which the general of an army should indispensibly possess. And no man we are persuaded was better enabled to form an opinion on so important a subject; for as baron Espagnac has justly observed in hisSupplément aux Rêveries de ce Mar, p. 166, he possessed uncommon courage, was fertile in expedients and resources; he knew how to distinguish and to make use of the abilities of individuals, was unshaken in his determinations; and when the good of the service required chastisement or severity, was not influenced by private feelings, or hurried away by a sanguinary temper; he was uncommonly attentive to his men, watchful of their health, and provident to supply their wants; sparing of their blood in the day of battle, and always inspiring them, by the liveliness of his mind, tempered by experience, with confidence and attachmentto his measures. He knew the cast of each man’s character, particularly so of his officers; and whilst he directed the former with consummate knowlege and consequent success, he never lost sight of the merits of the latter, when they co-operated with his designs. If the natural vivacity of his mind sometimes led him into temporary neglect, good sense and a marked anxiety to be just, soon made amends for apparent slights, by rendering the most important services; he was ingenious and subtle in all his manœuvres before an enemy, skilful in his choice of camps, and equally intelligent in that of posts; he was plain in his instructions previous to an engagement, simple in his disposition of the order of battle; and he was never known to lose an opportunity, through the want of prompt decision, whereby a contest might be ended by a bold and daring evolution. When it appeared necessary to give weight to his orders, and to turn the balance of fortune by personal exposure, no man became less fearful of his own destiny, than Marshal Saxe. On these occasions he was daring to an extreme, heedless of danger, but full of judgment, and a calm presence of mind. Such, in our humble opinion, are the outlines of arealgeneral, how well they were exemplified and filled up by the subject of this article, time and the concurring testimony of events have proved.
General’sGuard. It was customary among the French, for the oldest regiment to give one captain, one lieutenant, one ensign, two serjeants, and fifty privates, as a general’s guard. Whenever the marshals of France were on service under the immediate orders of the king, or of the princes belonging to the royal household, they always retained the rank of general.
Generald’armée,Fr.the commander in chief of any army.
Battre laGeneral,Fr.to beat the general. SeeDrum.
Generalcourt-martial. SeeCourts martial.
Generalformationsof the battalion, are from line into column, and from column into line by echellon; to either flank, to the front, or on a line oblique to any given point front or rear.
General, is also used for a particular beat of the drum. SeeDrum.
GENETTE,Fr.a particular sort of snaffle, which is used among the Turks; it resembles a large ring, and serves to confine the horse’s tongue.
GENIE,Fr.The art of engineering. It consists in a knowlege of lines so as to be able to trace out all that is requisite for the attack or defence of places, according to established rules in fortification. Marshal Vauban and the marquis of Louvois, have particularly distinguished themselves in this art.
GENIUS, in a military sense, a natural talent or disposition to every kind of warlike employment, more than any other; or the aptitude a man has received from nature to perform well, and easily, that which others can do but indifferently, and with a great deal of pains.
From the diversity of genius, the difference of inclination arises in men whom nature has had the precaution of leading to the employment for which she designs them, with more or less impetuosity, in proportion to the greater or lesser number of obstacles they have to surmount, in order to render themselves capable of answering this occasion. Thus the inclinations of men are so very different, because they follow the same mover, that is the impulse of their genius. This is what renders one officer more pleasing, even though he trespasses against the rules of war; while others are disagreeable notwithstanding their strict regularity.
GENOUILLIERE,Fr.the lower part of the embrasure of a battery. The genouilliere is about 2¹⁄₂ or 3 French feet high from the platform to the opening of the embrasure. It lies immediately under the arch of the fortification. Its thickness, which usually consists of fascines well put together, is of the same dimensions that merlons bear; namely from 18 to 22 feet. The termgenouilliereis derived fromgenou, signifying the knee, to the height of which it is generally raised.
GENS,Fr.a word in much desultory use among the French, signifying in a general acceptation of it, folks, people, servants, soldiers, &c.
Gensd’armes. SeeGendarmes.
Gensde guerre,Fr.men attached to a military profession.
MesGens,Fr.an affected phrase, which was formerly used among the French, to signify their servants or attendants. It seems to have been an arrogant and foolish imitation ofmon peuple, mypeople. During the monarchy of France, this term was in much vogue at Paris, and was afterwards adopted by almost all thepetits maitres, or coxcombs belonging to the church, state, and army.
Gensde sac et de corde,Fr.an opprobrious term which the French apply to men that deserve chastisement. In former times, the cord or rope, and the sack, were the common instruments and means of punishment. The ropes served to hang up malefactors: and the sack was used to contain their bodies when it was ordained that they should be thrown into a river.
Gensde mer,Fr.sea-faring men.
Gensde l’équipage,Fr.men belonging to the train of artillery.
Gent.Fr.Nation. It is only used in poetry, viz.La gent, qui porte le Turban. The Turkish Nation. In theplural number it is only accepted according to the following significations.
Le droit desGens,Fr.the rights of nations.
Violer le droit desGens,Fr.to infringe or violate the rights of nations.
Respecter le droit desGens,Fr.to respect the rights of nations.
Un traité du troit desGens,Fr.a treatise on the rights of nations.
The following phrases are in familiar use among the French, viz.
Gensde marque,Fr.men of distinction.
Gensde condition,Fr.men of condition.
Gensd’honneur,Fr.men of honor.
Gensde qualité,Fr.men of fashion, or quality.
Gensde coeur,Fr.men of spirit.
Gensd’epée,Fr.this term is used among the French, to distinguish officers, gentlemen, &c. who wear swords, from those who do not, particularly so in opposition togens de la robe, or lawyers.
Gensde main,Fr.executive characters.
Gensde service,Fr.useful men, persons of exertions.
Gensde pied,Fr.The same asfantassins, foot soldiers, or men who serve on foot.
Gensde cheval,Fr.cavalry, or men who serve on horseback.
MilleGens,cent mille gens,Fr.signifies any considerable number of men.
Gens,Fr.this word is likewise used to distinguish bodies of men that are in opposition to each other, viz.
NosGensont battu les ennemis,Fr.our men, or people have overcome the enemy.
NosGensont été battus,Fr.our men or people have been beaten.
Je craignois que ce ne fussent des ennemis, et c’étoient de nosGens,Fr.I was apprehensive that they were our enemies, but they proved to be our own people.
NosGensbattirent les vôtres,Fr., our men beat your’s.
Gens,Fr.when followed by the prepositionde, and by a substantive, which points out any particular profession, trade, &c. signifies all those persons that belong to one nation, one town, &c. or who are of one specific profession or calling, as
LesGensd’église,Fr.churchmen.
LesGensde robe,Fr.lawyers or gentlemen of the long robe.
LesGensde finance,Fr.men concerned in the distribution of public money.
LesGensde loi,Fr.means generally all persons who have any connection with the law in the way of profession.
LesGensdu roi,Fr.Crown lawyers.
GENTILHOMMESde la garde, commonly calledAu bec de corbin, or the battle axe. This company went through many alterations during the monarchy of France. During the last years of that government, it consisted of 200 guards under the command of a captain, a lieutenant, and an ensign. The captain had the power of giving away the subaltern commissions, and had moreover the entire management of the rest; every vacancy being in his gift. They marched in file, each holding his battle-axe, before the king on days of public ceremony. These were chiefly at the coronation, and the marriage of the king, or at the reception of the knights of the Holy Ghost.
When the company was first raised, its particular duty was to attend the king’s person, and to be constantly near him on the day of battle.
GENTILHOMMEà drapeau établie dans chaque compagnie des gardes Francoises,Fr.under the old French government, this person ranked asofficier en second. He did duty in common with the ensigns of the French guards, and took precedence immediately under them. His name always stood upon the muster roll, but his appointment was purely honorary, as he did not receive any pay; his tour of duty in mounting guards, went with that of the ensigns, he was obliged to be present at all field days, and could not absent himself without leave.
Gentilshommespensionnaires,Fr.Gentlemen pensioners. SeePensioners.
GEODOESIA,GEODESIE,Fr.that part of practical geometry, which contains the doctrine or art of measuring surfaces and finding the contents of all plain figures. Among the Frenchgéodesiemeans likewise the division of lands. SeeSurveying.
GEOGRAPHYis the doctrine or knowledge of the terrestrial globe; or the science that teaches and explains the state of the earth, and parts thereof that depend upon quantity; or it is rather that part of mixed mathematics, which explains the state of the earth, and of its parts depending on quantity, viz. its figure, magnitude, place, and motion, with the celestial appearances, &c. In consequence of this definition, geography should be divided into general and special, or universal and particular.
By universalGeography, is understood that part of the science which considers the whole earth in general, and explains its properties without regard to particular countries. This division is again distinguished into three parts, absolute, relative, and comparative. The absolute part respects the body of the earth itself, its parts and peculiar properties; as its figure, magnitude, and motion; its lands, seas, and rivers, &c. The relative part accounts for the appearances and accidents that happen to it from celestial causes; and lastly, the comparative contains an explanation of those properties which arise from comparing different parts of the earth together.
SpecialorparticularGeographyis that division of the science which describes the constitution and situation of each single country by itself; and is twofold, viz. chorographical, which describes countries of a considerable extent; or topographical, which gives a view of some place, or small tract of land. Hence the object or subject of geography is the earth, especially its superficies and exterior parts.
The properties ofGeographyare of three kinds, viz. celestial, terrestrial, and human. The celestial properties are such as affect us by reason of the apparent motion of the sun and stars. These are 8 in number.
1. The elevation of the pole, or the distance of a place from the equator.
2. The obliquity of the diurnal motion of the stars above the horizon of the place.
3. The time of the longest and shortest day.
4. The climate and zone.
5. Heat, cold, and the seasons of the year; with rain, snow, wind, and other meteors.
6. The rising, appearance, and continuance of stars above the horizon.
7. The stars that pass through the zenith of a place.
8. The celerity of the motion with which, according to the Copernican hypothesis, every place constantly revolves.
The terrestrial properties are those observed in the face of the country, and are 10 in number.
The third kind of observations to be made in every country is called human, because it chiefly regards the inhabitants of the place. It consists of 10 specific branches.
These are the three kinds of occurrences to be explained in special geography.
The principles ofGeography, or those from which arguments are drawn for the proving of propositions in that science, are, according to the best authors, of three sorts.
1. Geometrical, arithmetical, and trigonometrical propositions.
2. Astronomical precepts and theorems.
3. Experience, being that upon which the greatest part of geography, and chiefly the special is founded.
In proving geographical propositions, we are to observe, that several properties, and chiefly the celestial, are confirmed by proper demonstrations; being either grounded on experience and observation, or on the testimony of our senses: nor can they be proved by any other means. There are also several propositions proved, or rather exposed to view, by the terrestrial globe, or by geographical maps.
Other propositions cannot be so well proved, yet are received as apparent truths. Thus, though we suppose all places on the globe, and in maps, to be laid down in the same order as they are really on the earth; nevertheless, in these matters, we rather follow the descriptions that are given by geographical writers.
Geographyis very ancient, at least the special part thereof; for the ancients scarce went beyond the description of countries. It was a constant custom among the Romans, after they had conquered or subdued any province, to have a map or printed representation thereof, carried in triumph and exposed to the view of the spectators. Historians relate that the Roman senate, about 100 years before Christ, sent geographers into divers parts to make an exact survey and mensuration of the whole globe; but they scarcely ever saw the 20th part of it.
Before them, Necho, king of Egypt, ordered the Phœnicians to make a survey of the whole coast of Africa, which they accomplished in 3 years. Darius procured the Ethiopic sea, and the mouth of the Indus, to be surveyed; and Pliny relates, that Alexander, in his expedition into Asia, took two geographers to measure and describe the roads; and that from their itineraries, the writers of the following ages took many particulars. Indeed this may be observed, that whereas most other arts and sciences are sufferers by war, geography, artillery, mining, andfortification, alone have been improved thereby. Geography, however, must have been exceedingly defective, as a great part of the globe was then unknown, particularly all America, the northern parts of Europe and Asia, with the Australasia, and Magellanica; and they were also ignorant of the earth’s being capable to be sailed round, and of the torrid zone being habitable, &c.
The honor of reducing geography to art and system, was reserved for Ptolemy; who, by adding mathematical advantages to the historical method in which it had been treated of before, has described the world in a much more intelligible manner: he has delineated it under more certain rules, and by fixing the bounds of places from longitude and latitude, has discovered other mistakes, and has left us a method of discovering his own.
GEOLIERdes prisons militaires,Fr.the superintendant or head jailor of military prisons. Under the old French government, this person had a right to visit all prisoners that were not confined in dungeons. He could order provisions, wood, and coal to be conveyed to them; but he had not the power of permitting women to visit or have any intercourse with the soldiers; and when their period of imprisonment expired, he could not detain them on account of debts contracted for food, lodging, or fees, &c. Half of the prisoner’s subsistence for one day, according to his rank, was given on his release.
GEOMETRICALelevations, just dimensions of ascent proportionate to a given scale, &c. SeeOrthography.
GEOMETRIE,Fr.Geometry.
Geometriecomposée,Fr.compound geometry, which consists in the knowlege of curved lines, and of the different bodies produced by them. The immediate object or intent of compound geometry is confined to conic sections, and to lines of that species.
Geometriesublime et transcendante,Fr.these terms have been applied by the French to the new system of geometry, which was produced by Leibnitz, and Newton, when they found out the method of calculatingad infinitum.
GEOMETRY, originally signified no more than the art of measuring the earth, or any distance or dimensions in it; but at present it denotes the science of magnitude in general; comprehending the doctrine and relations of whatever is susceptible of augmentation or diminution, considered in that light. Hence, to geometry may be referred the consideration not only of lines, surfaces, and solids; but also of time, velocity, number, weight, &c.
Plato thought the word geometry an improper name for this science, and accordingly substituted in its place the more extensive one of mensuration; and after him, others gave it the name of pantometry, as demonstrating not only the quantities of all manner of magnitudes, but also their qualities, ratios, positions, transformations, relations, &c. and Proclus calls it the knowlege of magnitudes and figures, and their limitations; also of their motions and affections of every kind.
Origin and progress ofGeometry. This science had its rise in Asia, the invention, which at first consisted only in measuring the lands, that every person might have what belonged to him, was called geometry, or the art of measuring land; and it is probable, that the draughts and schemes which they were annually compelled to make, helped them to discover many excellent properties of these figures; which speculation has continued gradually to improve to this day.
From Asia it passed into Egypt, and thence into Greece, where it continued to receive improvement from Thales, Pythagoras, Archimedes, Euclid, &c. The elements of geometry, written by Euclid in 15 books, are a most convincing proof to what perfection this science was carried among the ancients. However, it must be acknowleged, that it fell short of modern geometry, the bounds of which, by the inventions of fluxions, and the discovery of the almost infinite order of curves are greatly enlarged.
Division ofGeometry. This science is usually distinguished into elementary, and higher or sublime geometry. The first, or elementary geometry, treats of the properties of right lines, and of the circle, together with the figures and solids formed by them. The doctrine of lines comes first, then that of surfaces, and lastly that of solids. The higher geometry comprehends the doctrine of conic sections, and numerous other curves.
Speculative and practicalGeometry. The former treats of the properties of lines and figures, as Euclid’s Elements, Apollonius’s Conic Sections, &c. and the latter shews how to apply these speculations to the use of mensuration, navigation, surveying, taking heights and distances, gauging, fortification, gunnery, &c.
Usefulness ofGeometry. Its usefulness extends to almost every art and science. By the help of it, astronomers turn their observations to advantage: regulate the duration of times, seasons, years, cycles, and epochs; and measure the distance, motion, and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies. By it geographers determine the figure and magnitude of the whole earth; and delineate the extent and bearings of kingdoms, provinces, harbors, &c. It is from this science also that architects derive their just measure and construction of public edifices, as well as of private houses.
It is by the assistance of geometry that engineers conduct all their works, takethe situation and plans of towns, the distances of places, and the measure of such things as are only accessible to the sight. It is not only an introduction to fortification, but highly necessary to mechanics. On geometry likewise depends the theory of gunnery, mining, music, optics, perspective, drawing, mechanics, hydraulics, pneumatics, &c.
We may distinguish the progress of geometry into three ages; the first of which was in its meridian glory at the time when Euclid’s Elements appeared; the second beginning with Archimedes, reaches to the time of Descartes; who by applying algebra to the elements of geometry, gave a new turn to this science, which has been carried to its utmost perfection by our learned countryman Sir Isaac Newton, and by the German philosopher Leibnitz.
GEORGE,or knight of St. George, has been the denomination of several military orders. SeeGarter.
GERBE,Fr.means literally a sheaf, but it here signifies a sort of artificial firework, which is placed in a perpendicular manner, and resembles a sheaf. SeeJetsde feu.