Kind.Weight.Diam-eter.Powdercon-tainedin Shells.Powderforbursting.DiameterofFuze Hole.Thick-nessofMetal.Out-side.In-side.Ct.qr.lbs.oz.Inches.lbs.oz.lbs.oz.Inches.Inches.Inches.13inch.13212³⁄₄1046121·8371·6962·0510——399³⁄₄452101·571·451·5758——111¹⁄₂7³⁄₄2121141·2191·1271·25¹⁄₂——15¹⁄₄5¹⁄₄1120·894·8260·8224²⁄₅——84¹⁄₅750·832·7690·653H. Gren.-3113·4911132·77
To find the weight of a shell of iron.
Take ⁹⁄₆₄ of the difference of the cubes of the external and internal diameters for the weight of the shell.
To find how much powder will fill a shell.
Divide the cube of the internal diameter of the shell in inches by 57·3, for the pounds of powder.
To find the size of a shell to contain a given weight of powder.
Multiply the pounds of powder by 3.75, and the cube root of the product will be the diameter in inches.
To find the weight of aShell.Rule.
Double the difference of diameters of the shell and hollow sphere, and 7 times the result gives the weight in pounds, cutting off the two right hand figures of whole numbers.
Example.Let the diameter of the shell be 13 inches, and that of the hollow sphere 9·5. Then the cube of 13 is 2197, and that of 9·5, is 857·357; the difference is 1339·625, its double is 2679·25, which multiplied by 7, gives 18754·625; and cutting off two places in whole numbers, the result is 187 lb. or 1 cwt. 2 qrs. 21 lb. the weight of the shell.
French Shells, in French weights and measures.
Dimensions of shells for guns and carronades made with an equal thickness of metal.
Shells are likewise sometimes quilted into grape. See the wordShot.
For the method of proving shells, seeProof.
The Germans do not name their shells from the diameter of the bore which receives them, but from the weight of a stone ball that fits the same bore as the shell. Thus, a 7lb. howitzer admits a stone ball of that weight; the shell for this weighs 15 lb. and answers to the English 5¹⁄₂ inch. The 30 lb. howitzer shell weighs 60 lb. and is rather more than 8 inches in diameter.
Shells were, till lately, made thicker at the bottom than at the fuze hole; but are now cast of the same thickness throughout, and are found to burst into a greater number of pieces in consequence.
Message-Shells, are nothing more than howitz shells, in the inside of which a letter, or other papers, are put; the fuze hole is stopt up with wood or cork, and the shells are fired out of a royal or howitz, either into a garrison or camp. It is supposed that the person to whom the letter is sent, knows the time, and accordingly appoints a guard to look out for its arrival.
Shell.A particular part of a sword, which serves as a shield to the hand when it grasps the hilt. The British regulation sword, which is directed to be worn in a cross belt, has its shell so constructed that one side can fall down, by which means the hilt hangs more conveniently.
Shell.A short jacket without arms, which was worn by light dragoons, and in some instances by the infantry, before the new regulations took place, respecting the clothing of the British army. At the commencement of the present war, some militia colonels derived no inconsiderable emolument from this mode of dress.
SHERISCHER-war,Ind.A word which corresponds with Saturday.
SHERISTA,Ind.An office; a registry; serishtadar, a linguist or secretary.
ToSHIFT. In a military sense, to change place or station. Hence, to shift quarters. In the exercise, &c. of a battalion, officers commanding divisions are, upon particular occasions, such as marching past, &c. to shift from the right to the left, to conduct the heads of files, or the pivot flanks, in column or echellon. Whenever officers shift, they must pass briskly by the rear, and never along the front of the division. The covering serjeants always move with them.
TheSHILLINGS. A phrase in familiar use among British army brokers, to express a certain profit or per centage which they gain in the sale, purchase, and exchange of commissions. The regulated price of a company in any regiment of foot being 1500l.only, that sum can be lodged at an agent’s, or a banker’s; but if the company be what is called in the market, the broker who transacts the business, receives one shilling in the pound, and in order to produce this premium, the purchaser gives 1500 guineas, out of which the shillings amounting to 75l.are paid to the broker, leaving the nett regulation untouched.
Head-quarterSHIP. The ship on which the commander in chief of an expedition is embarked, and from which signals are made for the commanding officers, adjutants, &c. of corps, to attend.
HospitalSHIP. The ship in which the sick and wounded soldiers, &c. are taken care of on expeditions, and during sea voyages.
PrisonSHIP. A ship appropriated for the reception of prisoners of war, &c.
SHOCCA,Ind.Any letter written by the king.
SNOOKREWAR,Ind.A word which corresponds with Friday.
SHOOTING. SeeGunneryandProjectile.
SHORTENyour bridle. A word of command used in cavalry, viz.
1st. Seize the upper end of the reins of the bridle, which is to lie on the right side of the horse, with the right hand.
2d. Bring it up as high as your chin, keeping your right elbow on a level with the shoulder.
3d. Slip your left hand along the reins of the bridle, and take hold of the loop or button, which is near the upper end of the reins.
4th. Slip the loop down with the left hand as low as the pommel of the saddle.
5th. Bring the right hand down with life on the right holster-cap, quitting the reins of the bridle with both hands.
SHORT-roll. SeeSignals.
SHOT. A denomination given to all kinds of balls used for artillery and fire-arms; those for cannon being of iron, and those for guns and pistols, &c. of lead.
Grape-ChainCase
Shot. SeeLaboratory.
To find the weight of an iron Shotwhose diameter is given; and the contrary.Rule.Double the cube of the diameter in inches, and multiply it by 7; so will the product (rejecting the 2 last or right hand figures) be the weight in pounds.
Example.What is the weight of an iron shot of 7 inches diameter. The cube of 7 is 343, which doubled is 686, and this multiplied by 7 produces 4802, which with the right hand figures rejected, gives 48 pounds, the weight required.
N. B. This rule is sufficiently exact for practical uses.
To find the diameter of the Shot, when the weight is given.Rule.Multiply the cube root of the weight in pounds by 1.923, and the product is the diameter in inches.
Example.What is the diameter of an iron shot of 52 pounds? The cube root of 52 is 3.732, which multiplied by 1.923 gives 7.177 inches, the diameter required.
Rule by logarithms.
To find the diameter of aShot, from the impression or cavity it makes by striking a brass gun, or other object.Rule.Divide the square of the radius of the cavity by the depth of it, and add the quotient to the depth; so will the sum be the diameter of the shot required.
Example.A shot having struck upon a brass gun, made a cavity of 1.49 inches deep, and 4.94 inches diameter; what was the size of the shot? The radius of the cavity is 2.47, and its square is 6.1009, which divided by the depth 1.49, the quotient is 4.1, to which adding 1.49, the sum 5.59 inches is the diameter required, answering to a 24 pounder.
Shot.—Rules for finding the number in any pile.
Triangular pile.
Multiply the base by the base + 1, this product by the base + 2, and divide by 6.
Square pile.
Multiply the bottom row by the bottom row + 1, and this product by twice the bottom row + 2, and divide by 6.
Rectangular piles.
Multiply the breadth of the base by itself + 1, and this product by 3 times the difference between the length and breadth of the base, added to twice the breadth + 1, and divide by 6.
Incomplete piles.
Incomplete piles being only frustrums, wanting a similar small pile on the top, compute first the whole pile as if complete, and also the small pile wanting at top; and then subtract the one number from the other.
Rules for finding the dimensions and weight of shot.
The weight and dimensions of shot or shells might be found by means of their specific gravities; (see the wordGravity,) but they may be found still easier, by means of the experimented weight of a ball of a given size, from the known proportion of similar figures, namely, as the cubes of their diameters.
1st.To find the weight of an iron ball from its diameter.—An iron ball of 4 inches diameter weighs 9 lb. and the weights being as the cubes of their diameters, it will be as 64, (the cube of 4,) is to 9, so is the cube of the diameter of any other ball to its weight.
2d.To find the weight of a leaden ball.A leaden ball of 4¹⁄₄ inches diameter weighs 17 lb. therefore, as the cube of 4¹⁄₄ is to 17, (as 9 to 2 nearly,) so is the cube of the diameter of any leaden ball to its weight.
3d.To find the diameter of an iron ball.Multiply the weight by 7¹⁄₉ and the cube root of the product will be the diameter.
4th.To find the diameter of a leaden ball.Multiply the weight by 9, and divide the product by 2; and take the cube root of the quotient for the diameter.
Table of diameters of English iron round shot.Kind6842322418129631Inches8·6·6846·1055·5475·0404·4034·0003·4982·7751·92Diameter of French iron round shot in English inches.Kind3624161284Inches6·6485·8085·0744·6104·0273·196
Table of diameters of English iron round shot.
Diameter of French iron round shot in English inches.
Table of grape shot, for sea and land service.
Table of English case shot for different services.
Table of case shot.—Continued.
Small shells, as 4²⁄₅ inches, and hand grenades were quilted into grape for 13 inch mortars at Gibraltar. The fuzes were turned inwards next the iron tompion, and leaders of quick match for communicating fire to the fuzes were introduced through holes made in the wooden bottom, and placed as near the fuzes as possible in the centre of the grape. These answered very well for short ranges.
Hot Shot.—The powder for firing with hot shot must be in strong flannel cartridges, without any holes, lest some grains should remain in the bore, in putting the cartridge home. Over the powder must be rammed a good dry wad, then a damp one, and then the hot shot; and if the gun lays at a depression, there must be a wad over the shot, which may be rammed home. If the above precautions be attendedto, the gun may be pointed after being loaded, without the smallest danger, as it is well known that the shot will grow cold in the gun, without burning more than a few threads of the wads next it. This is not the mode usually taught of loading with hot shot, but is that which was practised during the siege of Gibraltar. Mr. Durtubie proposes putting the shot when heated, into a tin cannister, as an effectual method of preventing accidents.
The grates usually made for heating shot will generally make them red hot in three-fourths of an hour.
SHOULDER. The upper part of the blade of a sword is so called. The shoulders of regimental sword-blades, for the infantry, should be one inch broad at least.
Shoulderof a bastion. In fortification. SeeEpaule.
Shoulder-belt, so called because it hangs over the shoulder, to carry the bayonet or sword: it is made of strong leather.
ToSHOULDER. In a military sense; to lay on the shoulder, or to rest any thing against it. Hence to shoulder a musquet.
Shoulderarms. A word of command which is used in the manual exercise. SeeManual.
RightShouldersforward.-LeftShouldersforward.
Two terms of command in the British service, when a column of march (in order to follow the windings of its route) changes its direction in general, less than the quarter of the circle. This is a clumsy translation of theline of science, or oblique facing of the French system; the proper word of command ishalforquarter faceto the right or left.
SHROF,Ind.A banker; a moneychanger, or one who keeps a shop for the accommodation of the public in pecuniary matters, and who derives considerable advantage from the circulating medium of other people’s property.
SHROFFING,Ind.The act of examining and sorting money.
SHUMSERTREEPUT,Ind.Avowal, acknowlegement, confession.
ToSHUT. To close; to make not open.
SHUTpans. A word of command used in the inspection of arms. Place the inside of your fingers against the back part of the hammer, and bring it briskly to in one motion. In opening pans, you place the thumb against the inside of the hammer.
SHUTERNAUL,Ind.A sort of arquebuss, which is fixed upon the back of a camel.
SICKandhurt. A board so called, to which the agents, commissaries, &c. belonging to the several military hospitals in Great Britain, are responsible.
SIDE-pieces, ofgun-carriages. SeeCarriages.
Side-straps, in afield carriage, are flat iron bands which go round the side-pieces, in those places where the wood is cut across the grain, to strengthen them near the centre and the trail.
SIEGE, (Siege,Fr.) The position which an army takes, or its encampment before a fortified town, or place, for the purpose of reducing it. The term comes fromsiege, which signifies seat, chair, &c. Hence; to sit down before a place, signifies in a military sense, to chuse a position from which you may commence the necessary operations to attack and get possession of it. The French use the word generally as we do.
To undertake theSiegeof a town.Entreprendre le siege d’une Ville.To invest it, to form lines of circumvallation, to open trenches, &c.
To laySiegeto a town, (faire le siége d’une ville,Fr.) To draw your forces round a town, for the purpose of attacking it.
To carry on aSiege, (continuer un siége,Fr.) To persevere by regular approaches, &c. in gaining ground upon the garrison.
To lay closeSiege, (presser le siége,Fr.) To approach close to the walls for the purpose of making a breach and storming, or of starving out the garrison. For a full and scientific explanation of the different methods, which are adapted in modern times, for the attack or defence of places, particularly of sieges, seeEssai General de Fortification, d’attaque et defense de places, tom. 1, page 61, &c. &c.
Siegebrusque,Fr.An expression used among the French, to signify the prompt and immediate movement of a besieging army, against a fortified town or place, without waiting for the regular formation of lines, &c. In this case the troops make a vigorous attack upon all the outworks, and endeavour to make a lodgment upon the counterscarp. When they have succeeded, they instantly throw up temporary lines, &c. behind them, in order to secure a retreat, should the garrison force them to quit their ground.
SIEGE, in theart of war, is to surround a fortified place with an army, and approach it by passages made in the ground, so as to be covered against the fire of the place.
The first operation of asiegeis investing. The body of troops investing a town should, at least, be as strong again as the garrison: so as to be able to divide itself into several parties, in order to take possession of all the avenues leading to the place. By day they should keep themselves out of cannon shot: but as soon as it is dusk they must approach much nearer, the better to be able to support each other, and to straiten the town.
General phrases and terms used at aSiegeare,viz.
To besiege a place.SeeSiege.
To accelerate theSiege, (Presser le Siege,Fr.) is when an army can approach so near the place as the covert-way, without breaking ground, under favor of some hollow roads, rising grounds, or cavities, and there begin their work.
An attack, is when the besieging army can approach the town so near as to take it, without making any considerable works.
To form theSiege,or lay siege to a place, (Mettre le Siege à une place,Fr.) there must be an army sufficient to furnish five or six reliefs for the trenches, pioneers, guards, convoys, escorts, &c. and artillery, with all the apparatus thereto belonging; magazines furnished with a sufficient quantity of all kinds of warlike stores; and a general hospital, with physicians, surgeons, medicines, &c.
To raise aSiege, (Lever le Siege,Fr.) is to give over the attack of a place, quit the works thrown up against it, and the posts formed about it. If there be no reason to fear a sally from the place, thesiegemay be raised in the day-time. The artillery and ammunition must have a strong rear guard, lest the besieged should attempt to charge the rear: if there be any fear of an enemy in front, this order must be altered discretionally, as safety and the nature of the country will admit.
To turn aSiegeinto a blockade, (Convertir le Siege en blocus,Fr.) is to give over the attack, and endeavor to take it by famine; for which purpose all the avenues, gates, and streams, leading into the place, are so well guarded, that no succor can get in to its relief.
To insult a work, to attack it in a sudden and unexpected manner, with small arms, or sword in hand.
Surprise, is the taking a place by stratagem or treason.
To escalade a place, is to approach it secretly, then to place ladders against the wall, or rampart, for the troops to mount and get into it that way.
To petard a place, is privately to approach the gate and fix a petard to it, so as to break it open for the troops to enter.
Line of circumvallation, is a kind of fortification, consisting of a parapet, or breast-work, and a ditch before it, to cover the besiegers against any attempt of the enemy in the field.
Line of countervallation, is a breast-work, with a ditch before it, to cover the besiegers against any sally from the garrison, in the same manner that the line of circumvallation serves to protect them in the field.
Lines, are works made to cover an army, so as to command a part of the country, with a breast-work and a ditch before it.
Retrenchment, a work made round the camp of an army, to cover it against any surprise.
Line of counter-approach, a trench which the besieged make from the covert-way to the right and left of the besiegers attacks, in order to scour their works. This line must be perfectly enfiladed from the covert-way and the half-moon, &c. that it may be of no service to the enemy, in case he gets possession of it.
Batteriesat asiege, cannot be erected till the trench is advanced within reach of the cannon of the place; that is, within what is generally understood to be a point-blank range, which is reckoned about 300 toises, or 1800 feet.
Cannonis made use of at asiegefor two different purposes; the first to drive away the enemy from their defences; and the second, to dismount their guns. To produce these two effects, the batteries should not be above the mean reach of cannon-shot from the place: therefore there is no possibility of constructing them, till the first parallel is formed; and as the distance of the first parallel from the second is generally 300 toises, the batteries must be on this line, or beyond it, nearer the town.
The construction of batteries belongs to the officers of the royal artillery, who generally consult with the engineer that has the direction of the siege, as well about their situation as about the number of their guns and mortars. They must be parallel to the works of the town which they are to batter. It is customary to place the mortar-batteries and gun-batteries side by side, and in the same line, to the end that they may batter the same parts. The use of both is to demolish the enemy’s works, to dismount their guns, to penetrate into their powder magazines, and to drive the besieged from their works and defences; as also to ruin and destroy the principal buildings, by setting fire to the town; and to fatigue and distress the inhabitants in such a manner, that they shall press the garrison to surrender.
To sally at a siege, is to go privately out of a besieged town, fall suddenly upon the besiegers, and destroy part of their works, spike their cannon, and do every other possible damage.
A sally, a secret movement which is made out of a besieged town or place, by a chosen body of troops, for the purpose of destroying an enemy’s out-works, &c. Sallies are seldom made when the garrison is weak; for although they molest the enemy, and keep him on the alert, yet the chance of losing men renders it prudent to keep within the works.
Sapsin asiege, are trenches made under cover from the fire of the place, behind a mantlet or stuffed gabion: they are generally ten or twelve feet broad.—This work differs from the trenches, in as much as the latter are made uncovered. The sap has also less breadth; but when it is as wide as the trench, it bears the same name. There are various sorts of saps, viz.
Single sap, is that which is made onone side only, or, which is the same thing, has only one parapet.
Double Sap, has a parapet on each side, and is carried on wherever its two sides are seen from the place.
Flying sap, is that in which the besiegers do not give themselves the trouble of filling the gabions with earth: it is made where the workmen are not much exposed, and in order to accelerate the approaches.
Sap-faggots, are a kind of fascines, but only three feet long, and about six inches in diameter.
Saucissons, are another species of fascines, from 12 to 19 feet long, and from 8 to 10 inches in diameter, and are used in making batteries, and repairing the breaches.
Sortie.SeeSally.
Tail, orrear of the trench, (Queue de la tranche,Fr.) is the first work the besiegers make when they open the trenches.
Tambour, is a kind of traverse, at the upper end of the trench or opening made in the glacis to communicate with the arrows. This work hinders the besiegers from being masters of the arrow, or discovering the inside of the place of arms belonging to the covert-way.
Traverse, in asiege, a kind of retrenchment which is made in the dry ditch, to defend the passage over it.
Trenches, are passages or turnings dug in the earth, in order to approach a place without being seen from its defences.
Wool-packs, used in asiege, differ from sand-bags, in this only, that they are much larger, and, instead of earth, they are filled with wool. They are used in making lodgments in places where there is but little earth, and for other similar purposes. They are about five feet high, and 15 inches in diameter.
Rear of an attack, is the place where the attack begins.
Front, or head of an attack, that part next to the place.
Mantlets, are wooden fences, rolling upon wheels, of two feet diameter; the body of the axle-tree is about four or five inches square, and four or five feet long; to which is fixed a pole of eight or ten feet long, by two spars; upon the axle-tree is fixed a wooden parapet, three feet high made of three-inch planks, and four feet long, joined with dowel-pins, and two cross-bars: this parapet leans somewhat towards the pole, and is supported by a brace, one end of which is fixed to the pole, and the other to the upper part of the parapet. Mantlets are used to cover the sappers in front against musquet shot.
Maxims inSiegesare, 1st. The approaches should be made without being seen from the town, either directly, obliquely, or in the flank.
2. No more works should be made than are necessary for approaching the place without being seen;i. e.the besiegers should carry on their approaches the shortest way possible, consistent with being covered against the enemy’s fire.
3. All the parts of the trenches should mutually support each other; and those which are farthest advanced, should be distant from those that defend them above 120 or 130 toises, that is, within musquet shot.
4. The parallels, or places of arms the most distant from the town, should have a greater extent than those which are the nearest, that the besiegers may be able to take the enemy in flank, should he resolve to attack the nearest parallels.
5. The trench should be opened or begun as near as possible to the place, without exposing the troops too much, in order to accelerate and diminish the operations of the siege.
6. Care should be taken to join the attacks; that is, they should have communications, to the end that they may be able to support each other.
7. Never to advance a work, unless it be well supported; and for this reason, in the interval between the 2d and 3d place of arms, the besiegers should make, on both sides of the trenches, smaller places of arms, extending 40 or 50 toises in length, parallel to the others, and constructed in the same manner, which will serve to lodge the soldiers in, who are to protect the works designed to reach the third place of arms.
8. Take care to place the batteries of cannon in the continuation of the faces of the parts attacked, in order to silence their fire; and to the end that the approaches, being protected, may advance with great safety and expedition.
9. For this reason the besiegers shall always embrace the whole front attacked, in order to have as much space as is requisite to place the batteries on the produced faces of the works attacked.
10. Do not begin the attack with works that lie close to one another, or with rentrant angles, which would expose the attack to the cross fire of the enemy.
Stores required for a month’sSiegeare as follows:
Several hand-jacks, gins, sling-carts, travelling forges, and other engines proper to raise and carry heavy burdens; spare timber, and all sorts of miner’s tools, mantlets, stuffed gabions, fascines, pickets, and gabions.
SIENS,Fr.The plural of sien,his,her’sorone’sown. This word is used among the French, to signify the same asgens, men, people, soldiers; viz.ce général fut abandonné par les siens. That general was abandoned by his own soldiers.
SIEVE, an instrument, which by means of hair, lawn, or wire, is capable of separating the fine from the coarse parts of any powder. SeeGunpowder,Laboratory, &c.
SIFFLEMENT,Fr.Literally means the noise of a whistle. It is used to express the sound which a ball or bullet makes when it cuts the air; assifflement des armes à feu. The whistling or whizzing noise of fire arms.
SIESorSHIAS,Ind.A tribe of people in the N. West of India.
SIFFLET,Fr.A whistle. The French make use of the whistle on board their ships in the same manner as we do. It answers the same purpose at sea, that the drum and trumpet do on shore. The boatswain’s whistle pipes all hands up, as occasion requires in a ship: and the drum and trumpet collect troops together, in camp, garrison, or elsewhere.
SIG, an old Saxon word, importing victory.
SIGHT, (La Mire,Fr.) a small piece of brass or iron which is fixed near to the muzzle of a musquet or pistol, to serve as a point of direction, and to assist the eye in levelling.
SIGN, a sensible mark or character, denoting something absent or invisible. As the trace of a foot, the hand-writing or mark of a man; also the subscription of one’s name.
SignManual. The king’s signature is so called. All commissions in the regular army of Great Britain, army warrants, &c. bear the sign manual. The appointments of officers in the volunteers have been so distinguished during the present war. Adjutants only in the militia have their commissions signed by the king; those of the field officers, captains, and subalterns, &c. are signed by the lords lieutenants of counties, or by their deputies for the time being, sanctioned by a previous intimation from the secretary of state, that the king does not disapprove of the names which have been laid before him.
SIGNAL, (Signal,Fr.) Any sign made by sea or land, for sailing, marching, fighting, &c. Signals are likewise given by the short and long rolls of the drum, during the exercise of a battalion.
SIGNAL, in theart of war, a certain sign agreed upon for the conveying intelligence, where the voice cannot reach.Signalsare frequently given for the beginning of a battle, or an attack, usually with drums and trumpets, and sometimes with sky-rockets, &c.
Signalof attack or assault,(Signal d’une attaque, ou d’un assaut,Fr.) This signal may be given in various ways. By the discharge of a lighted shell, by sky-rockets, by colors displayed from a conspicuous spot, &c. In 1747 marshal Lowendal made use of lighted shells or bombs, when he laid siege to the town of Bergen-op-zoom. During the consternation of the inhabitants, which was excited by a continual discharge of these signal shells, the grenadiers entered a practicable breach, and took the town by storm.
Signal-flagsinancient military history, was a gilded shield hung out of the admiral’s gallery; it was sometimes a red garment or banner. During the elevation of this the fight continues, and by its depression or inclination towards the right or left, the rest of the ships were directed how to attack their enemies, or retreat from them.
Signalsmade by the colors of an army, (Signaux des enseignes,Fr.) The ancients had recourse to all the various methods which could be used by signals, to express the particular situation of affairs, and to indicate measures that should be adopted. If, during an engagement, victory seemed inclined more to one side than another, the colors belonging to the victorious party were instantly bent towards its yielding antagonist. This signal was conspicuous to the men, and excited them to fresh efforts. They imbibed the most lively hopes of success, and eagerly pressed forward to reap the advantages of bravery and good conduct.
When an army was hard pressed by its enemy, the colors of the former were raised high in the air, and were kept in a perpetual flutter and agitation, for the purpose of conveying to the soldiers, that the issue of the battle was still doubtful, and that nothing but courage and perseverance could determine the victory. If, in the heat of action, any particular regiment seemed to waver and give way, so as to cause an apprehension that it might finally be broken, its colors were instantly snatched out of the bearer’s hands by the general or commanding officer, and thrown into the thickest of the enemy. It frequently happened that the men who were upon the point of yielding ground and flying, received a fresh impulse from this act, rallied, and by a desperate effort of courage recovered the colors, and restored the day. This method of re-animating their legions was generally resorted to by the Romans. We have had instances inmodern times, where the fortune of the day has been wholly decided by some sudden and unexpected act of an individual. In the reign of Louis XIV. a private soldier threw his hat into the midst of the enemy during a hard fought and doubtful battle, expressing thereby that fresh succours were arrived to strengthen the French army. This circumstance, so apparently trifling, produced the desired effect. It threw the enemy into confusion, gave the French fresh spirits, and finally determined the victory in their favor. We read of various instances in which signals have been used to express the personal danger of a king or general, who was fighting at the head of a select body of men. The knowlege of the critical position in which their leader stood, excited fresh courage in the rest of the troops, and drove them to acts of the greatest intrepidity. In the course of the present war some examples of the same sort might be adduced, both on the side of Austria, and on that of France. The bridge of Lodi, the passage of the Tagliamento, &c. would illustrate any observations we could make upon the subject.
Nor are the advantages which arise from the use of signals confined to these particular cases. Various circumstances grow out of the desultory nature of military operations, to render flags of communication indispensibly necessary. The vast scope which is given to modern tactics, makes it impossible that the human eye or voice should take in all the critical manœuvres or evolutions which occur, when an extended line is actually engaged. The right wing may be giving way while the left is gaining ground, and the centre might be in danger while the two flanks were rapidly advancing with apparent security against the enemy. Under these circumstances a general, by means of communicating signals, might be enabled to provide for every contingency, without losing time by sending his orders verbally. Although signal flags, in modern engagements, have been generally laid aside, their use has been acknowleged in the adoption of warlike instruments, which, by the variety of their sounds, convey the necessary directions to an engaging army.
The ancients had signals which they calledmute signals, (signaux muets.) These consisted in certain actions or signs that were made by a general; such as waving the hand, brandishing a stick or sword, or by exhibiting to view any part of his dress, accoutrements, &c. Instances of the same kind have occurred among the moderns. Under this denomination may likewise be classed the different signals which are made for the movement, marching, and manœuvring of troops in and out of quarters. When troops are scattered or separated from one another, it is usual to communicate by means of fires lighted upon eminences during the night, and by smoke during the day.
In former times large pieces of wood were hung above the towers of cities or castles, which, by being drawn up or lowered, gave intelligence of what passed. This method has been succeeded by the invention of telegraphs, which answer every purpose of communication, when they can be established through an extent of country. At the battle of Fleurus, the French employed balloons, to which cords were attached, able officers elevated in the air sent down, by the cords, an account of the movements of the Austrians, a signal thus conveyed enabled Jourdan to direct a tremendous battalion fire, and a heavy charge of cavalry, by which the battle was decided. Besides those signals, there are others which may be calledvocalanddemi-vocal. The vocal signals are those of the human voice, which consist in the necessary precautions that are adopted to prevent a guard or post from being surprised, to enounce words of command in action, &c. Of the first description are paroles and countersigns, which are exchanged between those to whom they are intrusted, and which are frequently altered, during the day and night, to prevent the enemy from receiving any information by means of spies. The demi-vocal signals are conveyed by military instruments; the different soundings of which indicate, instantaneously, whether an army is to halt or to advance, whether troops are to continue in the pursuit of an enemy, or to retreat.