OUTLINES

106. Outlines are lines which, returning to themselves, make inclosures and describe areas of different measures and shapes. What has been said of lines may be said, also, of outlines. It will be worth while, however, to give a separate consideration to outlines, as a particularly interesting and important class of lines.

As in the case of dots and lines, I shall disregard the fact that the outlines may be drawn in different tones, making different contrasts of value, color, or color-intensity with the ground-tone upon which they are drawn. I shall, also, disregard possible differences of width in the lines which make the outlines. I shall confine my attention, here, to the measures and shapes of the outlines and to the possibilities of Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm in those measures and shapes.

107. What is Harmony or Balance or Rhythm in a line is Harmony, Balance, or Rhythm in an Outline.

Fig. 162

In this outline we have Measure-Harmony in the angles, Measure-Harmony of lengths in the legs of the angles, Measure and Shape-Balance on a center and Symmetry on the vertical axis. The same statement will be true of all polygons which are both equiangular and equilateral, when they are balanced on a vertical axis.

Fig. 163

In this case we have Measure-Harmony of angles but no Measure-Harmony of lengths in the legs of the angles. We have lost Measure and Shape-Balance on a center which we had in the previous example.

Fig. 164

In this case the angles are not all in a Harmony of Measure; but we have Measure-Harmony of lengths in the legs of the angles, and we have Measure and Shape-Balance on a center. There is a certain Harmony in the repetition of a relation of two angles.

Fig. 165

In this case we have Measure-Harmony in the angles, which are equal, and a Harmony due to the repetition of a certain measure-relation in the legs of the angles. As inFig. 162, we have here a Measure and Shape-Balance on a center and Symmetry on the vertical axis. This polygon is not equilateral, but its sides are symmetrically disposed. Many interesting and beautiful figures may be drawn in these terms.

Fig. 166

We have in the circle the most harmonious of all outlines. The Harmony of the circle is due to the fact that all sections of it have the same radius and equal sections of it have, also, the same angle-measure. The circle is, of course, a perfect illustration of Measure and Shape-Balance on a center. The balance is also symmetrical. We have a Harmony of Directions in the repetition of the same change of direction at every point of the outline, and we have a Harmony of Distances in the fact that all points of the outline are equally distant from the balance-center, which is unmistakably felt.

Fig. 167

The Ellipse is another example of Measure and Shape-Balance on a center. In this attitude it is also an illustration of Symmetry.

Fig. 168

In this case we still have balance but no symmetry. The attitude suggests movement. We cannot help feeling that the figure is falling down to the left. A repetition at equal intervals would give us Rhythm.

Fig. 169

In this case we have an outline produced by the single inversion of a line in which there is the repetition of a certain motive in a gradation of measures. That gives Shape-Harmony without Measure-Harmony. This is a case of Symmetrical Balance. It is also a case of rhythmic movement upward. The movement is mainly due to convergences.

Fig. 170

In this case, also, the shapes repeated on the right side and on the left side of the outline show movements which become in repetitions almost rhythmical. The movement is up in spite of the fact that each part of the movement is, in its ending, down. We have in these examples symmetrical balance on a vertical axis combined with rhythm on the same axis. It may be desirable to find the balance-center of an outline when only the axis is indicated by the character of the outline. The principle which we follow is the one already described. InFig. 169we have a symmetrical balance on a vertical axis, but there is nothing to indicate the balance-center. It lies on the axis somewhere, but thereis nothing to show us where it is. Regarding the outline as a line of attractions, the eye is presumably held at their balance-center, wherever it is. Exactly where it is is a matter of visual feeling. The balance-center being ascertained, it may be indicated by a symmetrical outline or inclosure, the center of which cannot be doubtful.

Fig. 171

The balance-center, as determined by visual feeling, is here clearly indicated. In this case besides the balance on a center we have also the Symmetry which we had inFig. 169.

Fig. 172

The sense of Balance is, in this case, much diminished by the change of attitude in the balanced outline. We have our balance upon a center,all the same; but the balance on the vertical axis being lost, we have no longer any Symmetry. It will be observed that balance on a center is not inconsistent with movement. If this figure were repeated at equal intervals without change of attitude, or with a gradual change, we should have the Rhythm of a repeated movement.

In some outlines only certain parts of the outlines are orderly, while other parts are disorderly.

Fig. 173

In the above outline we have two sections corresponding in measure and shape-character and in attitude. We have, therefore, certain elements of the outline in harmony. We feel movement but not rhythm in the relation of the two curves. There is no balance of any kind.

We ought to be able to recognize elements of order as they occur in any outline, even when the outline, as a whole, is disorderly.

Fig. 174

In order to balance the somewhat irregular outline given inFig. 173, we follow the procedure already described. The effect, however, is unsatisfactory. The composition lacks stability.

Fig. 175

The attitude of the figure is here made to conform, as far as possible, to the shape and attitude of the symmetrical framing: this for the sake of Shape and Attitude-Harmony. The change of attitude gives greater stability.

108. A distinction must be drawn between the measures of the outline, as an outline, and the measures of the space or area lying within the outline: what may be called the interior dimensions of the outline.

Fig. 176

In this case we must distinguish between the measures of the outline and the dimensions of the space inclosed within it. When we consider the measures—not of the outline, but of the space or area inside of the outline—we may look in these measures, also, for Harmony, for Balance, or for Rhythm, and for combinations of these principles.

109. We have Harmony in the interior dimensions of an outline when the dimensions correspond or when a certain relation of dimensions is repeated.

Fig. 177

In this case we have an outline which shows a Harmony in the correspondence of two dimensions.

Fig. 178

In this case we have Harmony in the correspondence of all vertical dimensions, Harmony in the correspondence of all horizontal dimensions, but no relation of Harmony between the two. It might be argued, from the fact that the interval in one direction is twice that in the other, that the dimensions have something in common, namely, a common divisor. It is very doubtful, however, whether this fact is appreciable in the sense of vision. The recurrence of any relation of two dimensions would, no doubt, be appreciated. We should have, in that case, Shape-Harmony.

Fig. 179

In this circle we have a Measure-Harmony of diameters.

Fig. 180

In this case we have a Harmony due to the repetition of a certain ratio of vertical intervals: 1:3, 1:3, 1:3.

110. Any gradual diminution of the interval between opposite sides in an outline gives us a convergence in which the eye moves more or less rapidly toward an actual or possible contact. The more rapid the convergence the more rapid the movement.

Fig. 181

In this case we have not only symmetrical balance on a vertical axis but movement, in the upward and rapid convergence of the sides BA and CA toward the angle A. The question may be raised whether the movement, in this case, is up from the side BC to the angle A or down from the angle A toward the side BC. I think that the reader will agree that the movement is from the side BC into the angle A. In this direction the eye is more definitely guided. The opposite movement from A toward BC is a movement in diverging directions which the eye cannot follow toany distance. As the distance from BC toward A decreases, the convergence of the sides BA and CA is more and more helpful to the eye and produces the feeling of movement. The eye finds itself in a smaller and smaller space, with a more and more definite impulse toward A. It is a question whether the movement from BC toward A is rhythmical or not. The movement is not connected with any marked regularity of measures. I am inclined to think, however, that the gradual and even change of measures produces the feeling of equal changes in equal measures. If so, the movement is rhythmical.

When the movement of the eye in any convergence is a movement in regular and marked measures, as in the example which follows, the movement is rhythmical, without doubt.

Fig. 182

The upward movement in this outline, being regulated by measures which are marked and equal, the movement is certainly rhythmical, according to our understanding and definition of Rhythm. ComparingFig. 181withFig. 182, the question arises, whether the movement inFig. 182is felt to be any more rhythmical than the movement inFig. 181. The measures of the movement inFig 181are not marked, but I cannot persuade myself that they are not felt in the evenness of the gradation. The movement inFig. 181is easier than it is inFig. 182, when the marking of the measures interferes with the movement.

Fig. 183

In this case we have another illustration likeFig. 182, only the measures of the rhythm are differently marked. The force of the convergence is greatest inFig. 181. It is somewhat diminished by the measure-marks inFig. 182. It is still further diminished, inFig. 183, by the angles that break the measures.

Fig. 184

In this case the movement is more rapid again, the measures being measures of an arithmetical progression. There is a crowding together of attractions in the direction of the convergence, and the movement is easier than it is inFig. 183, in spite of the fact that the lines of convergence are more broken inFig. 184. There is an arithmetical diminution of horizontal as well as of vertical lines inFig. 184.

Fig. 185

In this case the measures of the rhythm are in the terms of a geometrical progression. The crowding together of attractions is still more rapid in this case and the distance to be traversed by the eye is shorter. The convergence, however, is less compelling, the lines of the convergence being so much broken—unnecessarily.

The movement will be very much retarded, if not prevented, by having the movement of the crowding and the movement of the convergence opposed.

Fig. 186

There is no doubt that in this example, which is to be compared with that ofFig. 184, the upward movement is almost prevented. There arehere two opposed movements: that of the convergence upward and that of a crowding together of attractions downward. The convergence is stronger, I think, though it must be remembered that it is probably easier for the eye to move up than down, other things being equal.

111. The movements in all of these cases may be enhanced by substituting for the straight lines shapes which are in themselves shapes of movement.

Fig. 187

Here, for example, the movement ofFig. 184is facilitated and increased by a change of shape in the lines, lines with movement being substituted for lines which have no movement, beyond the movement of the convergence.

Fig. 188

InFig. 188all the shapes have a downward movement which contradicts the upward movement of convergence. The movement down almost prevents the movement up.

112. The movement of any convergence may be straight, angular, or curved.

Fig. 189

In this case the movement of the convergence is angular. It should be observed that the movement is distributed in the measures of an arithmetical progression, so that we have, not only movement, but rhythm.

Fig. 190

In this case the movement of convergence is in a curve. The stages of the movement, not being marked, the movement is not rhythmical, unless we feel that equal changes are taking place in equal measures. I am inclined to think that we do feel that. The question, however, is one which I would rather ask than answer, definitely.

Fig. 191

In this case the movement is, unquestionably, rhythmical, because the measures are clearly marked. The measures are in an arithmetical progression. They diminish gradually in the direction of the convergence, causing a gradual crowding together of attractions in that direction.

Substituting, in the measures, shapes which have movement, the movement of the rhythm may be considerably increased, as is shown in the example which follows.

Fig. 192

This is a case in which the movement is, no doubt, facilitated by an association of ideas, the suggestion of a growth.

113. The more obvious the suggestion of growth, the more inevitable is the movement in the direction of it, whatever that direction is. It must be understood, however, that the movement in such cases is due to an association of ideas, not to the pull of attractions in the sense of vision. The pull of an association of ideas may or may not be in the direction of the pull of attractions.

Fig. 193

InFig. 193we have an illustration of a rhythmic movement upward. The upward movement is due quite as much to an association of ideas, the thought of a growth of vegetation, as it is to mere visual attractions. It happens that the figure is also an illustration of Symmetrical Balance. As we have Harmony in the similarity of the opposite sides, the figure is an illustration of combined Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm.

There is another point which is illustrated inFig. 193. It is this: that we may have rhythmic movement in an outline, or, indeed, in any composition of lines, which shows a gradual and regular change from one shape to another; which shows a gradual and regular evolution or development of shape-character; provided the changes are distributed in regular and marked measures and the direction of the changes, the evolution, the development, is unmistakable; as it is inFig. 193. The changes of shape in the above outline are changes which are gradual and regular and suggest an upward movement unmistakably. The movement,however, involves a comparison of shape with shape, so it is as much a matter of perception as of sensation. Evolutions and developments in Space, in the field of vision, are as interesting as evolutions and developments in the duration of Time. When the changes in such movements are regular, when they take place in regular and marked measures, when we must take them in a certain order, the movements are rhythmical, whether in Time or in Space.

114. Any outline, no matter what dimensions or shape it has, may be turned upon a center and in that way made to take a great number and variety of attitudes. Not only may it be turned upon a center but inverted upon an axis. Being inverted, the inversion may be turned upon a center and made to take another series of attitudes, and this second series of attitudes will be different from the first series, except in cases of axial symmetry in the outline or area. It must be clearly understood that a change of attitude in any outline or area is not a change of shape.

115. What has been said of Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm in the attitudes of a line applies equally well to outlines and to the spaces defined by them.

116. By the composition of outlines I mean putting two or more outlines in juxtaposition, in contact or interlacing. In all cases of interlacing, of course, the shape-character of the interlacing outlines is lost. The outlines become the outlines of other areas and of a larger number of them. Our object in putting outlines together is, in Pure Design, to illustrate the orders of Harmony, Balance, and Rhythm, to achieve Order, as much as we can, if possible Beauty.

I will now give a series of examples with a brief analysis or explanation of each one.

Fig. 194

In this case we have Shape-Harmony in the outlines and also a Harmony of Attitudes.

Fig. 195

Here we have another illustration of the Harmony of Shapes and of Attitudes, with a Harmony of Intervals, which we did not have inFig. 194.

Fig. 196

In this case we have a Harmony of Attitudes and of Intervals (the Harmony of a repeated Relation of Intervals) in what may be called an All-Over Repetition.

Fig. 197

In this case we have a Harmony of Attitudes in the repetition of a relation of two opposite attitudes; this with Shape-Harmony and Interval-Harmony.

Fig. 198

In this case we have a Symmetry of Attitudes, with Shape-Harmony and Interval-Harmony. Turning the composition off the vertical axis we should have Balance but no Symmetry. The balance-center will be felt in all possible attitudes of this composition.

Fig. 199

In this case I have repeated a certain outline, which gives me the Harmony of a repetition,—this in connection with a progression in scale, so that the Harmony is Shape-Harmony, not Measure-Harmony. Wehave in the attitude of this repetition a Symmetrical Balance. The movement is rhythmical and the direction of the rhythm is up.

The movement inFig. 199might be indefinitely increased by the introduction into it of a gradation of attractions, increasing in number. That means that the extent of contrasting edges is increased from measure to measure.

Fig. 200

The addition of details, increasing in number from measure to measure upward, increases the movement of the rhythm in that direction.

Fig. 201

Taking the arrangement ofFig. 199and repeating it six times at diverging angles of sixty degrees, we get what may be called a radial balance upon the basis of a hexagon.

Outlines may be drawn one inside of the other or several inside of one.

Fig. 202

This is a case of outlines-within-outlines and of Shape-Harmony without Measure-Harmony. There is, also, a Harmony of Attitudes, but no Harmony of Intervals.

Interesting results may be produced by drawing a series of outlines similar in shape, the second inside of the first, the third inside of the second, and so on.

Fig. 203

In this case, for example, we have the outlines drawn one inside of the other. The outlines have all the same shape, but different measures. It is a case of Shape-Harmony and Harmony of Attitudes, without Measure-Harmony, and without any Harmony of Intervals. This is a very interesting and important form of Design which has many applications.

Fig. 204

In this case, also, we have Shape-Harmony without Measure-Harmony. We have a Harmony of Attitudes and also of Intervals, the spaces between the outlines corresponding.

Fig. 205

Here we have the Harmony of an alternation of Attitudes repeated, with Shape-Harmony, without Measure-Harmony.

In all forms of design in which we have the concentric repetition of a certain outline we have, in connection with the feeling of a central balance, the feeling of a movement or movements toward the center. These movements are due to convergences. Movements carrying the eye away from the center, in opposite directions, interfere with the feeling of balance. The feeling is enhanced, however, when the movements converge and come together.

We may have not only an alternation of attitudes in these cases, but an alternation of shape-character.

Fig. 206

The repetition of outlines-within-outlines may be concentric or eccentric. The repetition is concentric inFig. 204. It is eccentric in the example which follows.

Fig. 207

In all eccentric repetitions like this we have a lack of balance and the suggestion of movement. The direction of the movement is determined by the direction of convergences and of the crowding together of attractions. The movement inFig. 207is up-to-the-left, unmistakably. Repeating the composition ofFig. 207, at regular intervals and without change of attitude, the movement up-to-the-left would be extended to the repetitions and the movement would be rhythmical. The movement is rhythmical in the composition itself, as shown inFig. 207, because the movement in the composition is regular in character, regular in its measures, and unmistakable in direction.

Fig. 208

This is another example of eccentric repetition in outlines-within-outlines. As inFig. 207, we have movement, and the movement is rhythmical.

In the examples I have given there have been no contacts and no interlacings. Contacts and interlacings are possible.

Fig. 209

Here, for an example, is an instance of contact, with Harmony of Attitudes and a Symmetrical Balance on a vertical axis.

Fig. 210

In this case we have contacts, with no Harmony of Attitudes. The balance which is central as well as axial is in this attitude of the figure symmetrical.

Fig. 211

Here we have a similar composition with interlacings.

When the outlines have different shapes as well as different measures, particularly when the outlines are irregular and the shapes to be put together are, in themselves, disorderly, the problem of composition becomes more difficult. The best plan is to arrange the outlines in a group, making as many orderly connections as possible. Taking any composition of outlines and repeating it in the different ways which I have described, it is generally possible to achieve orderly if not beautiful results.

Fig. 212

Here are five outlines, very different in shape-character. Let us see what can be done with them. A lot of experiments have to be tried, to find out what connections, what arrangements, what effects are possible. The possibilities cannot be predicted. Using tracing-paper, a great many experiments can be tried in a short time, though it may take a long time to reach the best possible results.

Fig. 213

In this example I have tried to make a good composition with my five outlines. The problem is difficult. The outlines to be combined have so little Harmony. The only Harmony we can achieve will be the Harmony of the same arrangement of shapes repeated, which amounts to Shape-Harmony. Inversions will give us the satisfaction of Balance. Inversions on a vertical axis will give us the satisfaction of Symmetry. In the design above given I have achieved simply the Harmony of a relation of shapes repeated, with Rhythm. The Rhythm is due to the repetition of a decidedly unbalanced group of elements with a predominance of convergences in one direction. The movement is on the whole up, in spite of certain downward convergences. The upward convergences predominate. There are more inclinations to the right than to the left, but the composition which is repeated is unstable in its attitude and suggests a falling away to the left. The resultant of these slight divergences of movement is a general upward movement.

Fig. 214

In this case I have less difficulty than inFig. 213, having left out one of my five outlines, the one most difficult to use with the others. There is a great gain of Harmony. There is a Harmony of Intervals and a Harmony in the repetition of the same grouping of outlines. In the outlines themselves we have a Harmony of curved character, and the curves fit one another very well, owing to a correspondence of measure and shape-character in certain parts. In such cases we are able to get considerable Harmony of Attitudes into the composition. There is a Harmony of Attitudes in the repeats, as well as in certain details. ComparingFig. 214withFig. 213, I am sure the reader will agree that we have inFig. 214the larger measure of Harmony.

Fig. 215

InFig. 215I have used inversions and repetitions of the rather disorderly outline which gave me so much difficulty when I tried to combine it with the other outlines. Whatever merit the composition has is due solely to the art of composition, to the presence of Attitude-Harmony, Interval-Harmony, and to the inversions and repetitions; inversions giving Balance, repetitions giving Harmony.

While it is important to recognize the limitation of the terms in this problem, it is important to yield to any definite impulse which you may feel, though it carries you beyond your terms. The value of a rule is often found in breaking it for a good and sufficient reason; and there is no better reason than that which allows you, in Design, to follow any impulse you may have, provided that it is consistent with the principles of Order.

Fig. 216

In this case an effort has been made to modify the terms already used so as to produce a more rapid and consistent movement. Advantage has been taken of the fact that the eye is drawn into all convergences, soall pointing down has been, so far as possible, avoided. The movement is distinctly rhythmical.

In the previous examples I have avoided contacts and interlacing. It was not necessary to avoid them.

Fig. 217

117. What is done, in every case, depends upon the designer who does it. He follows the suggestions of his imagination, not, however, with perfect license. The imagination acts within definite limitations, limitations of terms and of principles, limitations of certain modes in which terms and principles are united. In spite of these limitations, however, if we give the same terms, the same principles, and the same modes to different people, they will produce very different results. Individuality expresses itself in spite of the limitation of terms and modes, and the work of one man will be very different from the work of another, inevitably. We may have Order, Harmony, Balance, or Rhythm in all cases, Beauty only in one case, perhaps in no case. It must be remembered how, in the practice of Pure Design, we aim at Order and hopefor Beauty. Beauty is found only in supreme instances of Order, intuitively felt, instinctively appreciated. The end of the practice of Pure Design is found in the love of the Beautiful, rather than in the production of beautiful things. Beautiful things are produced, not by the practice of Pure Design, but out of the love of the Beautiful which may be developed by the practice.

118. I have already considered the measures of areas, in discussing the interior dimensions of outlines, and in discussing the outlines themselves I have considered the shapes of areas. It remains for me to discuss the tones in which the areas may be drawn and the tone-contrasts by which they may be distinguished and defined—in their positions, measures, and shapes.

119. Before proceeding, however, to the subject of tones and tone-relations, I must speak of a peculiar type of area which is produced by increasing or diminishing the width of a line. I have postponed the discussion of measures of width in lines until now.

A line may change its width in certain parts or passages. It may become wider or narrower as the case may be. The wider it is the more it is like an area. If it is sufficiently wide, the line ceases to be a line, and becomes an area. The line may change its width abruptly or gradually. The effect of the line is by these changes indefinitely varied. The line of Design is not the line of Geometry.

120. Considerable interest may be given to what I have called Linear Progressions by changing the width of the line at certain points, in certain passages, and more or less abruptly. The changes will be like accents in the line, giving variety and, possibly, an added interest.

Fig. 218

Let us take this line as the motive of a linear progression. We can give it a different character, perhaps a more interesting character, by widening all the vertical passages, as follows:—

Fig. 219

This is what we get for a motive by widening all the vertical passages.

Fig. 220

This is what we get for a motive by widening all the horizontal passages.

Fig. 221

Compare this Progression, in which I have used the motive ofFig. 219,with that ofFig. 77, p. 47. The accents, which inFig. 221occur in every repetition of the motive, might occur only in certain repetitions, at certain intervals.

Fig. 222

It is not necessary that the changes in the width of the line be abrupt, as in the examples just given. The width of the line may increase or diminish gradually, in which case we may have, not only accents in the line, but movements due to gradations of dimension, to convergences, or to an increase or gradual crowding together of attractions in a series of visual angles.

Fig. 223

In this case we have a gradual increase followed by a diminution of the width of the line in certain parts, and these changes occur at equal intervals. A certain amount of rhythmic movement is given to the progression by such accents, provided the direction of movement is unmistakable, which it is not in this case. It is not at all clear whether the movement is down-to-the-right or up-to-the-left. It seems to me about as easy to move in one direction as in the other.

Fig. 224

In this case there is less doubt about the movement. It seems to be down-to-the-right. The eye is pulled through an increase of width-measures toward a greater extension and crowding together of contrasting edges.

Fig. 225

Substituting outlines for areas in the previous illustration, we are surprised, perhaps, to find that the movement is reversed. We go up-to-the-left in this case, not down-to-the-right. The pull of a greater extension of tone-contrast in a given area was, inFig. 224, sufficient to overcome the pull of a less evident convergence in the other direction.

By increasing or diminishing the width of lines, doing it gradually or abruptly, we are able to control the movement of the eye to an indefinite extent. This is one of the important resources of the designer’s art. Its use is not limited to forms of Linear Progression, but may be extended to all forms of Design in which lines are used.

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