[42]Philosophical Magazine, July 1902.
[42]Philosophical Magazine, July 1902.
Art. 121.Nebular Hypothesis.--The Nebular Hypothesis was first introduced by Kant in his work on theHistory of the Earth and Theory of the Heavens.
In that work he attempted to explain the origin of the universe on purely mechanical lines. Laplace, a French mathematician, about the same time came to similar conclusions as Kant had done, and published his views in his work onExposition du Système du Monde, and later on in his more famous work theMécanique Céleste.
A feature common to both these theories rested in the fact, that they supposed that all material bodies which exist in the universe once existed in a nebulous condition, and that they were formed out of this nebulous matter. Further, that this nebulous matter gradually condensed, and as it condensed, a rotational motion was imparted to them, which rotation quickened as the condensation was continued.
Then, as the rotation was accelerated, portions were flung off by the centrifugal force, and these portions of nebulous matter gradually condensed, forming the various planets of the system. As these condensed, they, in their turn, parted with some of their nebulous matter through the repulsive energy of the centrifugal force, and these secondary parts gave origin to the various satellites that exist round the planets.
Now, while the general principle involved in the nebular hypothesis is true, yet the conception according to Laplace is not verified by fact, as we learn that Uranus and Neptune are still in a state of self-luminosity, while their density is the smallest of all the planets. From this we should infer that the two outermost planets are the youngest planets of our solar system, but according to Laplace's theory, they ought to be the oldest, as they would have been flung off first by the parent body as it rotated; and therefore, being flung off first, should be in a more advanced stage of development than any of the inner planets. M. Faye has suggested a remedy for this defect in the theory. He supposes that the nebulous matter out of which the planets wereformed, was not flung off by the central body the sun, but that each planet was formed at different centres of condensation within the nebular mass that existed in space. This would, undoubtedly, meet the difficulty already referred to, and solves the problem as to how the various planets were formed at different distances in space.
Further, such a solution is in perfect harmony with all the Rules of Philosophy. It is much more simple to conceive of Aether condensing at various points in what originally was the solar nebula, than it is to conceive of Aether condensing and shrinking towards one central point, and yet while condensing and shrinking, portions were flung off into space which would form the planet. A greater objection has to be met, when we come to deal with the origin of all the meteors and minor planets that exist in their numbers in the solar system. In relation to their origin, it is much easier to conceive of portions of the Aether condensing at different centres of condensation, than to suppose that each portion of aetherial matter that originally formed the meteor, or asteroid, was flung off as a separate portion from the central body.
With the conception of an atomic and gravitating Aether, the Nebular Hypothesis, therefore, for the first time is placed upon a sound and philosophical basis, because the condensation of Aether, which is matter and possesses mass, admits of the origin of other matter from it which also possesses mass, together with other properties, as elasticity, density, compressibility and inertia.
When there is added to the atomic Aether the conception of a rotatory aetherial atom, as was indicated inArt. 44, we have at once a source from whence the rotation of the whole mass may be derived. Thus, as the condensation continued, and the nucleus or central part of the body was gradually formed, the rotation would be accelerated, because of the inherent energy which would exist in the condensed part. Further, as the condensation continued, the body so formed would be more or less spherical in form, as the conception of our aetherial atom was spherical, and when we conceive of the primary point of condensation, we have to think of a large number of spherical atoms coming together; and, as all the motions of the Aether which give rise to light, heat, electricity and magnetism, and which now include gravitation, are spherical in their operations, so their effect upon any condensing Aether would take a spherical form. Thus such bodies as nebulae, comets, asteroids, satellites, planets and suns should possess bodies more or less of a spherical form, subject to certain qualifying conditions, as rotation and orbital velocity, and this is in harmony with observation and experience. For we shall find that even in the case of nebulae, we have globular, ring or annular nebulae, and elliptic nebulae, while inthe case of comets, the nuclei and coma are more or less spherical. Further, it is a familiar fact that the shape of all asteroids, satellites, planets, and even the sun is spherical or that of an oblate spheroid, which latter is simply due to its rotational velocity on its axis.
Thus the principle involved in the nebular hypothesis receives its confirmation in the atomic and gravitating Aether, and with certain modifications of the different hypotheses advanced, is capable of uniting all those hypotheses that have ever been put forth in this direction into one perfect and harmonious whole.
Again, the condensation of the Aether, composed as it is of its atoms, ever in a state of rotation, does away with the Primitive impulse which was objected to inArt. 9. For in that article it was shown that the conception of a primitive impulse as conceived by Newton was unphilosophical, in that its conception was not simple, and failed to satisfactorily account for observed phenomena. With the hypothesis, however, of a rotatory aetherial atom, we have at once those conditions which at any time, in the history of the universe, may give rise to those conditions by which a body may be set rotating not only on its axis, but also revolving around some central body, as the process of condensation is continued.
So that in the primordial and universal electro-magnetic Aether that exists in all space, we get those conditions which will not only give rise to the phenomena of light, heat, magnetism and electricity, but also those properties, qualities and motions by which are produced, maintained and perpetuated, the various bodies that exist in the Aether, which is at once the physical source and cause of the bodies.
Art. 122.Kinds of Nebulae.--Nebulae may be classified into the following groups--
1. Irregular Nebulae.
2. Ring and Elliptical Nebulae.
3. Spiral or Whirlpool Nebulae.
4. Planetary Nebulae.
Irregular Nebulae.--Of this class the most conspicuous are those in the constellations of Orion and Andromeda. So clearly defined are they, that they are oftentimes seen by the naked eye on a clear night, and are often mistaken for comets.
The great nebula in Orion is one of the most noticeable objects in the heavens. It is noted for its size and brilliancy, and also for the successful observation which it has been subjected to from time to time. This large nebula is situated in that part of Orion which is occupied by several stars known as the Sword Handle. These multiple stars are knownby the name of Theta. Around these multiple stars is to be seen the nebula, as though the multiple stars really were enveloped by the nebula extending for a great distance out into space. It is of a faint bluish colour, with the central parts possessing the greatest brilliancy. The suggestion arises in our mind as to whether the nebulae are in any ways indicative of the presence of the electro-magnetic aetherial field that each star undoubtedly possesses. We learned inArt. 88that the sun is an electro-magnet, and that it possesses its electro-magnetic field. We have also seen inArt. 109that the zodiacal light, which is to be observed in connection with our solar system, is really indicative of the presence of that electro-magnetic field, as it rotates round the central body. Now, if an observer were situated out in space, where the nebula of Orion is situated, and could look at our system with telescopes equally as powerful as those we possess, would not our sun present an equally nebulous light to them because of the presence of its electro-magnetic field?
Conversely, if every star possesses an electro-magnetic aetherial field, as they undoubtedly do, then it seems only reasonable to infer that that electro-magnetic field possesses a nebulosity which corresponds with our zodiacal light. The fact that the spectra of the nebulae are continuous, revealing no dark lines, seems to indicate the purity of some of the nebulae, and that therefore they are free from all known elements.
So that spectroscopic results seem to confirm this hypothesis, as the pure Aether that would surround every star, or multiples of stars, would certainly not reveal any dark lines by means of the spectroscope. Such a hypothesis, as to the real nature of a nebula, is entirely in harmony with the theory of the Aether presented in ChapterIV., because being gravitative it will surround each star or multiples of stars, and therefore be denser nearest to those stars, and being atomic, there will be a certain amount of nebulosity manifested by the denser parts of the medium, as is the case in our own solar system.
Ring or Elliptical Nebulae.--These forms of nebulae are so named from their ring-shaped appearance, sometimes being known as Annular Nebulae. The elliptical nebulae are usually classed with them, as they are supposed to be similar kinds of nebulae looked at edgeways. The best known of this class is that found in the constellation of Lyra, and known as 57M, which is the number of the star in Messier's catalogue of stars. It is small but well-defined, so that it looks more like a flat oval solid ring than a nebula.
The central part is not entirely dark, but is filled up with a hazy light. Another annular nebula is that situated to the south-west ofLambda Scorpii. Sir J. Herschel[43]writes of it thus: “It is a delicate but well-defined annulus. The field is crowded with stars, two of which are nebulae. A beautiful delicate ring of a faint ghost-like appearance, about 40" in diameter, in a field of about 150 stars, of 11 and 12 magnitude and under.”
Of the elliptical nebulae the best known is the one in the constellation of Andromeda, which goes by the name of 31M. It is visible on a clear night, and can be seen by the naked eye as a hazy light. There are several other elliptical nebulae, lying to the north-west of this great nebula.
Planetary Nebulae.--The planetary nebulae represent a number of minute objects visible in the heavens. They look like globes of a bluish-coloured gas and are sometimes mistaken for small stars. Sir J. Herschel writes about them as follows: “Planetary nebulae are very extraordinary objects. They have, as their name implies, a resemblance to planets, presenting discs, round or slightly oval, some being quite sharply defined, terminating in others a little hazy or softened at the border. They are comparatively rare objects, not more than 25 having been observed, and of these nearly three-quarters are in the southern hemisphere. Their disc is circular or slightly elliptic, with sharp, clear, and well-defined outline, having exactly the appearance of a planet with the exception only of its colour, which is full blue, varying somewhat upon green. M. Arago has surmised that they may possibly be envelopes shining by reflected light from a solar body placed in their centre, invisible to us because of its excessive distance.”
The suggestion which arises to our mind in view of the atomic and gravitating Aether is, that the planetary nebulae are exactly what their names imply, that is, nebulous matter around planets. We have already learned that each satellite and planet possesses an electro-magnetic field, which field takes more or less the shape of a spherical form, so that if there are planets existing in the far-off systems in space, as we are compelled to believe that there are, then they too would possess an electro-magnetic field, which would be composed of spherical envelopes surrounding the several planets. These planets would shine by reflected light, as suggested by M. Arago.
The possession by the planet of the nebulous matter, which we have already suggested is composed of the denser parts of the Aether around the planet, would give to the planet a nebulous appearance which would satisfactorily account for the term already given. They would indeed be what Sir John Herschel suggested they were, viz, planetary nebulae.
Spiral Nebulae.--The Spiral, or Whirlpool Nebulae, are remarkable objects, and were first discovered by Lord Rosse with his six-foot telescope. One of the best examples of the spiral nebulae is that known as 51M. Small telescopes show this as two clusters, one of them being surrounded by a ring, at a distance, which is divided into two parts. Lord Rosse, however, found it to be really a spiral nebula, the ring running into a series of spiral coils of nebulous matter, the outlying parts being connected with the main part by curved bands.
Huggins has found that the spectrum of this nebula is not gaseous. Other examples of this class are 99M and 33M. What these spiral or whirlpool nebulae are, is unknown, but, on the hypothesis of a condensing and gravitating Aether which is in a state of rotation, the spiral nebulae can be easily pictured. For, as the condensation goes on, rotation will set in, and if we can picture such a phenomenon taking place in a plane which is at right angles to the line of vision, then we should have a full view of a nebula which would present a spiral form. Indeed, there is no phenomenon in connection with nebulae that cannot be physically explained by a condensing, gravitating and rotatory Aether; and as Aether is universal, the same properties will apply to it in distant space as they do in the solar system; and apart from a gravitating and rotatory electro-magnetic Aether, the phenomena of our own solar system cannot be physically conceived or explained.
Therefore, if such an Aether can explain the phenomena associated with our own system, it ought also to explain, and that to the fullest extent, all phenomena incidental to and associated with the innumerable systems that flood the universe at large.
[43]Outlines of Astronomy.
[43]Outlines of Astronomy.
Art. 123.The Universe.--In the preceding chapters we have endeavoured to deal with some of the principal phenomena that help to give a mechanical conception to the entire Universe.
It now remains for us to show, in this last chapter, how, underlying all the physical structure of the Universe, there is one fundamental and primordial medium, in which all the forms of matter and motion find their ultimate unity.
The Universe literally means one ultimate whole, though that whole may be compounded of many parts, the very essence of the term embodying the idea of a complete unity which runs throughout its whole physical structure.
Apart from some such hypothesis as will be suggested in this chapter, that ultimate unity is incapable of a physical or mechanical conception. InArt. 29we learned that the Universe was composed of two classes of things, matter and motion, while inArt. 30we learned that the sum total of matter according to the law of the conservation of matter ever remains the same; while further, inArt. 53, according to the law of the conservation of energy, the sum total of energy ever remains the same. We have also learned that the two are indissolubly united, so that wherever we found matter, whether that matter was in its atomic, molecular, planetary or stellar form, there, as its necessary complement and counterpart, was the ever-present and unceasing motion, in one or other of its many forms. Thus, throughout the entire Universe, we find the same two essentials ever working in unison and harmony.
Nowhere in the realm of infinite space is there such a phenomenon as rest or absolute death. The ideal that seems to be the key of the Universe, is that continuity of motion which science teaches us is so inseparably connected with all matter. Grouped, however, here and there throughout the Universe are modifications of this aetherial matter, termed molecules, satellites, planets, suns, or stars, which modifications are, however, not so real and abiding as the electro-magnetic Aether from which they receive their physical origin.
The physical character of the universe is progressive. Even in its ultimate unity there is no such thing as stagnation or standing still; for, while in some parts of the Universe new stars and suns and planets, yea, even new systems are being evolved out of the primordial Aether, in other parts of the Universe old stars and suns, with all their attendant planets and satellites, are passing on towards that final end, when they themselves will be again resolved into the original form of matter from which they were first made. This assertion is in perfect harmony not only with science, but also with revelation. For even revelation teaches us that all the stars shall grow old as doth a garment, and as a vesture shall they be folded up (Heb. i. 11), and that (out of their ruins) a new heaven and a new earth shall be created and the former shall not be remembered (Isaiah lxv. 17).
Thus amid all the modifications of that which is the real physical basis of all matter, we find indissolubly associated with each and all of the varied forms and modifications certain motions which are analogous to each other. In the aetherial atom itself, so infinitesimal in its proportions that even our imagination is almost strained in our attempt to conceive it, yet even here we have rotation and translation in an orbit, such rotation and translation being due to the motions of the electro-magnetic Aether. Then in the gaseous forms of matter into which these atoms may be condensed, we find the same two essentials, of matter and motion, of rotation and translation in an orbit, always working harmoniously together, through the motions of the selfsame Aether, which gives rise to the attraction and repulsions of the atoms.
Then following the principle into the planetary world, and taking the planet Saturn with its ring of satellites as an example, we find again the same two factors ever working in unison and in harmony, with their incessant rotation and translation in an orbit, forming a complete and perfect unity in themselves, such unity being due to the pressures and tensions of the Aether combined with its rotatory character. Then going a step further, we find a number of planets, with or without satellites, all rotating around one central body, that rotation and translation again being due to the motions of the rotating electro-magnetic Aether, combined with its pressures and tensions.
For millions of years, so far as we can tell, this solar system of ours has been moving through space as one complete unit.
Then out in stellar space there are millions of such systems, each distinct and perfect in themselves, each of which is made up of exactly similar parts to our solar system, these innumerable systems being doubtless joined together by the same electro-magnetic Aether, formingone larger and grander unity, known as a constellation. Then these constellations, increasing in their number, are again joined together, and form a still larger unity called a Galaxy; and galaxy being joined to galaxy, constellations to constellations, we get such an ocean of suns and stars like that known as the Milky Way, the ultimate whole revealing in all its beauty and harmony the unison of the two essentials of matter and motion. It may even be that all the oceans of suns and stars, that exist in far-off space, are joined together by one common bond, the universal electro-magnetic Aether by its two complementary motions, the centripetal and the centrifugal, the whole forming one ultimate unity which we call the Universe, having for its centre one common point or central orb, which indeed forms the centre of gravity of the entire Universe.
Thus the key to the physical conception of the Universe is to be found, and alone found, in that beauty of order, and harmony of motion, which are so inseparably associated with the varied forms of matter, graduating through a series of units or atoms, each with its dual nature complete in itself, through a series of minor entities termed elements, which in their aggregations form meteorites, satellites, planets, suns and stars, and systems of stars and oceans of suns and stars, until all are united into one ultimate unity where all are blended into one complete and perfect whole; the whole of the universal fabric being held together in its mechanical order and beauty by the electro-magnetic Aether. Then in the very centre of the Universe there dwells that Supreme Being whom we call God, who is at once the one real fountain and source of all the light and life of the Universe itself. For it is His universal Spirit that moulds and fashions the plastic matter into the many forms which it assumes, and uses the various modes of motion, as heat, light, electricity and magnetism, as instruments to build up and erect in all their beauty and harmony the innumerable systems that flood immensity and space.
For if there be a centre of gravity to an atomic system, and a centre of gravity to a planetary system, and a centre of gravity to a solar system, then there is also a centre of gravity to a group of systems, even to a constellation, or a galaxy; otherwise our philosophy relative to the centres of gravity of masses fails in its application to wider phenomena of an exactly similar kind.
Thus, if there is a centre of gravity to a galaxy, even to the Milky Way itself, then, going one step further, with a faith that laughs at scientific data and leaps beyond the narrow bounds of pure reasoning, we affirm that there must even be a centre of gravity to the entire Universe. Now let me ask the reader, What can be more fitting, more appropriate, more reasonable than to infer that the centre of gravityof the Universe is to be found in that celestial orb or orbs where the throne of God exists and endures, and where ultimately there will be congregated together in perfect felicity the spirits of just men made perfect, not only from our insignificant planet, but all the spirits of all beings from all the planets which in their almost infinite number are circled round their central suns by the electro-magnetic Aether? It is there, in these bright orbs, with their vision and powers spiritualized, quickened and intensified, that all perfected spirits shall look out into space, with increasing wonder, upon the birth and decay of worlds, the evolution and devolution of planets and systems and constellations, and shall watch the continuation and working out of that grand and glorious plan, which alone finds its perfection and its ultimate fulfilment in the wisdom, and power, and glory of the Eternal Spirit of the Living God.
To see if this conception of the Universe is borne out by scientific data, we will now address ourselves more particularly to those fundamental truths which underlie the unity of the Universe.
Art. 124.The Unity of the Universe.--The Unity of the Universe is a dream which has passed before the imagination of many philosophers in by-gone times, and has been a fruitful source of speculation to old-world, as well as more modern philosophers. The researches of such living scientists as Sir William Crookes, Professor J. J. Thomson and others, have, however, made this dream come within the range of practical research and direct experiment. Professor J. J. Thomson believes that it is possible to break off from an atom, a part which is only 1/1000 part of the whole, and these infinitesimal parts he has called corpuscles, which he considers are the carriers of the electric current.
If, therefore, it can be philosophically proved that the hypothesis of an atomic, gravitating, and condensing Aether can satisfactorily account for the physical existence of all atoms, and therefore of all matter, the dream of old-world philosophers will be helped on its way to a successful realization.
We have already suggested, that nebulae are formed out of the condensation of the electro-magnetic Aether that fills the Universe; and as that nebula, according to the Nebular Hypothesis, ultimately resolves itself into a sun, or planet, or satellite, as the case may be, it follows that the condensation of this electro-magnetic Aether forms the basis of all the various elements, as Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen and the other seventy elements of which those bodies are composed. Thus the conclusion that we are compelled to come to in regard to the ultimate nature of matter, in its primordial condition, is, that all matter which exists in its varied forms throughout the entire Universe finds itsphysical origin and source in the universal electro-magnetic Aether, which is itself atomic, and possesses all the essential properties of matter.
With the conception of the Aether as advanced in this work, this hypothesis is perfectly philosophical and logical. For the conception is simple, in that it supposes one form of matter to spring out of another form, that is, from an aetherial form to gaseous, in a similar manner to that in which a gaseous form changes into a liquid form, that is, by condensation, or a closer drawing together of the aetherial elastic envelopes that surround each atom; each particular gas, as Hydrogen, Nitrogen, or Oxygen, representing different quantities of aetherial condensations, as will be seen in the next article.
The aetherial constitution of matter has received recognition from the hands of such scientists as Lord Kelvin and Dr. Larmor. The latter, in hisAether and Matter, writes on the subject as follows (page 7): “Matter must be constituted of isolated portions, each of which is of necessity a permanent nucleus or singularity in and belonging to the Aether, of some such type as is represented for example by a minute vortex ring in a perfect fluid, or a centre of permanent strain in a rotational elastic medium.” And again on the same page he adds: “It is incumbent on us to recognize an aetherial substratum of matter, in so far as this proves conducive to simplicity and logical consistency in our scheme of physical relations, and helpful towards the discovery of hitherto unnoticed ones.”
Dr. Larmor, as has already been pointed out inArt. 44, speaks of his aetherial atoms as electrons, which are of two kinds, negative and positive, and of these he states (page 97): “Each electron has an effective mass of aetherial origin, which forms part, and may be the whole of the mass of the matter to which it is attached.”
Here, then, we have definite statements as to the hypothesis of all matter having a definite aetherial origin. If, therefore, it can be proved experimentally that matter does possess this aetherial basis, then the hypothesis will pass out of the region of speculation into the region of fact and science.
The question, therefore, suggests itself to our mind, as to whether among all the experiments that have ever been performed by any scientist, there are any which will conclusively confirm and establish the hypothesis as to the aetherial origin of all matter. In my opinion there are such experiments, which have been given to the world by such eminent scientists as Faraday and Sir Humphry Davy. Before, however, the value of their experiments can be rightly understood and valued, we shall have to ask ourselves another question, and that is, “What is therelation of Aether to electricity?” Upon the correct answer to this question depends the application of Faraday's experiments to the hypothesis of the aetherial constitution of all matter, and therefore of the great underlying principle of the unity of the Universe.
Is there any relation therefore between Aether and electricity? If so, what is that relation, and to what extent does it hold good? Professor Lodge, in his preface toModern Views of Electricity, asks a similar question. “Electricity,” he states, “has been thought to be a form of energy, it has been shown to be a form of Aether. There remains the question, What is Aether?”
While again he writes: “A rough and crude statement adopted for popular use is that electricity and Aether are identical. But that is not all that has to be said, for there are two opposite kinds of electricities, and there are not two Aethers. But there may be two aspects of one Aether, just as there are two sides to a sheet of paper.”
That there is a definite relation between Aether and electricity is as certain as there is a definite relation between electricity and light. In order to find out how far the relationship and identity between Aether and electricity extend we will review our conception of the Aether as given in ChapterIV. According to the conception advanced in that chapter, on the hypothesis that Aether was matter, we philosophically came to the conclusion that Aether was atomic, and therefore gravitative. Because it was gravitative, it possessed density, and varying degrees of density; and having mass, it possesses the property of inertia the same as any other matter; and was also elastic.
We have now to add to these properties that of compressibility, which property we have ascribed to it from philosophical considerations when dealing with comets, and nebulae, and the origin of planets and satellites. Now, if there is any identity between Aether and electricity, then it follows that that identity will be more or less manifested, as we find electricity possessing more or less of the properties which have been ascribed to the electro-magnetic Aether. For, if we find two apparently different substances, or entities, possessing exactly the same properties, and occupying the same space at one and the same time, then the only logical conclusion that we can come to is, that these two apparently different substances are not two substances, but one.
We have already proved that they both occupy exactly the same space, that is, they occupy the planetary and interstellar regions of space, and fill indeed the entire Universe. The electro-magnetic theory of Light (Art. 78) indisputably proves this. We will therefore find out ifelectricity possesses the properties which have already been ascribed to the Aether. The first property, and indeed the fundamental property, of Aether is that it is atomic, and upon the atomicity of the medium depends the whole of the theory as worked out in relation to heat, light, electricity and so-called gravitational phenomena. Is there anything about electricity that can suggest the hypothesis that electricity is atomic? The answer is unquestionably in the affirmative. Many of the greatest scientists of the past and present century have believed and worked at the hypothesis of the atomic character of electricity, and none more so than Dr. Larmor in hisAether and Matterand Professor J. J. Thomson.
Now what is Dr. Larmor's opinion as to the atomicity of electricity? These are some of his statements quoted in the work. In the very first words of his preface he writes:[44]“The following essay was originally undertaken mainly as a contribution towards the development of the standpoint which considers electricity, as well as the matter, to be constituted on an atomic basis.” He continues: “Since Faraday's work on Electrolysis, the notion of the atomic constitution of electrification in its electro-chemical aspect has never been entirely absent.” While later on he adds: “Thus, for example, the present view of the atomic character of electricity, which is at length coming within the scope of direct experiment, has been in evidence with gradually increasing precision ever since theoretical formulations were attempted on the subject.”
We are, however, possibly indebted to Professor J. J. Thomson for the most direct experimental evidence as to the atomic nature of electricity, for, as is well known to scientists, he has discovered what he termed corpuscles, in association with electricity, which he makes the carriers of the charges involved in electrical phenomena.
Here, then, we have one proof of the identity that exists between Aether and electricity, in that while they both fill the same space, they are both equally atomic; Dr. Larmor's ultimate atom, as we have already seen, being known as positive and negative electrons. Aether, we also learned, was gravitative (Art. 45), but we have since learned that gravitation is itself an electrical phenomenon, in that both the centripetal and centrifugal forces are due to the repulsions and attractions or pressure and tension of this electro-magnetic Aether.
So that when we affirm that Aether is gravitative, we do but affirm it is subject to the laws of electricity, which govern all electrical phenomena, and therefore we might just as truly affirmthat electricity is gravitative, because such an affirmation is simply another way of saying that electricity gives rise to the attractions and repulsions incidental to, and associated with, all electrical phenomena. Here, again, we have further evidence of the identity that exists between Aether and electricity.
Then we learned that Aether possessed density, and also different degrees of density, and the question arises as to whether there is anything corresponding to this property in electricity. As a matter of fact, this very property of density is itself recognized and known to all scientists by the term Electric Density, the electric density being always proportionate to the charge of electricity on a given area.
We learned also inArt. 79that aetherial density and electrical density were identical in relation to solar and planetary space; so that, wherever there was the denser Aether, there was also the denser electricity, the density of the one increasing or decreasing exactly in the same ratio as the other increased or decreased. From aetherial and electrical density, therefore, we have another proof of the close identity that exists between Aether and electricity.
Again, we learned (Art. 48) that Aether possessed inertia. Here at least, it may be thought, we shall find the first point of difference between the two entities. Surely such an intangible, aetherial manifestation as electricity cannot possess inertia. Let us see what Professor Lodge has to say on the subject. In the chapter on electrical inertia he writes (p. 89, par. 365 ofModern Views of Electricity): “A current does not start instantaneously: it takes a certain time, often very short, to rise to its full strength; and when started it tends to persist, so that if its circuit be suddenly broken, it refuses to stop quite suddenly, and bursts through the introduced insulating partition with violence and heat. It is this ram or impetus of the electric current which causes the spark seen on breaking a circuit; and the more sudden the breakage, the more violent is the spark apt to be. We shall understand them better directly; meanwhile they appear to be direct consequences of the inertia of electricity; and certainly if electricity were a fluid possessing inertia it would behave to a superficial observer just in this way.”
From these statements we learn then that electricity does possess inertia, although there are other phenomena of electricity that would destroy the hypothesis. But undoubtedly an electric current possesses momentum, and it is philosophically impossible to associate momentum with any body that does not possess inertia, as one of the factors of momentum implies mass, even though it be a mass of an infinitesimal form, and mass is the very essence of the property of inertia (Art. 40).
Dr. Larmor, in the work already referred to, dealing with the subject of electric inertia, explains that it is concentrated at the nucleus of the electron (p. 230), while on p. 202 he states: “Each electron as it is moved by the aetherial displacement belonging to the radiation, resists with its own definite inertia.”
Apart from this evidence, the philosophical evidence already adduced in ChapterX. is altogether in favour of the fact that electricity possesses inertia. So that we may say that, though the evidence as to the identity of electrical and aetherial inertia is not fully complete, the balance of opinion lies in favour of the identity rather than otherwise. SeeAppendix A.
It can further be demonstrated that electricity possesses elasticity the same as the Aether does. The charge and discharge of a Leyden jar are conclusive evidence of the elasticity associated with electrical phenomena, while further proof is to be found in the fact that Dr. Larmor attributes elasticity to his electrons, such elasticity being of a rotational type.
The identity, therefore, that exists between Aether is now almost complete. We have now only to prove that both are compressible, and the identity is fully established. This will be done by reference to certain of Faraday's experiments before the conclusion of this article. As we have established, logically, the identity that exists between Aether and electricity, the question arises now as to whether they are not one and the same medium. If they are not one and the same medium, then we are in the distinctly unphilosophical position of having to admit that all interplanetary and interstellar space are filled at one and the same time by two different media, and such an assumption is directly opposed to all observation and experience.
Therefore, to be strictly philosophical, one of these media must be done away with, and we may either assert that interplanetary and interstellar space is filled with electricity, or else it is filled with Aether, as it is much simpler to conceive of space being filled with one medium, than it is to suppose it to be filled with two media, which are absolutely identical in all their characteristic properties and functions. Both can give rise to exactly the same kind of phenomena, whether they are the phenomena of heat, light, electricity, or magnetism, and even gravitation itself. So that, if Science wishes to be distinctly philosophical in her statements in future, it will be necessary, it seems to me, to do away either with the Aether, or with the electricity, and as the latter is the better known entity, I am of the opinion that Science will retain the electric conception of space and matter, and do away with the aetherial, as being altogether unnecessary. SeeAppendix B.
Thus are we led to the conclusion that electricity is itself a form ofmatter, as indeed it must be if it is atomic, as suggested by Dr. Larmor and Professor Thomson.
Professor Lodge, on p. 9 of the work already referred to, states: “Electricity in this respect behaves just like a substance;” and again, p. 313, he writes: “We cannot assert that it is a form of matter, neither can we deny it; on the other hand, we certainly cannot assert that it is a form of energy, and I should be disposed to deny it. It may be that electricity is anentity per se, just as matter is an entity per se.”
Whether electricity be a form of matter or not, as I believe it undoubtedly is, we have arrived at the fact, in view of the identity between Aether and electricity, that, wherever the one is present, the other is present also. So that if it can be demonstrated by direct experiment that matter can be changed into its equivalent quantities of electricities, or that equivalent quantities of electricities could produce their equivalent forms of matter, then the electrical basis of matter, and consequently the aetherial basis of matter, are proved beyond contradiction, and we are thus led one step nearer to the ultimate unity of the Universe, which unity is to be found in the universal electro-magnetic Aether, which is identical with universal electricity. For if Aether be the basis of all modes of motion, as heat, light, and gravitation, and it is identical with electricity, it follows that electricity is equally the basis of all the varied phenomena, and if to that we add the constitution of matter itself, then we are within sight of the medium in which the ultimate unity of the Universe is to be found.
This view of the subject has already been dealt with by a German scientist, Professor Vogt, in his book onThe Nature of Electricity and Magnetism, a book, however, which is not translated into English. In that work I believe he shows the possibility of all matter having its origin in electricity; and if that be so, then that theory is really identical with an aetherial basis of matter, seeing that Aether and electricity philosophically seem to be one and the same medium. Let us therefore turn to Faraday's experiments, and see what they teach us on the subject of the electrical basis of matter, and therefore the aetherial basis at the same time.
In paragraph 852 of hisExperimental ResearchesFaraday writes: “The theory of definite electro-chemical action appears to me to touch upon the absolute quantity of electricity, or electrical power, belonging to different bodies. Although we know nothing of what an atom is, yet we cannot resist forming some idea of a small particle which represents it to our mind, and though we cannot say what electricity is, so as to be able to say whether it is a particularmatter or matters, or mere motion of ordinary matter, yet there is immensity of facts whichjustify us in believing that the atoms of matter are in some way endowed or associated with electrical powers to which they owe their most striking qualities, and amongst them their chemical affinity. As soon as we perceive, through the teaching of Dalton, that chemical powers are (however varied the circumstances in which they are exerted) definite for each body, we learn to estimate the relative degree of Force which resides in such bodies; and when upon that knowledge comes the fact that electricity, which we appear to be capable of loosening from its habitation for a while, or conveying from place to place, whilst it retains its chemical Force, can be measured out, and being so measured, is found to be as definite in its action as any of those portions which, remaining associated with the particles of matter, give them their chemical relation, we seem to have found a link which connects the proportion of that belonging to the particles in their natural state.”
Then in paragraph 855 he writes as follows: “It seems a probable and almost a natural consequence, that the quantity which passes is the equivalent of, and therefore equal to, that of the particles separated,i. e. that if the electrical power which holds the elements of a grain of water in combination (or which makes a grain of oxygen and hydrogen, in the right proportions, unite into water when they are made to combine) could be thrown into the condition of a current, it would exactly equal the current required for the separation of that grain of water into its elements again.”
Further, in Art. 857, he states, “I can have no doubt that, assuming hydrogen as 1, and dismissing small fractions for the simplicity of expression, the equivalent number or atomic weight of oxygen is 8, of chlorine 36, of bromine 78.4, of lead 103.5, of tin 59, etc., notwithstanding that a very high authority doubles several of these numbers.” Then, writing upon the definite relationship of electro-chemical equivalents, he states, Art. 835: “Electro-chemical equivalents are always consistent;i. e. the same number which represents the equivalent of a substanceA,when it is separating from a substanceB, will also representAwhen separating from a third substanceC. Thus 8 is the electro-chemical equivalent of oxygen, whether separating from hydrogen or tin or lead; and 103.5 is the electro-chemical equivalent of lead, whether separating from oxygen or chlorine or iodine.”
So that from Faraday's experiments we learn definitely that the electro-chemical equivalents coincide with and agree with the ordinary chemical equivalents according to Dalton's theory. From these experimental results of Faraday's we therefore learn that Faraday was of the opinion that each atom had a definite and certain quantity ofelectricity associated with it; and if this be true, then, in view of the identity of Aether with electricity, it follows that each atom must have definite and certain quantities of Aether associated with each atom. So that through Faraday's experimental researches we are again led to the hypothesis enunciated by Lord Kelvin in his paper “On the Clustering of Gravitational Matter in any part of the Universe,” viz. that all matter has an aetherial, that is, an electrical basis, and that it is by the condensation of this electricity, and combinations of the condensational particles, that all the various elements are formed which compose the infinite variety of forms that constitute the entire Universe. Here, then, it seems to me, we have the evidence which gives to the aetherial Nebular Hypothesis (Art. 121) that experimental evidence which places that hypothesis upon a firm and philosophical foundation, and conclusively proves that it is possible for Aether out in the colder regions of interstellar space to be condensed into masses of gaseous matter, which form nebulae, and other masses in the cold regions of interplanetary space to condense and form comets and meteors.